Unit 2: Operating System and Computer Network

Operating System
An operating system is system software (a set of programs) that
manages all computer components and operations.
 A computer cannot do anything without operating system.
 Operating System must be installed on every computer.
 Users interact with the computer through operating
system. Example: - MS-DOC, Windows XP, Vista, Windows 7, Linux,
UNIX etc.

Task/ Jobs performed by the operating system

 It provides interface for users to interact with the computer.
 It manages the hardware and peripherals that are connected to
thecomputer.
 It manages memory for different program /applications.
 It divides the processing time between for different
program/applications that are running.
 It manages security for the computer (User logins and password,
firewall, anti-virus).
 It manages file handing, (storing, deleting and moving of files).
 It manages utility software on the computer such as disk
defragmentation and disk formatting software.
Type of Operating system
 Batch Operating System
In a Batch Operating System, the similar jobs are grouped together into batches
with the help of some operator and these batches are executed one by one.

 Time-Sharing Operating System

a. In Time-Sharing Operating System Each task is given some time to executed so
that all the tasks work smoothly.
b. Each user gets the time of CPU as they use a single system.
c. These systems are also known as Multitasking systems. The task can be from a
single user of different users also.
 Distributed Operating System
a. In a Distributed Operating System, we have various systems and all these systems
have their own CPU, main memory, secondary memory, and resource.
b. These systems are connected to each other using a shared communication
network. Here, each system can perform its task individually.

 Network Operating System

a. These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users,
group, security, application, security and other networking function.
b. These types of operating system allow shared access of files, prints, security
application and other networking functions over a small private network.
 Real-Time Operating System
a. In Real Time Operating Systems, each job carries a certain deadline within which the job
is supposed to be completed, otherwise the huge loss will be there or even if the result
is produced then it will be completely useless.

There are two type of Real –Time Operating System.

i. Hard Real Time Systems
 A hard real time system guarantees that a job will be complete within a
specified time period.
 This system ensures that all delays on processing, input and output
are bounded.
 The system cannot wait indefinitely so the hard tie systems are usually
very limited.
ii. Soft Real Time Systems
 Soft real time systems do not guarantee that a job will be
complete within a specified time period.
 It tires its best to finish the job as soon as possible.

Functions of Operating System

1. Memory Management
2. Processing Management
3. Devices Management
4. File Management
5. Security Management
6. Job Scheduling
7. Time Sharing etc.
 Memory Management
Memory management module performs the task of allocation and
de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of this resource.
 Processor Management
The Operating system assigns processors to the different tasks that must be
performed by the computer system.
 Device Management
Operating System performs the task of allocation and re-allocation ofthe devices.
 File Management
Operating System manages all the task file-related activities such as organization
storages, retrieval, naming, sharing and protection of file.
 Security Management
Security Management function of an operating system helps in implementing
mechanisms that secure and protect the computer system internally as well as
externally.
 Job Scheduling
Job scheduling is the process of allocating system resources to many different task
by an operating system.
 Time-Sharing
It co-ordinates and assigns compliers, assemblers, utility programs and other
software packages to various users working on computer system.

Basic Concepts of Networking

Computer network is an interconnection of two or more computers and
peripherals such as printers, faxes and scanner.
Computer network allows the user to share and transfer information using cable
or modem over a network.
When computers communicate with each other, they follow certain formats and
rules. These format and rules are explained by the OSI (Open System
Interconnection) model.
Types of Network
LAN (Local Area Network)
 LAN is a computer network that covers a small area.
 LAN connects computer and workstations in office or home.
 LAN covers a local area of 500 m to 1 km.
 Data transmission rate is 10/100 mbps.(Megabits persecond)

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 MAN is an interconnection of network in a city.
 MAN supports data and voice transmission.
 The best example for MAN is the television cable network incities.
 MAN covers an area of 2 to 100 km.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

 WAN spans wide geographical area such as state or country, which
includes multiple computers or LANs.
 It connects through public network, like telephone system, satellite
link or leased line.
 The best example of WAN is internet.
 It covers large geographical area more than 100 km.

