Introduction

All of you have heard about the word ‘Computer’. More or less all of us know about it to some extent.
Now a days this machine is used all most every where like schools, colleges, educational Institutes, offices,
research Labs., Medicals, shops even in homes. So you must be very curious to know about this machine.
What is computer ? What it can do for us and how does it function ? and many more questions.

Actually the word “computer “ is derived from the Latin word “compute” whose meaning is to perform
some calculations. So the machine which performs calculations can be called as a computer, just like the man
who sings is called singer, who dances is called dancer.

But if this taken as the definitions of computer than it is not cent percent correct because it mean
computer is just like a calculating machine. But it is more than a calculator. In addition to calculating it can
perform many things which cant not be done using a calculator. Apart from that computer is an automatic
machine which does not need user intervention once it come into act .where as calculator is not.

So it is good to define a computer as “It is an electronic device which accepts data, process data
according to the instructions are given and then give us information”. Pictorially we can represent it as
follows.

Instructions

Data Input Output Information

Data

process

Data – in real life we come across many items which are no more useful to us. If we feel any item that of no use
we just throw it out. Like we throw plastic drinking water bottles, broken glass bottles etc. in the same way any
item is not useful is called data in computer terminology.So Data is collection of any facts and figures which does
not implies any meaning to us.

Example. World’s,1, batsman, is ,sachin, no

If we consider the words ,these are not providing any meaningful sense.

Process : Manipulation of data is called processing. Manipulation means certain kind of action taken over data.
Actions taken over data like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, sorting and merging etc .

Information : When data is become meaningful to us i.e. it provide some kind of meaning at that time the data
become information.

The following figure make it clear data

World’s is Sachin is world’s no 1 cricketer

cricketer
no sort
sachin
1
pro
cess
ing
characteristics of computer :

Each thing that you use must have some advantages on it. By Which it fulfill your requirements. Like TV provides
you entertainment, Air Cooler makes you cool ,Mobile provides you to communicate with remote people etc.
Similarly computer has some characteristics that’s why it is being getting more popularized day to day.

A. Merits of computer

1. Speed : Computer process data with enormous speed as compared to human beings. If any data given it
process it with very less amount of time as compared to human beings. For example if a simplification
1+23-12*4/6*3 is given to human being it may take about 5 minute. But in case of computer it just take
fraction of a second.
2. Accuracy: Computer always process data with higher degree of accuracy. In case of human beings
there is a chance of creeping of errors but in case of computer it’s not. If the simplification 1+23-12*4/6*3
is given to computer it calculate accurate figure but if it would have given to a human being, then the
result is not guaranteed to be error free.
3. Versatile in nature : The word versatile means work differently in different situation as it demands. The
human is not versatile in nature. The human being is capable of working to his/her limitation. For example
a porter is unable to diagnosis a patient, a doctor is unable to work like a road sweeper etc. The human
being only can do the work which comes within his working scope. But in case of computer it can do
variety of tasks. It works like a doctor in medicals , works like a pathologist in pathology departments,
works like a tutor ,works like a worker in factories etc.
4. Lack of tiredness & boringness : Computer never feels any tiredness. Its rate of processing for a
particular piece of data is always remains constant. It never feels any boring after doing repetitive tasks.
The outcome is that we can put maximum workload over computer. But in case of human being it is
reverse process. A human being feels tiredness after some duration of working because he/she loses
energy. A human being gets bored after doing the same work repeatedly.
5. Sensitive memory : The computer has also a memory as like human beings. But the memory of
computer is more powerful than the memory of human beings in sense of storing power. The human
beings memory is capable of storing data regarding recent happenings/incidents and the data which are
very important to us. What’s the dinner you had in the last night ? that you can say easily. But same
can’t be said which occurred one month ago. Your name you can say easily which was informed you
around many years ago. Because your name is important data for you.

From this it concludes that what we need, fulfilled by the computer. We expect faster way of
working with accurately, long hours of working , getting of fluent up-to-date information . These can
achieved by using a computer. This is the reason why computes are getting more and more
popularized .

B. Demerits of computer

1. Required detailed instructions : Computers need detail and well stepwise instructions for processing
data. If it is lack of number of instructions or there is wrong placement of the instructions , then the
compute will provide unexpected result. So you have to know about the instructions , their
functions ,situation when to use a given instruction etc. That’s why at the beginning it is not so easy to
operate a computer.
2. Lack of IQ(intelligent quality) : Unlike the human beings , Computer has not any thinking power . The
human being thinks of a solution if any problem comes in his/her life. And according could eliminate the
problem. But in case of computer it’s not. The computer stops the processing if any problem found during
the stage of processing. Hence we have to predict the probable problems and their respective solution
first. Then we have to provide these problem solutions to computer prior to processing. Then only
computer work for us smoothly. Apart from that if a unpredictable problem found by the computer, it stops
processing. So all these things to be considered carefully which is not easy for the beginners.
Use of computers in different fields
Computers are now a days used in variety fields as follows

Education:

Getting the right kind of information is a major challenge as is getting information to make sense. College
students spend an average of 5-6 hours a week on the internet. Research shows that computers can
significantly enhance performance in learning. One revolution in education is the advent of distance
learning. This offers a variety of internet and video-based online courses. The tutors used different
presentation programs ,putting animated text, ,images which draws user attention and becomes easy to
learn.

