Operating Systems Unit – 1

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COMPUTER SYSTEM AND OPERATING SYSTEM OVERVIEW

Operating System is a set of programs that acts as an interface between the user
of computer and the hardware of computer. An OS makes a computer more convenient to
use. An OS allows the computer system resources to be used in efficient manner. An OS
should be constructed in such a way as to permit the effective development, testing and
introduction of new system function without interfering new services.

1. OS FUNCTIONS

1. User interface: Users interact with application programs and computer hardware
through a user interface. Almost all operating systems today provide a windows-
like Graphical
Command line interface (CLI), which uses text command. E.g., DOS, UNIX.
Command: copy file1 file2 (DOS)
cp file1 file2 (UNIX)
Batch Interface (BI), in which commands and directives to control those
commands are entered into files, and those files are executed.
Graphical User Interface (GUI), in which graphic objects called icons are used
to represent commonly used features. E.g, Windows-95,Windows-98, Windows-
xp, GNOME and KDE on LINUX.
2. Program development
OS provides services such as editors and debuggers to assist the programmer in
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creating programs. These services are in the form of utility programs that are
supplied with the OS (not part of OS) and are referred to as application program
development tools.
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3. Program execution

Executable program (instructions and data) must be loaded into main memory and
allocates all the resources required for the program to execute. The OS handles
these scheduling duties for the user.

4. Access to Input/output devices

Each I/O device has own set of instructions for operation. The OS provides
uniform interface to all devices so that programmer can access a device as a file.
5. Controlled access to files
OS must understand not only nature of I/O device (disk drive, tape drive) but also
the file structure( sequential file, index sequential file, random files). In case of
system with multiple users OS may provide protection mechanism to control
access to the files.

6. Error detection and response

The errors can be internal or external hardware errors, such as a memory error, or
device failure; and various software errors such as divide by zero. OS must
provide a response that clears the error condition with the least impact on running
applications. The response may range from ending the program that caused the
error, to simply report the error to the applicant.
7. Accounting
We want to keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of computer
resources. This record keeping may be used for accounting.
8. Interpreting the commands
In UNIX shell is called as an interpreter. Shell takes command from the user
interprets it, expands it and finally it will see the command is executed but it will
not execute command. UNIX provides three type of shells and they are korn shell,
born shell and c shell.
9. Memory management
Allocating memory to the process
De-allocating the memory
Protection (One process should not enter into the other process area)
10. Process management
Creation of process
Termination of process
Process switching over

11. Inter Process communication

In multi task operating systems more than one process can be loaded into memory.
Operating system facilitates to communicate among the process on a system.
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Types of Operating System

 DOS (Disk Operating System)

 UNIX
 LINUX
 Windows
 Windows NT

EVOLUTION OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Serial Processing:
The programmer interacted directly with the computer hardware; there was no OS. These
computers were run from a console consisting display lights, toggle switches, some form
of input device and printer. Programs in machine code were loaded via input device (e.g
card reader), if error halted the program, the error condition was indicated by lights. If the
program proceeded to normal completion, the output appeared on printer.

Main Problems:
A user might sign up for an hour and finish in 45 minutes; this would result in wasted
computer processing time. On the other hand, the user might run into problems, not finish
in allotted time.

Setup time:
A single program, called a job, could involve loading the compiler plus source program
into memory, saving the compiled program (object code) and then loading and linking
together the object program and common functions. Each of these steps could involve
mounting and dismounting tapes or setting up card decks. Thus, a considerable amount
of time was spent just in setting the program to run.

Simple Batch System:

Earlier computers were very expensive, so the wasted time due to scheduling and setup
time in serial processing was unacceptable. In simple batch, user need not have direct
interaction with the processor. A piece software known as MONITOR will be used as
operating system. Each program is constructed to branch back to monitor when it
completes processing, at which point the monitor automatically begins loading next
program.
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Interrupt
Processing
Device
Drivers
Job Monitor
Sequencing
Command
language
Interpreter

User
Program
Area
Memory Layout for Resident Monitor

The monitor performs a scheduling function: A batch of jobs is queued up, and
jobs are executed as rapidly as possible, without intervening time. With each job,
instructions are included in a primitive form of Job Control Language (JCL).