WAN

London America India

Network devices:
Networking hardware, also known as network equipment or computer
networking devices, are electronic devices which are required for
communication and interaction between devices on a computernetwork.
Switch
It is a device that can filter and forward the packets on a LAN. It is alsoknown as
intelligent hub.

Router:-
It is a device which routes the information packet between two or more
physically or logically connected networks. Router uses logical address while
bridge uses physical address.

Gateway
When the network that must be connected are using completely different
protocols form each other, a power devices called gateway is used.
Network Topology
The way of connecting one computer to another computer is known as
topology. There are six types of topology:-

Bus topology:-
A bus topology connects all devices of the network through a single common
cable having exactly two end points. This cable is called backbone of the
topology.

Advantages:-
 Simple architecture.
 Low installation cost.
 Easy to add a new node.
Disadvantage:-
 Difficultly in fault detection.
 Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you canconnect
with backbone cable.
 If there is some problem in the shared communication cable, then all
other devices can stop functioning.
Star topology:-
All devices/ computer connect to a central device called Hub or switch. Each
device requires a single cable point to point connection between the device and
hub.
Advantages:-
 Easier to install
 Lesser amount of cables required because each device needs to be
connected with the hub only.
 Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
 Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.
Disadvantages:-
 If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can
work without hub.
 Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the
central system of star topology.

Tree topology:
A tree topology combined the characteristics of Bus and Star Topology. It
consists of different group of computer attached in start topology.
The Groups are than connected to a Bus backbone cable. Tree
Topology is used for the expansion of existing network.

Advantages:-
 It provides point to point wiring for individual segments.
 It is supported by several hardware and software vendors.

Disadvantage:-
 If the backbone line breaks down then the whole networks breaks
down.
Ring topology:
In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of
it. There are two dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on
the either side of it. This structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology.

Advantages:-
 Easy to install.
 Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the
topology only two links are required to be changed.
Disadvantage:-
 A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel
forward due to failure.
 Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

Mesh topology:-
In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network through
a dedicated point to point link.
When we say dedicated it means that the link only carries data for the two
connected devices only.
Advantages
 No Data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices
which means the link is only available for those two devices.
 Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect
other links and the communication between other devices on the
network.
 Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus
unauthorized access is not possible.
 Fault detection is easy.
Disadvantages
 It's Costly.
 Installation is difficult.
 Maintenance is high.
Graph topology:-
The structure of graph topology is very simple in which nodes are connected
randomly but it is not necessary that all nodes be connected to one another.

Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology is a combination of two or more topologies mentioned above.
For example, two physical star topology based network may be interconnected
through a single bus topology.
 Concept of client and server
Client – A client is a piece of computer hardware or software that accesses a
service made available by a server. For example, web browsers are client that
connect to web services and retrieves web pages for display.

Server - A server is a computer program or devices that provides functionality

for other programs or devices, called “Client”

Basics of MAC and IP Address

MAC Address
A MAC stand for Media Access Control Address. The MAC address is
manufactured into every network card, such as an Ethernet card or Wi- Fi card,
and therefore cannot be changed. MAC Address is word wide unique, since
millions of network devices exist and we need to uniquely identify each.
Access Control Address is a physical address which Media work at Data Link
Layer.