Health and Medicines :

Computer technology is radically changing the tools of medicine. All medical information can now be
digitized. Software is now able to computer the risk of a disease. Mental health researchers are using
computers to screen troubled teenagers in need of psychotherapy. A patient paralyzed by a stroke has
received an implant that allows communication between his brain and a computer; as a result, he can
move a cursor across a screen by brainpower and convey simple messages. The computers are now
implemented for surgery work in medicals ,diagnosing patients by pointing which organs are affected and
prescribed medicines accordingly.

Science:
Scientists have long been users of it. A new adventure among scientists is the idea of a “collaboratory”,
an internet based collaborative laboratory, in which researchers all over the world can work easily
together even at a distance. An example is space physics where space physicists are allowed to band
together to measure the earth’s ionosphere from instruments on four parts of the world.

Business:
Business clearly see the interest as a way to enhance productivity and competitiveness. Some areas of
business that are undergoing rapid changes are sales and marketing, retailing, banking, stock trading,
etc. Sales representatives not only need to be better educated and more knowledgeable about their
customer’s businesses, but also must be comfortable with computer technology. The internet has become
a popular marketing tool. The world of cyber cash has come to banking – not only smart cards but internet
banking, electronic deposit, bill paying, online stock and bond trading, etc.

Government:
Various departments of the Government use computer for their planning, control and law enforcement
activities. To name a few – Traffic, Tourism, Information & Broadcasting, Education, Aviation and many
others.

Defence:
There are many uses computers in Defence such as:
1) They are also used on Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) that uses Computers to help the
missile get to the target.
2) Computers are used to track incoming missiles and help slew weapons systems onto the incoming
target to destroy them.
3) Computers are used in helping the military find out where all their assets are (Situational Awareness)
and in Communications/Battle Management Systems.
4) Computers are used in tanks and planes and ships to target enemy forces, help run the platform and
more recently to help diagnose any problems with the platforms.
5) Computers help design and test new systems

Sports
In today's technologically growing society, computers are being used in nearly every activity.
Analyzing Movements
The best athletes pay close attention to detail. Computers can slow recorded video and allow people to
study their specific movements to try to improve their tendencies and repair poor habits.
Writers
Many sportswriters attend several sporting events a week, and they take their computers with them to
write during the game or shortly after while their thoughts are fresh in their mind.
Scoreboard
While some scoreboards are manually updated, most professional sports venues have very modern
scoreboards that are programmed to update statistics and information immediately after the information is
entered into the computer.

History about computer

The computer that you see today is not the direct cut shape/form. It has to be passed many forms/shapes
before it available in present days form.

Abacus:
In stone age peoples live in the caves .They used hand marks to count down the cattle. But it was not the
reliable medium because there was chance of erasing of marks if it would rains. After long years peoples
knew the use of palm leaves and they stored their data on the palm leaves which now days used also.
This medium also not so reliable. Gradually man mind evolved and around 300 B.C. Abacus was
invented by chinese. The Abacus was made of a wooden frame. The iron rods across it contains beads.
These beads were to be shifted their positions to get the result of multiplication and addition of numbers.
The Abacus was an early aid for mathematical computations. Its only value is that it aids the memory of
the human performing
Napier’s Bones
John Napier the Scottish mathematician devised a set of rods for use in calculation envolving
multiplications. These rods were carved from bones and there fore called Napier’s Bone.
Slide rules:
Napier's invention led directly to the slide rule, first built in England in 1632 and still in use.
Mechanical Calculator :
In 1642 first mechanical calculating machine was made by the mathematician Blaise Pascal. His machine
was a simple calculator used for addition and subtraction purpose.
Differential Engine:

By 1822 the English mathematician Charles Babbage was proposing a calculating machine the size of a
room, which he called the Difference Engine. This machine would be able to compute tables of numbers,
such as logarithm tables. It was hoped that Babbage's machine could eliminate errors in these types of
tables.
.
Analytical Engine:

The problem in differential Engine is that it was not memory. Always fresh data and instructions were to
be used. Babbage then thought about a next machine, which he called the Analytic Engine. This device
was supposed to be more general purpose in nature because it would be programmable. Babbage called
the two main parts of his Analytic Engine the "Store" and the "Mill", as both terms are used in the weaving
industry. The Store was where numbers were held and the Mill was where they were "woven" into new
results. In a modern computer these same parts are called the memory unit and the central processing
unit(CPU).The Analytic Engine also had a key function that distinguishes computers from calculators: the
conditional statement. A conditional statement allows a program to achieve different results each time it is
run. But the science at that time did not provide the machinery parts for this device. Babbage’s concept
was later time used for making modern days computers . Hence he is called father of computer

Some early days computers :

Some of the early days computers are as follows:

The Mark I Computer (1937-44) : Also known as Automatic Sequence Controlled calculator. This was the
first fully automatic calculating machine designed by Howard. Although this machine was reliable it was
very complex design and huge size. It used over 3000 electrically actuated switches to control the
operation and approximately 50 feet long and 8 feet high.

The atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42) This electronic machine was developed by Dr. John Atanasoff
to solve certain mathematical equations. It was also called ABC. It used 45 vacuum tubes for internal logic
and capacitors for storage.

The ENIAC(1943-46) The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator was the first electronic
computer. It was developed for military use to solve ballistic problems. The addition of two numbers was
achieved in 200 microseconds and multiplication in 2000 microseconds. It took up the space in a 20X40
square feet room and 18,000 vacuum tubes were used.

The EDVAC(1946-52) The drawback of ENIAC was that its programs were wired on boards which made it
difficult to change the problems. This problem was eliminated by “stored program” concept introduced by
john Neumann. The basic idea behind this concept is that a sequence of instructions , as well as data can
be stored in he memory of computer. This machine was called Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer.