$JOB
$FTN

 Fortran Instructions


$LOAD
$RUN

 Data

$END

$JOB indicates the beginning of the job. The monitor reads $FTN line and loads the
appropriate language compiler from its mass storage (usually tape). The compiler
converts source code into object code and stores it on tape. When monitor reads
$LOAD, it loads the object code into memory (in the place of compiler) and transfers
control to it.
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Advantage:

1) Reduced manual intervention compared to serial processing.

Problems:
1) The speed of I/O device is very slow compared to speed of CPU and whenever job
goes for I/O the CPU will be idle. CPU utilization is very less.
2) Only one JOB (program) will be loaded into memory.

Multi Programmed Batch System:

The speed of I/O device is very slow compared to speed of CPU. In simple batch systems
whenever job goes for I/O the CPU will be idle since only one job is loaded into memory.

In multi programmed batch systems more than one JOB is loaded into memory. When
one JOB needs to wait for I/O, the processor switches to other JOB, which is not waiting
for I/O.
In multiprogramming, more than one program lies in the memory. For example, we open
word, excel, access and other applications together but while we type in word other
applications such as excel and access are just present in main memory but they are not
performing any task or work.

In multiprogramming with two programs, If JOB A goes for I/O, CPU will automatically
goes for JOB B. If we observe the above figure, CPU utilization in multiprogramming
(fig: 2b) with two processes has increased compared to uniprogramming (Fig: 2a).

In multiprogramming with three programs, If JOB A goes for I/O, CPU will
automatically goes for JOB B and JOB B goes for I/O CPU runs JOB C. The CPU
utilization in multiprogramming with three programs has increased compared to
multiprogramming with two programs. So, CPU utilization and resource utilization
increases with the number of programs in main memory. 5
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Fig 2: Multiprogramming Example

Advantages:
1) CPU utilization and resource utilization increases with number of programs in
memory.
Dis advantage:
1) The response time of a job depends upon the previous jobs submitted. So, we can’t
predict response time of a JOB.
2) It can’t be used for multiple interactive JOBs.

Time-Sharing Systems:
User can’t predict the response time of a job in multiprogramming batch system. In a
time-sharing system OS interleaving execution of each user program in a short quantum
time. In time-sharing multiple users simultaneously access system through terminals. The
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response time of a program depends upon the number of programs submitted prior it.
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OS
JOB 1
JOB 2

JOB 3

JOB 4

Memory
Assume all jobs are submitted at the same time and time slice for each job is 4msec. The
response time of a JOB 4 will be utmost 12 sec (3*4). If any prior job of JOB 4 goes for
I/O, the response time of JOB 4 will reduced.
As soon as job assigned to the processor CPU starts timer. Once the timer expires system
clock generates interrupt. At each clock interrupt, the OS regains control and could assign
processor to another JOB. This technique is known as time slicing.
Table: Batch multiprogramming versus Time Sharing.
Batch Multi programming Time sharing
Objective Maximize processor use Minimize response time
Source of directives to Job control language Command entered at the
operating system terminal
Interactive jobs Not suitable Suitable
Online Transaction Not Suitable Suitable
Processing

Multi-Tasking: Multitasking means performing multiple tasks in parallel. Usually, CPU

processes only one task at a time but the switching of CPU between the processes is so
fast that it looks like CPU is executing multiple processes at a time. Example of
multitasking, we listen to music and do internet browsing at the same time (they execute
parallel).