48 Bit

Ec f0 fe cc ca 55

OUI 24 bit vendor 24 bit

Example – 598de:d0a2:afd9, 98de.d0a2.afd9, ec-f0-fe-cc-ca-55
Notes:- Display – CTRL + R, Command – getmac, ipconfig/all
IP Address
 An Internet Protocol address is a number that identifies a device
on a computer network.
 Provide Unique Identification to device over a network.
Every host (computer, networking device, peripheral) must have a
unique address
Q. Difference between MAC and IP Address?
SL No. MAC Address IP Address
1 Media Access Control Address Internet Protocol address
2 It is also called to physical, It is called to logical, network on
hardware or Ethernet internetaddress
address
3 MAC address cannot be change IP address can be change
4 It have no version IP address have two version IPV4 & IPV6
5 MAC address is used to Data IP address is used to network layer of
Link Layerof OSI Model OSI Model
6 MAC address has a six parts IP address has a four parts which is
which is separated by five colon separated by three period sign
sign or high fun.
7 MAC address written in IP address written in numeric value
alphanumeric value
8 MAC address is 4 bits long IPv4- 32 bits, Ipv6 – 128 bits
9 Hub & Switch Router
Wireless Technologies
Bluetooth
 It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WAPN) technology and is used
to exchange data over short distance.
 This technology was developed by Ericson in 1994.
 It operates at frequency of 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz.
 Maximum 7 devices can be connected at the same time.
 Its ranges up-to 10 meters.
 It provides data transfer rates up to 1 Mbps to 3 Mbps.
 It uses FHSS (Frequency hopping spread spectrum) spreading
technique.
 Bluetooth network is also known as PICONET and a collection of
interconnected Piconets is known as SCATTERNET.
 PICONET
 It is a Bluetooth network which consists of one primary
(master) node and other active secondary (slave) nodes.
 One Piconet can have up to eight active nodes (a master and 7 slaves)
or stations within the distance of 10 meters.
 There can be only one primary or master station in eachpiconet.
 The communication between the primary and the secondary can be
one-to-one or one-to-many.
SCATTERNET
 It is a combination of various Piconets.
 A Slave in one Piconet can act as a master or primary in for other
piconet.

WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

 WLAN, a wireless computer network connecting two or more devices
using a wireless distribution method within a limited area such as in
School or Office Bridge.
 Provides with mobility within coverage area.
 Two popular Standardizing organizations which support wires LAN are
IEEE & ETSI.
 IEEE: IEEE 802.11 -> 2.4 GHz & 5 GHz boards.
 ETSI: Hipper LAN Type1 & Type2 for 5 GHz only.

IEEE stands for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

ETSI stands for European Telecommunication Standards Institute
Infrared
Infrared is frequency of light that are not visible to eyes. Which have range of
wavelength like visible light. There are two of infrared light, far infrared and
near infrared. Far infrared wave are thermal that’s why we feel warn in sunlight
and fire. Near infrared wave are not thermal at all even not visible to human
eyes. Near infrared are used in TV remotes.
Advantages
Due to short range of communication, It is secure.
It is quite inexpensive in term of wireless transmission media.
Disadvantages
It can be used for short range of communications.
Infrared wave transmission cannot pass through obstructions like walls,buildings etc.

Microwave
Microwaves are Radio waves that are used to provide high speedtransmission.
 Both voice and data can be transmitted through microwave.
 Data is transmitted through the air from one microwave station to other
similar to radio signal.
 Microwave uses line of sight transmission. It means that the signals
travel in a straight path and cannot bend.

Network Protocol:
Protocol is a specially set of Rules, used in digital communication, to ensure
systematically and safe data transferring over the network.
Everything receives and sends from the internet or work accordingly to the
protocol. All these protocols existing in OSI seven layers.
Example of protocol-
HTTP
HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transport Protocol.
 It is a communication protocol used to connect to servers on the
World Wide Web.
 The primary function of HTTP is to establish a connection with a web
server and transmit HTML page to the user’s browser.
 It allows computer user to access the internet.
FTP
File Transfer Protocol is used to transfer file over the Internet. Audio, Video,
Graphics and data file can be uploaded and download using this Protocol.
 The process of transferring a file from a remote computer to local
computer is called downloading.
 The process of transferring a file from a local computer uploading
to a remote computer is called uploading.
 Different software are available to use this protocol.

PPP (Point to Point Protocol)

This protocol is defined communication between to endpoint using serial
interface.
Example of PPP
Two computers connected through telephone line.
ISP provides connection to your computer through telephone line for better
response.

SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Used to transfer mail over the internet. Most email
software use to send mail.
How mail processing happen?
Full from
MDA – Mail Delivery Agent
MUA – Mail User Agent
MSA – Mai Submission
Agent MTA - Mail
Transfer Agent

POP (email services)

POP Protocols: Post Office Protocol
It is provide the facility of mail re-travelling but it have no reliability and it is not
capable to access the information about New Group like as Public folder. Its
latest version is POP3 or work with Port NO. 109/110.