The EDSAC(1947-49) The Britishers developed Electronic Delay Storage Calculator. The machine
executed addition operation in 1500 microseconds and multiplication in 4000 microseconds.

The UNIVSAC – I (1951) The Universal Automatic Computer was the first digital computer . The first
Business use of a computer , a UNIVAC-I was by General Electric Corporation in 1954.

IBM Mark-I(1950) Mark-I was the first computer in the real sense of the term i.e on which could store a
program of instructions.

Architecture of computer
Architecture of computer means the design of various parts and their link so that computer able to process data.

When data is passed in to computer it is first stored inside the memory of computer .Then control unit picks up
the data and sees if any mathematical or logical task to be done over data . If so then the control unit passes the
data to ALU where all calculations are done and the result is extracted by Control Unit(CU).The control unit then
passed out the result as information via memory. The control unit acts like a traffic police who control the
movement of vehicles in the road. Instead of controlling the movement of vehicles it controls the data movement
to/from various unit.

CPU: Central Processing Unit

The control unit , arithmetic logic unit and some internal registers make CPU. If is defunctioned then the
computer will not work. Hence this part is vital part of computer and called brain /Heart of computer.

Parts of computer

Computer is made of different parts as like our human body is made of different organs. Broadly computer is
divided into two parts.

1. Hardware Parts : The physical parts of the computer are called hardware parts. The hardware parts are
tangible in nature i.e these parts can provide some kind of sense to us. You smell , feel cold/hot ,see
color etc . from these parts. You can compare the hardware parts to the different organs of our human
body. Some of the hardware parts of computer are keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, motherboard ,RAM
etc.
2. Software Parts : The intangible parts of computer are software parts. The software parts are nothing but
a set of instructions(program) by which computer able to perform its task. The software parts reside
inside the memory of computer hence intangible in nature. As like what you are thinking/what is in your
mind during the class hour the tutor could not notice that .

Computer Devices:
The electromechanical parts which are attached with the computer are called computer devices. The devices
of computer are use for inputting, outputting purpose. The devices of computer are classified into two
categories.
Input devices : The input devices are those devices which are use for data input purpose. Some of the input
devices are as follows.
1. Keyboard : The computer keyboard is looks like the keyboard of a type writing machine. The computer
key board has some additional keypads than the typewriting keyboard. The buttons that seen over the
keyboard of computer are called keypads. The keypads of computer are classified into following
categories.
a. Alphanumeric keypad : The alphanumeric keypads bear alphabetic characters from A to Z and
numbers from 0 to 9. These keypads are more frequently used while the user carry on data entry
operation. Because data is mostly made of alphabetic characters and numbers.
b. Function keypad : The function keypads are numbered from F1 to F12. The function keypads are used
to perform routine tasks. Each function keypad task is different from other function keypad. In addition
to that same function keypad act differently from one application to other.
c. Special keypad : The special keypads are neither behaves like alphanumeric keypad nor like function
keypads. These keypads are used to control the alphanumeric keypads. For example caps lock, shift
key, Tab key, Alt key etc.

Keyboards are available in different types like standard, enhanced and multimedia

The keyboard of computer is called standard input device because at least this device must be
with computer to work on.
2. Mouse: The mouse is an input device which is used to point any location over the screen of monitor.
hence it is also called pointing device. mouse generally used to point to any element in the
screen ,selecting of any menu item of an application, it may also used to draw any object.

When you move the mouse on a surface an arrow shape moves accordingly. This arrow shape is called
mouse pointer. Mouse has generally two buttons left and right button.

Mouse are available in track ball mouse ,optical mouse, Laser mouse.

Track ball Mouse : These mice are having a metallic ball at the bottom surface. When it is dragged over
a surface the ball rolled itself and touches the metallic foils. By which electric signal is generated and
passed to the CPU through the wire . by measuring the electricity signals the CPU came to know about
the direction in which the mouse has been moved and an arrow shape moves across the screen. This
arrow shape is called mouse pointer.

Optical Mouse – these mice use one or more light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and other light converting
technology to detect movement on the particular surface the LED is facing, meaning the mouse doesn’t
need bulky loose components, like a heavy trackball, to be able to move the pointer on screen.
Laser Mouse – these mice use laser beams to track movement and can be considered to be more
accurate and precise than optical or trackball mice. Where an optical mouse LED would shine a bright
red (or other colors), laser mouse have no shine and are usually invisible to the naked eye. The laser
beam can also reflect on practically any surface, meaning there’s no need for mouse pad
.
3. Joystick : An input device that looks similar to a control device you would find on an arcade game at
your local arcades. A joystick allows an individual to move an object in a game such as navigating a plane
in a flight simulator. The joystick also use for in pilot training.

4. Scanner : A scanner is a an input device that 'reads' or 'scans' an image/documents and converts it to a
digital format.Scanners can be small, hand held units or large, flat bed devices capable of scaning a
large image. scanner has to move across over the document/picture to be scanned . when it is scanned
a corresponding image is stored inside the memory of computer. The result is that when ever later time
the given copy of image/document is required it is available instantly because it is stored inside the
memory of computer. The Barcode reader is also one kind of scanner which is used to scan the
barcoded data available in items like tv,garments etc. The barcode nothing but representaion of data in
the form of Bars.Using this techneques the data entry is done in a faster way and in accurate manner.
 5. Bar Code Readers
A bar code is a specialized code represented by sets of parallel bars of varying thickness and separation. This is used for
fast identification of items with an optical scanner. The optical scanner is called a bar code reader. The bar code reader is a
photoelectric scanner that read the bar code.