Clustered Operating system:

A cluster is a set of computers harnessed together to present a single server resource to
applications and to users. Cluster architectures offer significant benefits, including higher
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performance, higher availability, and greater scalability and lower operating costs.
Cluster architectures are in place today for applications that must provide continuous,
uninterrupted service.
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With redundancy designed in to all subsystems — processing, storage, network, cooling,
power — cluster architectures can offer various levels of reliability.
In addition, cluster architectures can be scaled smoothly to provide for increasing system
performance. System architects can aggregate machines of different capacities in clusters
of different sizes to target small, mid-size and very large system needs. Costs are reduced
because clustering exploits low-cost, high-performance hardware.
Moreover, a cluster of UNIX systems provides the same standard UNIX system
environment that is used for existing applications.

2. PROTECTION AND SECURITY

If a computer system has multiple users and allows the concurrent execution of
multiple processes, then access to data must be regulated. For that purpose, mechanisms
ensure that files, memory segments, CPU, and other resources can be operated on by only
those processes that have gained proper authorization from the operating system.

Protection is a mechanism for controlling the access of processes or users to the

resources defined by a computer system. This mechanism must provide means for
specification of the controls to be imposed and means for enforcement. Protection can
improve reliability by detecting latent errors at the interfaces between component
subsystems. A protection-oriented system provides a means to distinguish between
authorized and unauthorized usage. Consider a user whose authentication information is
stolen. Data could be copied or deleted, even though file and memory protection are
working. It is the job of security to defend a system from external and internal attacks.
Such attacks spread across a huge range and include viruses and worms, denial-of
service, identity theft, and theft of service. Protection and security require the system to
be able to distinguish among all its users. Most operating systems maintain a list of user
names and associated user identifiers (user IDs).

3. DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS

A distributed system is a collection of physically separate, possibly heterogeneous

computer systems that are networked to provide the users with access to the various
resources that the system maintains. Access to a shared resource increases computation
speed, functionality, data availability, and reliability.
A distributed system is a collection of independent computers that are connected through
the network (LAN,MAN,WAN) and distributed operating system gives an impression to
the user as if they are working on single computer.
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Basics of Distributed Systems:

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 Networked computers ( loosely coupled) that provide a degree of operation

transparency
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 Distributed Computer System = independent processors + networking
infrastructure
 Communication between processes (on the same or different computer) using
message passing technologies is the basis of distributed computing

Goals of Distributed Systems:

 Resource sharing: easy for users to access remote resources.
 Transparency: to hide the fact that processes and resources are physically
distributed across multiple computers.
 Openness: to offer services according to standard rules.
 Scalability: easy to expand and manage
 Reliability – ability to continue operating correctly for a given time
 Fault tolerance – resilience to partial system failure
Distributed computing examples
 rlogin or telnet (for remote access)
 network file system, network printer etc
 ATM (cash machine)
 Distributed databases
 Network computing
 Global positioning systems
 Retail point-of-sale terminals
 Air-traffic control
 WWW

Centralised Systems Distributed System

System shared by users all the time Multiple autonomous components shared
by user
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All resources accessible Some resources may not be accessible

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Software runs in a single process Software can run in concurrent processes

on different processors
Single physical location Multiple physical locations
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Single point of control Multiple points of control
Single point of failure Multiple points of failure
Global Time No global time
Shared Memory No shared memory

Client Server model:

The client takes the request from the user and sends the request to the server, the server
will execute the request and send the reply back to the client. It is also called two- tire
architecture. All the resources are under the control of server only. The client-server
model firmly distinguishes the roles of the client and server.
For example, UNIX is a client- server architecture.

Fig : Client Server model

Peer-to-peer model:
It is another model of distributed system. A network of personal computers, all nodes in
the system are considered peers and thus may act as either clients or servers - or both. A
node may request a service from another peer, or the node may in fact provide such a
service to other peers in the system. Peer-to-peer networks are less expensive than
client/server networks but less efficient when large amounts of data need to be
exchanged.
Node must join P2P network Registers its service with central lookup service on network,
or Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service via discovery
protocol.