Threats and Presentation:

Virus
Computer Virus are nothing but computer program that do unwanted things
with your computer resources e.g you are working on PC and you are repeatedly
receiving annoying message.
Viruses
A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real programs. For
example, a virus might attach itself to a program such as a spreadsheet
program, Each time the spreadsheet program runs, the virus runs, too, and it
has the chance to reproduce (by attaching to other programs) or wreak havoc.
Worms
A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer networks and security
holes to replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another
machine that has a specific security hole. It copy itself to the new machine
using the security hole, and then starts replicating form there, as well.
 Trojan house
A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The program claims to do one
thing (it may claim to be a game) but instead does damage when you run it (it
may erase your hard disk). Trojan horses have no way to replicate
automatically.
Spam
The term spam means endless repletion of worthless text, In other words,
unwanted message or mails are known as spam. At times internet id flooded
with multiple copies of the same message, it is nothing but spam. Most is
commercial advertising. In addition wasting people’s time, spam also eats up a
lot of network bandwidth.
Adware
 Adware is a malware that attaches itself to the free software on the internet
and infects computer when such software is downloaded.
 It pops up advertisements during execution of infected program.

HTTP vs HTTPs

HTTP HTTPS
Stands for Hyper Text Transfer Stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
Protocol which are set of rules on secure and it is advanced version of
which Internet works HTTP
It is less secure as the data travels as It is designed to prevent hackers from
Palin text form browser to server accessing critical information. It is secure
against such attacks
HTTP URLs begin with http:// HTYTPs URLs begin with https://
It is mostly used for websites If the website needs to collect the
designed for information private information such as Card
consumption like blogs number, CVV etc. then it is a more
secure protocol
HTTP website do not need SSL HTTPs require SSL certificate
certificate
HTTP website doesn’t use HTTPs website use data encryption
encryption
It is faster than HTTPs It is slower than HTTP
Network security concepts:
Data travelling on a network is vulnerable to attacks and thefts. As data goes form
one point to another point on a network it may pass through several points along
the way and, giving other users the opportunity to access, and even alter it.

Firewall

 Firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls

incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security
rules.
 A firewall typically establishes a barrier between a trusted internal
network and untrusted external network, such as the Internet.
 Network firewalls or host-based firewalls.
 Proxy Firewall.
Trusted Untrusted

Internal Network (Private) External Network (Public)

Cookies
 A cookie is a small piece of data sent from a website and stored in a
user’s web browser while a user is browsing a website.
 Google Chrome stores all cookies in single file called cookies. The file is
located at the following path: “C:\User\Your User Name\App
Data\Local\Google\Chrome\User Data\Default”.
 Some cookies remain saved and local the nest time, user visits the same
website.
 Cookies help website to store information about visitors like username,
password and other details.
 Cookies are message that a web server transmits to a web browser so
that the web server can keep track of the user’s activity on a specific
web site.
Or
They are the text messages sent by a web server to a web browser so that web
server can keep track of the user’s activity on a specific web site.
Hackers
Gaining knowledge about someone’s private and sensitive information by
getting accessibility of his computer system illegally. Hackers are more
interested in gaining knowledge about computer systems and possibly using this
knowledge for playful pranks.
Crackers
Crackers are the malicious programs who break into the secure systems for
some illegal or destructive purpose.
Antivirus and their workings
A type of software that is used to detect and remove viruses is called Antivirus
Software.
 Antivirus contains information about different known viruses.

Network security threats:

Denial of services
A Denial of Service (DoS) attacks are those attacks that prevents the legitimate
users from accessing or using the resources and information. These types of
attacks may eat up all the resource of the system and computer become to a
halt state.
Intrusion problems
An intrusion problem is an attempt to mischievously steal some information
from someone’s computer.
Some Intrusion Problem are:
 Snooping
It refers to unauthorized access of someone else data, email, computer activity
or data communication. It may comprise monitoring of keystrokes pressed,
capturing of password and log in information and interceptions of emails and
other privateinformation.
 Eavesdropping
It is the act of secretly listening/ interpreting someone else’s private
communication to information while data is on its way on the network.