Touch Screen
A touch screen is a monitor screen that allows users to interact with a computer system by touching an area of the display
screen. The screen is covered with a clear plastic layer that has a matrix of cells. A user touches a graphic button that
displays option on the screen. Touch screens are easy to use.

Light Pen
A light pen is a light-sensitive pen-like device used by pointing it at the display surface. A user brings the light pen to the
desired point on the screen and presses a button, causing it to identify the current location. It is used to select options
from a menu or to draw images.

Digitizer Tablet
A digitizer tablet is also called a graphics tablet or just a digitizer. The digitizer is a drawing tablet used to sketch new
images or trace old drawing or photograph. The user uses a pen-like device called a cursor to draw images. Designers and
architects usually use digitizers.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

Magnetic ink character recognition, or MICR, is a character recognition technology used primarily by the banking industry
to facilitate the processing and clearance of cheques and other documents. The MICR encoding, called the MICR line, is
located at the bottom of a cheque or other voucher and typically includes the document type indicator, bank code, bank
account number, cheque number and the amount, plus some control indicator. The technology allows MICR readers to
scan and read the information directly into a data collection device. Unlike barcodes or similar technologies, MICR
characters can be easily read by humans

MICR characters are printed on a document in either of the MICR fonts. The ink used in the printing is a magnetic ink or
toner, usually containing iron oxide. The MICR text is passed before a MICR reader. The ink in the plane of the paper is first
magnetized. Then the characters are passed over a MICR read head, a device similar to the playback head of a tape
recorder. As each character passes over the head it produces a unique waveform that can be easily identified by the
system.

Another form of magnetic data entry is the magnetic stripe technology that makes computers read credit cards. The dark
magnetic stripe on the back of credit cards is the iron oxide coating. A magnetic stripe reader reads this magnetic stripe.

Voice Input Devices

Voice input devices are also called speech- recognition devices or voice-recognition systems. This device uses a voice
recognition technology that converts a user's speech into a digital code. Spoken words are first digitized and then matched
against a dictionary of patterns previously stored in the computer.
Speaker-dependent systems should be trained by taking actual user's word sample before using, but speaker-independent
systems can recognize only limited vocabularies. The advantage of the voice input systems is that they enable
users to keep their hands free for other tasks.

Optical character recognition, usually abbreviated to OCR, is the mechanical or electronic conversion of
scanned images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text into machine-encoded text. It is widely used as a form
of data entry from some sort of original paper data source, whether documents, sales receipts, mail, or any
number of printed records. It is a common method of digitizing printed texts so that they can be electronically
searched, stored more compactly, displayed on-line, and used in machine processes such as machine translation,
text-to-speech and text mining. OCR is a field of research in pattern recognition, artificial intelligence and
computer vision.

Optical Mark Reader/Recognition : Optical mark recognition is the process of technology of automatically
extracting expected data from noticeable fields, Such as checkboxes and fill-in fields, on printed forms. Optical
mark reader is complete OMR solution, for educational institution. It is used in every normal scanner, to check
the answer sheet. The answer sheet used is any normal paper. OMR is a prevailing (existing) tool, which has
various features. OMR solves the problems faced by educational institution.

OMR is a device to read the pencil marks in forms only.

HB pencil and black pen use for filling the OMR forms.

. Output Devices
An output device is any peripheral device that converts machine-readable information into people-readable form
such as a monitor, printer, plotter and voice output device.

Monitors
Printers
Plotters
Voice Output Devices
Modems
Computer Display (Monitors)
A computer display is also called a display screen or video display terminal (VDT). A monitor is a screen used to display the
output. Images are represented on monitors by individual dots called pixels. A pixel is the smallest unit on the screen that
can be turned on and off or made different shades. The number of pixels present per unit area in the screen of monitor is
called resolution. Higher the resolution of monitor, it provides better quality of images/pictures.The screen resolution is
usually expressed as the number of columns by the number rows. A 1024x768 resolution means that it has 1024 dots in a
line and 768 lines. A smaller screen looks sharper on the same resolution. The output available in monitor is called
softcopy as the information are not permanent in nature. The informations are available as long as the computer switch
is on

Monitors are available in two forms according to the display techniques .

1. cathode-ray tubes (CRTs)

2. and flat-panel display.

Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)

A CRT is a vacuum tube used as a display screen for a computer output device. Although the CRT means only a tube, it
usually refers to all monitors. In this CRT a ray of electron beams is passed within a magnetic field and strike over the
fluroscent material. The nature of fluroscent material is that when electrons strike it ignites . in this way combination of
light and dark patches of light make us an illusion that a picture is being displayed in screen of monitor.

Flat Panel Displays

Portable computers such as a lap top use flat panel displays, because they are more compact and consume less power
than CRTs. Portable computers use several kinds of flat panel screens:

Liquid-Crystal Displays (LCDs)

A display technology that creates characters by means of reflected light and is commonly used in digital watches and
laptop computers. . LCD displays utilize two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between them. An
electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them. Each crystal,
therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to pass through or blocking the light. LCDs are difficult to read in a strong
light, because they do not emit their own light. Portable computers wanted to have brighter and easier to read displays.
Backlit LCDs are used for the purpose now.