4. SPECIAL PURPOSE SYSTEMS

1) Real time embedded systems
2) Multimedia systems
3) Handheld systems.

Real Time Embedded Systems:

A real-time system is any information processing system which has to respond to
externally generated input within a finite and specified period. Whenever an event is
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occurred action must be taken within a specified time.

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 Hard real-time systems
1) A deadline is a given time after a triggering event, by which a response has to be
completed. An overrun in response time leads to potential loss of life and/or big financial
damage
2) Many of these systems are considered to be safety critical.
3) Sometimes they are “only” missioning critical, with the mission being very expensive.
E.g: Temperature control in nuclear reactor: Whenever temperature rises to certain
threshold level, steam valve should be opened and fuel should be cut down. This should
be done in specified time otherwise a mishap will occur.

 Soft real-time systems

1) Deadline overruns are tolerable, but not desired. There are no catastrophic
consequences of missing one or more deadlines.
2) There is a cost associated to overrunning, but this cost may be abstract.
3) Often connected to Quality-of-Service (QoS)
E.g, ATM or Lift

 Firm teal-time systems

1) The computation is obsolete if the job is not finished on time.
2) Cost may be interpreted as loss of revenue.
3) Typical example is forecast systems.
 Weakly hard real-time
1) Systems where H out of K deadlines has to be met.
2) In most cases feedback control systems, in which the control becomes unstable with
too many missed control cycles.
3) Best suited if system has to deal with other failures as well (e.g. Electro Magnetic
Interference EMI).
4) Likely probabilistic guarantees sufficient.

Multimedia Systems:
Most operating systems are designed to handle conventional data such as text files,
programs, word processing documents, and spread sheets. Multimedia data consist of
audio and video files as well as conventional files. These data differ from conventional
data in that multimedia data- such as frames of video – must be delivered (streamed)
according to certain time restrictions( for example 30 frames per second). The
multimedia applications are audio files such as MP3, DVD movies, video conferencing,
and short video clips of movie previews. Multimedia applications may also include live
web casts of speeches or sporting events. Multimedia applications often include a
combination of both audio and video.
Handheld Systems:
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Handheld systems include personal digital assistants (PDAs), such as Palm and packet
PCs, and cellular telephones, many of which use special-purpose embedded operating
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systems. A handheld computing device has an operating system (OS), and can run
various types of application software, known as apps. Most handheld devices can also be
equipped with Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and GPS capabilities that can allow connections to the
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Internet and other Bluetooth-capable devices, such as an automobile or a microphone
headset. A camera or media player feature for video or music files can also be typically
found on these devices along with a stable battery power source such as a lithium battery.
Some handheld devices use wireless technology, such as Bluetooth, remote access to e-
mail and web browsing.
Limitations:
Handheld systems will have very less memory compared to desktops. As a result, the
operating system and applications must manage memory efficiently. Most handheld
devices use smaller, slower processors that consume less power to avoid frequent
recharging of batteries. Very small size keyboards and monitors are user due to lack of
space.

5. OPERATING SYSTEM STRUCTURE

Modern operating systems are large and complex. They must be engineered properly if it
is to function properly and be modified easily. Common approach is to partition the task
into small components rather than have one monolithic system.
Simple Structure:
Many commercial systems do not have well-defined structure. MS-DOS was originally
designed and implemented by few people who had no idea that it would become so
popular. It was written to provide the most functionality in the least space. So it was not
divided into modules carefully.
Application Programming

Resident System Programming

MS-DOS Drivers

ROM - BIOS Device Drivers

MS-DOS Layer Structure

In MS-DOS, the interface and level of functionality are not well separated. For instance,
application programs able to access the basic I/O routines to write directly to the display
and disk drives. Such freedom levels MS-DOS vulnerable to errant programs, causing
entire system to crashes.