Gas Plasma Displays

This is also called a gas panel or a plasma panel and is another flat screen technology. When certain gasses are heated up
to certain temperature they converted into a state called plasma. A plasma panel contains a grid of electrodes in a flat, gas
filled panel. The panels are comprised of networks of pixels, tiny pockets of compressed gas. Each pixel contains three-
subpixels made up of red, green, and blue phosphors. T he image can persist for a long time without refreshing in this
panel. The disadvantages of the gas plasma displays are that they must use AC power and cannot show sharp contrast.

According to the color imparted by the monitor they are of two types.

1.Monochrome Monitors

A monochrome monitor has two colors, one for foreground and the other for background. The colors can be white, amber
or green on a dark (black) background. The monochrome monitors display both text and graphics modes.

2.Color Monitors

A color monitor is a display peripheral that displays more than two colors. Color monitors have been developed through
the following paths.

o CGA: This stands for Color Graphics Adapter. It is a circuit board introduced by IBM and the first graphics standard
for the IBM PC. With a CGA monitor, it is harder to read than with a monochrome monitor, because the CGA (320
X 200) has much fewer pixels than the monochrome monitor (640 X 350). It supports 4 colors.
o EGA: It stands for Enhanced Graphics Adapter. EGA is a video display standard that has a resolution of 640 by 350
pixels and supports 16 colors. EGA supports previous display modes and requires a new monitor.
o VGA: VGA stands for Video Graphics Array. This is a video display standard that provides medium to high
resolution. In a text mode, the resolution of this board is 720 by 400 pixels. It supports 16 colors with a higher
resolution of 640 by 480 pixels and 256 colors with 320 X 200 pixels.
o Super VGA: This is a very high resolution standard that displays up to 65,536 colors. Super VGA can support a 16.8
million colors at 800 by 600 pixels and 256 colors at 1024 by 768 pixels. A high-priced super VGA allows 1280 by
1024 pixels. Larger monitors (17" or 21" and larger) with a high resolution of 1600 by 1280 pixels are available.
VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association) has set a standard for super VGA.
Printers
A printer is an output device that produces a hard copy of data. It is called hardcopy because the information printed in
printer is not depends upon the switch on of computer. Once the information is printed on paper it is available at any
time. The resolution of printer output is expressed as DPI( Dots per Inch). Printers can be classified into different types in
several ways. First, the printers can be divided into three categories by the way they print.

 Serial Printers: Also called a character printer. Print a single character at a time. They are usually inexpensive and
slow.
 Line Printers: Print a line at a time. They are expensive and very fast. Line printers use a band, a chain, etc.
 Page Printers: Also called a laser printer. Print a page at a time. They usually use a laser to produce page images.
Quality is best. This is a little bit expensive, but the price of the personal laser printer is decreasing. The price range
of the personal laser printer is around $400, today.

Second, printers can be classified into two forms according to the use of a hammer.

 Impact Printers: Hammer hits ribbons, papers or print head. Dot-matrix and daisy-wheel printers are the example.
Noisy.
 Nonimpact Printers: They do not have the hammer and do not hit. An example is an ink-jet and laser printer.

Impact printers

1. Dot-Matrix Printer
Dot-matrix printers are printers that write characters and form graphic images using one or two columns of tiny dots on a
print head. The dot hammer moving serially across the paper strikes an inked-ribbon and creates images on paper.
Dot matrix printers are popular printers used with microcomputers, because the printers are highly reliable and
inexpensive. They are used for tasks where a high-quality image is not essential. Many users, however, move from dot
printers to laser printers, because the price of laser printers is falling down. Several kinds of dot matrix printers are
available with print heads that have 7, 9, 18, or 24 pins.

2.Daisy-Wheel Printer

Daisy-Wheel is a printer mechanism that uses any kind of hub (wheel) having a set of spokes at the margin of the hub. The
wheel can be removed to use a different character set. The end of each spoke is a raised image of a type character. When
the wheel is turned and the required character is aligned to the print hammer, the character is then struck into a ribbon
and onto a paper with the hammer. Daisy-Wheel Printer prints typewriter-like very high quality characters. However, they
are slower and less reliable than dot-matrix printers. Microcomputer users seldom use this printer, because the better
dot-matrix printers and inexpensive laser printers are available today.

3.Chain Printer
A chain printer uses a printing mechanism that uses character typefaces linked together in a chain. The chain spins
horizontally around a set of hammers aligned with each position. When the required character is in front of the selected
print position, hammer in that position hits the paper into the ribbon against the character in the chain.
This printer is not commonly found around microcomputers, because it is a very expensive, high-speed machine designed
originally for mainframes and minicomputers. Chain printers are very reliable and can speed up to 3000 lines per minute.

Non Impact Printers

1.Ink-Jet Printer
Ink-jet is a printer mechanism that sprays one or more color of ink at high speed onto the paper and produces high-quality
printing. This printer also produces color printing as well as high-quality image. That is, ink-jet printers can be used for
variety of color printing at a relatively low cost. Ink-jet printing has two methods: Continuous stream method and drop-on-
demand method.

2.Laser Printer
A laser printer is a printer that uses the electrophotograpic method used in a copy machine. The printer uses a laser beam
light source to create images on a photographic drum. Then the images on the drum are treated with a magnetically
charged toner and then are transferred onto a paper. A heat source is usually applied to make the images adhere.
In 1984, Hewlett-Packard introduced the first desktop laser printer, called the LaserJet. The laser printer revolutionized
personal computer printing and has spawned desktop publishing.
The laser printer produces high-resolution letters and graphics quality images, so it is adopted in applications requiring
high-quality output. Although a high-priced color laser printer is also available in the market, a less expensive, desktop
gray scale laser printer is widely used. Recently, the laser printer is gaining its market share dramatically, mainly because
the lowered price and the quality.