UNIX consists of two separate parts: the kernel and system programs. Everything below
the system call interface and above the physical hardware is kernel. The kernel provides
memory management, file management, CPU scheduling and other operating system
functions through system calls. The monolithic structure (kernel) was difficult to
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implement and maintain.

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Fig : Unix system structure

Layered Approach:
Operating systems can be broken into pieces that are smaller and more appropriate than
those allowed by the original MS-DOS system. The OS can then retain much greater
control over the computer and over the application that make use of that computer.
Implementers have more freedom in changing the inner workings of the system and in
creating modular operating systems.
The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each built on top of
lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user
interface.
With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses functions (operations) and
services of only lower-level layers. For example, Layer M consist of data structures and
set of routines can be invoked by the layers above M, in turn, layer M can invoke
services of lower layers.

Fig: A layered operating system

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Advantages of layered approach:

1) Simplicity of construction
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2) Easy in debugging: The first layer can be debugged without concern for the rest of
the system. If an error is found in during the debugging of a particular layer, the
error must be on that layer, because the layer below it is already debugged. Thus,
debugging and implementation of system is simplified.
3) Each layer is implemented with only those operations provided by lower level
layers. A layer does not need to know how these operations are implemented; it
needs to know only what these operations do. Hence, each layer hides the
existence of certain data structures, operations and hardware from higher layers.
Disadvantages:
1) Appropriately defining various layers.
2) The order of the layers.( Device layer should be below the memory management
layer).
3) It is less efficient than other approaches. When a user program executes an I/O
operation, it executes an I/O operation, it executes a system call that trapped to I/O
layer, which calls memory management layer which in turn calls CPU-scheduling
layer, which is the passed to the hardware.
Each layer adds overhead to system call; the net result is a system call takes longer
than non layered system.

Microkernel’s Structure:

A microkernel is the near-minimum amount of software that can provide the

mechanisms needed to implement an operating system (OS). These mechanisms include
low-level address space management, thread management, and inter-process
communication (IPC). Traditional operating system functions, such as device drivers,
protocol stacks and file systems, are removed from the microkernel to run in user space.
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1)Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space .

2)Communication takes place between user modules using message passing .
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Benefits:
Easier to extend a microkernel
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Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
Maintenance is generally easier. Patches can be tested in a separate instance, then
swapped in to take over a production instance.
Rapid development time, new software can be tested without having to reboot the kernel.
More secure
Disadvantages: Performance overhead of user space to kernel space communication.
The first release of windows-NT 4.0 micro kernel version gave less performance than
windows 95 monolithic version. Windows-xp architecture is more monolithic than
microkernel.

Modules:
The kernel has a set of core components and dynamically links in additional services
either during booting time or during run time.
Most modern operating systems implement kernel modules:
Uses object-oriented approach
Each core component is separate
Each talks to the others over known interfaces
Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible

For example, the Solaris operating system structure is organized around core kernel with
seven types of loadable kernel modules as shown in the above figure. Such a design
allows the kernel to provide core services yet also allows certain features to be
implemented dynamically. For example, device and bus drivers for specific hardware can
be added to kernel, and support for different file systems can be added as loadable
modules.

Fig: Solaris Loadable Module

This approach is like the microkernel approach in that the primary module has only core
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functions and knowledge of how to load and communicate with other modules; but it is
more efficient, because modules do not need to invoke message passing in order to
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communicate.
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Under what circumstances would a user be better of using a time-sharing system rather
than a PC or single-user workstation?

When there are few other users, the task is large, and the hardware is fast, timesharing
make sense. The full power of the system can be brought to bear on the pser’s problem.
The problem can be solved faster than on a personal computer. Another case occurs when
lots of other users need resources at the same time.

For example, an organization generates 1000 transactions per day. A user can enter 100
transactions per day. Then we recommend for time sharing system.