Plotters
A plotter is a special-purpose output device that draws images with ink pens. That is, the plotter is a graphics printer for
making sophisticated graphs, charts, maps, and three-dimensional graphics as well as high-quality colored documents. It
can also produce larger size of documents.
Plotters require data in a vector graphics format that can produce images with a series of lines. There are two main types
of plotters:

 Drum Plotter: This is a plotter that has a drum. A paper wraps the drum that rotates to produce plots. Pens in a
drum plotter move across the paper while the drum is turning. A drum plotter is usually used to produce smaller
drawings.
 Flatbed Plotter: This is a plotter that has a bed. This is also called a table plotter. The plotter draws graphics on the
paper placed on the bed. There are several size of beds. This plotter is usually used for producing large drawings.

Voice-Output Devices
This device produces a human speech like sound, but actually is prerecorded vocalized sounds. Voice output is used in the
telephone information system, where the requested number is reported using a voice output system.
For example, when a student enrolls courses using a telephone registration system, he or she hears voice output upon
your request. Voice output is becoming common in voice messaging systems.

Modem
Another form of the output device is a modem. A modem is short for "MOdulator-DEModulator." Modulation is the
process of converting from digital to analog. Demodulation is the process of converting from analog to digital.
The modem enables digital microcomputers to send output through analog telephone lines. Both voice and data can be
carried over through the modem. The modem is not only an output device but also an input device that receives data and
voice through a communication channel.
Memory of computer:
As like human being computer has also memory. Data/Information , instructions are stored
inside the memory of computer. According to usage memory of computer is divided into
following types.

Primary memory : The type of memories which are most required for a computer to work are
called primary memory . The primary memories are of following types

1. RAM : RAM stands for Random Access Memory . We know that when data is entered, it is
passed to the memory of computer. This memory is nothing but RAM. RAM is also called
volatile memory because as long as computer is switch, on the data from this memory is
available . The moment you switch on the computer every thing from this memory is cleared
off. It is also called Read/Write memory because data can be read from and written to this
memory. Reading of data means accessing of data from memory and Writing of data means
storing of data in memory. It is called Random Access memory because data is accessed from
this memory irrespective of their location. Where ever a given piece of data is present ,it
accessed directly without accessing the previous located data. RAM is further divided into
following types.

a. Dynamic RAM(DRAM): A memory chip that stores information as electrical charges in

capacitors. Each bit of information is stored by a single capacitor, representing binary 1 with a
full charge, and 0 with no charge. Since the charges in the capacitors tends to fade quickly, the
value of each bit is dynamically read off at regular intervals, and the charge is refreshed if
necessary. If this is not done regularly, then the DRAM will lose its contents, even if it continues
to have power supplied to it. This refreshing action is why the memory is called dynamic.

b. Static RAM(SRAM): is a type of semiconductor memory that uses to store each bit. The term
static differentiates it from dynamic RAM (DRAM) which must be periodically refreshed.

2. ROM: ROM stands for Read only memory. This is called so because data only be
accessed(read) from this memory but can’t be stored. Unlike RAM it is permanent memory
because data from this memory is not erased when computer switch is off. The question is
why this memory ?. When you switch on the computer , it needs certain instructions and data
to activate the computer. This instructions and data are available from the ROM .The data and
instructions are stored in this memory at the time of manufacturing of computer. Different
types of ROMs are available which are given below.

a. PROM : Stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. This memory lets new
data/instructions to be added . Using certain kind of programs, called system programs this is
done at the computer manufacturing unit. It allows only Once data/instructions are to be
written off then it becomes read only.
 b. EPROM : Stands form Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory .some time it is needed
the previous data to be erased and new data/instructions are to be written in place of old
data/instructions. It can be done if ROM is of type EPROM. By using Ultra Violet rays the old
data/instructions are erased out and new data/instructions are written off only for once.
Hence this memories are called Erasable programmable Read only memory.

c. EEPROM : Stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It is works like
EPROM. But different technique is used to erased data from it. Instead of U.V. rays heavy
voltage of electric current is passed to erased data from it and then using system programs new
data and instructions are written to it. Hence the name is Electrically Erasable programmable
read only memory.

Secondary memory : This secondary memory also called Auxiliary memory of computer. The
secondary memory of computer enhanced the memory of computer and this type memories are
permanent memory. This is the memory where data once stored , it is available all the time
when needed. The secondary memories are different types which are given below.

1.Hard disk : A hard disk drive (HDD) is a data storage device used for storing and retrieving
digital information using rapidly rotating discs (platters) coated with magnetic material. An HDD
retains its data even when powered off. Data is read in a random-access
manner, meaning individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any
order rather than just sequentially. An HDD consists of one or more rigid
("hard") rapidly rotating discs (platters) with magnetic heads arranged on a
moving actuator arm to read and write data to the surfaces. Hard drives however, are not very
portable and are primarily used internally in a computer system.

The primary characteristics of an HDD are its capacity and performance. In computer data and
instructions are stored in binary form 1’s and 0’s. Each 1’s and 0’s are called Bit. So Bit is the
smallest unit of measurement for memory of computer.

Memory measurement units.:

Bit : each 1’s and 0’s in binary representation of data.

8 Bits : 1 Byte
1024 Bytes : 1 Kilo Bytes(KB)
1024 KB : 1 Mega Bytes(MB)
1024 MB : 1 Giga Bytes(GB)
1024 GB : 1 Tera Bytes(TB)
1024 TB : 1 Peta Byte(PB)
1024 PB : 1 Exa Byte(EB)
1024 EB : 1 Zetta Byte(ZB)
1024 ZB : 1 Yotta Byte(YB)
 2. Floppy disks
3.

Figure 4-2 Floppy disks

Floppies are very light in weight and small in size as compared to hard disks . These diskettes
are used externally to the system unit and hence very easy to use and are portable. They
consist of a flat magnetized disk that rotates within a hard plastic casing. Data is stored as
electromagnetic charges on a metal oxide film coating . Floppy disks also contain a write protect
notch that can prevent writing to the disks. There exist several types of floppy disks but the
most common one is the 3.5 inch floppy that can store data up to a capacity of 1.44 megabytes,
something like 400 typewritten pages. A floppy drive is required to access a floppy disk.

Figure 4-4 Tracks in floppy disks

Optical Disks
Optical disk is an electronic data storage medium from which data is read and written to by
using a low-powered laser beam. It is flat, circular, plastic or glass disk on which data is stored in
the form of light and dark pits. There are three basic types of optical disks: Read-only optical
disks, Write once read many Optical disks and Rewritable Optical disks. Two main types of
optical disks are:
CD- is an abbreviation of compact disk, and is a form of data storage that can transfer data up to
the speed of 7800 KB/s. A standard 120 mm CD holds up to 700 MB of data, or about 70
minutes of audio. There are two types of CD: CD-ROM and CD-RW, CD-ROM are stands for CD-
Read Only Memory and they function the same way Read Only Memory Does. CD-RW Stards for
CD-Rewritable, these disks can be erased and rewritten at any time.

DVD : is an abbreviation of Digital Versatile Disc, and is an optical disc storage media format that
can be used for data storage. The DVD supports disks with capacities of 4.7 GB to 17 GB and
access rates of 600 KBps to 1.3 MBps. A standard DVD disc store up to 4.7 GB of data. There are
two types of DVD's: DVD-ROM and DVD-RW. DVD-ROM are stands for DVD-Read Only Memory
and they function the same way Read Only Memory Does. DVD-RW Stands for DVD-Rewritable,
these disks can be erased and rewritten at any time.

MagneticTape
Magnetic Tape is a recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a coating of a fine magnetic
material, used for recording analogue or digital data. A device that stores
computer data on magnetic tape is a tape drive. The capacity of tape media
are generally on the same order as hard disk drives (The largest being about 5
Terabytes in 2011). Magnetic Tapes Generally transfer data a bit slower than
hard drives, however magnetic tapes are cheaper and are more durable

FlashDrive
A flash drive is a small external storage device, typically the size of a human thumb that consists
of flash memory. USB flash drives are removable and rewritable reads and
writes to flash memory. They are a solid-state storage medium that's both
inexpensive and durable. Currently, USB 2.0 flash drives on the market are able
to reach a data transfer speed of 480 Mbit/s and USB 3.0 has transmission
speeds of up to 5 Gbit/s. USB Flash drives vary in sizes from 8 Megabytes to 512
Gigabytes. More commonly used sizes vary from 2 Gigabytes -16 Gigabytes.

Flash Memory cards

 Flash memory is a EEPROM non-volatile computer storage chip. These Memory
cards currently vary in sizes between 1 Gigabytes -16 Gigabytes and they
transfer data at a rate of approximately 14.65 MB/s. Flash memory cards have
most of the same characteristics of a flash drive in that they are inexpensive and
durable, and are very small. However Flash memory cards are Flat and have a size of
about 1 inch * 0.75 inch with a thickness of about 2mm. Flash memory cards also have
a smaller version which is used within cell phones; These smaller cards are about 6mmX3mm in
size and are less than 1mm thick.

Types of computer :

computer classification done on various factors like data used by them, their size, generation
etc.
A. according to data :
Digital computer : The computer which works on binary digits are called digital computer.
These computers are used in educational institutes, offices, shops etc.
Analog computer : The computer which works on physical data are called analog
computer. These computers are used in pathos labs, medicals, process
control departments in industries.
Hybrid computer : These computers are combination of both digital and analog
computer .These computers are used in medicals, weather
forecasting departments etc.
B. According to size & speed :
Main frame : Main frame computers are comparatively larger in size. They have high
memory capacity and speed .Main frame computer supports networking. These are used
in banks , insurance companies,hospitals,railways that need on line processing of large
number of transactions .
Mini computer : The name suggest these are small computers but as compared to main
frame computer . they have also high memory capacity and speed but less than main
frame computers. they also supports net working and can be used in educational labs,
offices etc.
Personal computer: A PC is a non –portable ,general purpose computer which can easily
fit on a normal office table and generally designed to be used by one person at a time.
Hence it is called personal computer as well as desktop computers.
Notebook computer : Notebook computers are portable computers which are mainly
meant for use by people who need computing power wherever they go. As name implies
the notebook computers are about the size of notebooks.
Workstations : A workstation is a powerful desktop computer, which is designed to meet
the computing need of engineers, architects and other professionals who need greater
processing power, larger storage and better graphics display facility than PC provide.
 Laptop : It is also a kind of portable computer . It is very light weight and all input and out
put devices are integrated into a single unit so by which they can easily portable.
Super computer: Super computers are the most powerful and expensive computer. these
type of computers have multiple processor. So the processing speed is much faster than
any computer so ever.