A personal computer is best when the job is small enough to be executed reasonably on it
and when performance is sufficient to execute the program to the user’s satisfaction.

6. SYSTEM CALLS
The interface between operating system and user programs is defined by the set of
system calls that operating system provides. The system calls available in the interface
vary from operating system to operating system. The system call is called by programmer
whenever services are required from OS.
The process starts running in user mode. As soon as system call is called it changes from
user mode to kernel mode. The mode bit specifies the process running in user
mode(mode bit=1) or kernel(mode bit=0) mode.

For e.g, copy file1.c file2.c

Source file Destination file

Examples of system calls Sequence
to copy content of file1.c to file2.c

Open file1.c
Create file2.c
Loop
Read from file1.c
Write to file2.c
Until end of file1.c
Close file1.c
Close file2.c
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Example how system calls are used in copy contents from file1.c to file2.c

Steps in calling system call and getting result:

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1) User program is running in user mode
2) Save user program
3) Change from user mode to kernel mode
4) Load and Run the open() system call
5) Open() system call send return value to user program
6) Restore User program and start running from next statement of open() system call.

Fig : Handling of user application invoking open() system call.

Types of system Calls:

System calls can be categorized into five major categories.
Process control
 Create process(fork ), terminate process(exit)
 Get process attributes(getpid), set process attributes
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 Wait for event(wait)

 Wait event, signal event
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 Allocate and free memory (malloc,free)

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Table: These are examples of various system calls.

File Management
 Create file, delete file( create)
 Open, close (open, close)
 Read, write, reposition (read, write, seek)
 Get file attributes, set file attributes
Device management
 Request device request device, release device
 Read, write, reposition
 Get device attributes, set device attributes
 Logically attach or detach devices
Information maintenance
 Get time or date(date), set time or date
 Get system date, set system date
 Get process, file, or device attributes
 set process, file, or device attributes
Communication
 create, delete communication connection
 send, receive message
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 attach or detach remote devices

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Parameter passing in system calls:
Application developers design programs according to an Application Program Interface
(API). The API specifies set of functions that are available to an application programmer,
including the parameters that are passed to each function and their return values. The
parameters are passed to system call through register, stack and memory. The most
famous APIs are win32 API on windows, POSIX API on Linux, UNIX and mac OS-X.

Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS Simplest:

1) Pass the parameters in registers.
2) In some cases, may be more parameters than registers Parameters stored in a
block, or table, in memory, and address of block passed as a parameter in a register.
This approach taken by Linux and Solaris.
3)Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and popped off the
stack by the operating system Block and stack methods do not limit the number or
length of parameters being passed

Fig: Parameter passing through registers in system calls

What is the advantage of using APIs rather than system calls?

Each operating system has its own name for each system call. The portability of
application increases with the use of API rather than system call.
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7. OPERATING-SYSTEM GENERATION
Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of machines at a variety of
sites with a variety of peripheral configurations. The system must then be configured or
generated for each specific computer site, a process sometimes known as system
generation (SYSGEN).
The operating system is normally distributed on disk or CD-ROM. The SYSGEN
program reads from a given file, or asks the operator of the system for information
concerning the specific configuration of the hardware system, or probes the hardware
directly to determine what components are there. The following kinds of information
must be determined.
• What CPU is to be used? What options (extended instruction sets, floating point
arithmetic, and so on) are installed? For multiple CPU systems, each CPU must be
described.
• How much memory is available? Some systems will determine this value themselves by
referencing memory location after memory location until an "illegal address" fault is
generated. This procedure defines the final legal address and hence the amount of
available memory.
• What devices are available? The system will need to know how to address each device
(the device number), the device interrupt number, the device's type and model, and any
special device characteristics.
• What operating-system options are desired, or what parameter values are to be used?
These options or values might include how many buffers of which sizes should be used,
what type of CPU-scheduling algorithm is desired, what the maximum number of
processes to be supported is, and so on.

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