C. According to Generation :
First Generation - 1940-1956:
( Vacuum Tubes)

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very
expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First
generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations,
and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper
tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The
UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census
Bureauin1951.

Second Generation - 1956-1963:

(Transistors)

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of

computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use
in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum
tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more
reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great
deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the
vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or
assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL
and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their
memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

Third Generation - 1964-1971:

(Integrated Circuits)
 An integrated circuit (IC) sometimes called a chip or microchip, is a
semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny resistors,
capacitors, and transistors are fabricated. An IC can function as an computer
memory, or microprocessor.

Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called

semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of
computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the
memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were
smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present:

(Microprocessors)

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated

circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls on a single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in
1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use
microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked
together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond:

(Artificial Intelligence)
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The
use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language
input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

command : The instruction for the computer for performing certain task.

Program : set of interrelated instructions to carry out certain task

Program file : The file which contains the computer program

Software :set of program file created for universal purpose i.e any organization, person
 Can use it.

Ex-Tally, Ms-word etc

Project :set of program file created for specific organization/person.

Computer software :

Software parts of computer further classified into following types.

Application software: The software used to solve/fulfill the user requirement is called
application software.

Example : accounting software(Tally),Word processing software(MS-Word) etc.

System software : System software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the
operation and extend the processing ability of a computer system. In general a computer’s
system software performs following function.

- Supports the development of other application software.

- Supports the execution of other application software.
- Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources such as CPU, memory, peripherals
etc.
- Communicates with and controls the operation of peripheral devices such as printer, disks,
tape etc.

Hence system software makes the operation of a computer system more effective and
efficient. It helps hardware components work together.

Examples : Operating systems ,compilers, interpreters etc.

Computer language:

As like human being computer also need certain languages to interact with it . There are
different category of languages which are used to interact with the computer which are as
follows.

Machine level languages: This is the language which is directly understandable by the
computer. The programs in machine language are written by using binary instructions and data
i.e a stream of 1’s and 0’s . For example to add two numbers in memory and print their result
might look like the following.

0011001100011111000000

Advantage :
1 . Binary instructions in machine language is directly understandable by computer .Hence
execution is time is faster.

2. No translators are required .

Disadvantage :

1 . programs written in one type of computer might not be run in other type of computer

2 . Very difficult to understand, remember the binary instructions.

3 . Very difficult to modify the program

4. Only machine experts can write machine level programs

Low Level Language:

The low level language helped overcoming of those difficulties in machine level language.

In Assembly language which is the low level language, used mnemonic code words instead of
binary instructions. These code words are in human understandable form. For example ADD
command is used instead of 1110 for the instruction to add. The translator used in assembly
language to translate into machine level instruction is called assembler.

Advantage :

1 . Due to use of mnemonic word it is some what easier than machine level language.

2. Easier to modify instructions than machine level language.

3. supports instructions to access machinery parts like CPU registers, memory location etc.

Disadvantage:

1 . Still it is machine dependent .

2. Knowledge of hardware required.

High level language :

The high level language instructions are completely human understandable form. The computer
not able to understand directly the instructions in high level language. Translators are required
in high level language to translate the high level language instructions. The translators are of
two types.

Compiler : The compiler translates all the high level language instructions to its respective
machine level instructions and then passed to computer. So execution time is faster.
 Interpreter: The interpreter translates one instruction per time into its respective machine
level instruction. So execution is gets slower.

Some of the high level languages are Basic, Pascal, Cobol, Fortran, C etc

Advantage :

1 . very easy to understand and learn

2 . supports structured programming

3 . Machine independent

Disadvantage :

1 . Take more time to execute and require more space.

2 . lacking instructions for controlling computer’s CPU, memory and registers.

3 . Detail instructions like what to performed and how to be performed to be given.

Fourth generations language

The fourth generation languages are more easier than high level languages. Using The fourth
generation language what the user want to be mentioned rather than how the task to be done
It is the fourth generation language environment’s responsibility to take care about how the
task will perfomed.

Some of the fourth generation languages are SQL,QBE.

Fifth generation language

The fifth generation languages are used to create web based applications. One of the fifth
generation language is Microsoft’s .NET framework.

Number system

The human being uses specific method to represent a quantity, performing of some
calculations on this quantities . This method is called number system. Each number system has a
base and number of digits that it supports. Followings are the different number systems

Decimal : It is used by the human beings. It has the base 10 and supports digits from 0 to 9.

Ex- (34) 10 , (89)10

Octal: The octal number system has base 8 and supports digits from 0 to 7

Ex- (34) 8 , (89)8

Hexadecimal : The hexadecimal number system has base 16 and supports digits from 0 to 9 and
letters from A through F .

Ex- (3AF) 16 , (2CD)16

Binary :

In Binary number system base is 2 and supports digits from 0 to 1.

Ex- (101001)2 , (001110011)2
Binary to decimal conversion :
In general any number having ‘n’ bits in binary representation can be converted into decimal
Equivalent by the formula as follows :
(x1 X 2n-1)+(x2 X 2n-2)+……+(xn-1 X 21)+(xn X 20)
Ex-(1101)2=1 X 23+1 X 22+0 X 21+1 X 20 = 8 + 4 +0 +1 =(13)10

Decimal to Binary conversion

For this we have to successfully divide the decimal number by 2,until it is reduced to 0(zero).
Ex-convert (15)10 to binary equivalent
15%2=7 remainder =1
7%2=3 remainder =1
3%2=1 remainder =1
Ans=(1111)2