Basic Computer Hardware

SUNNY THAKARE

April 2025

Contents
1 Introduction-1 a

2 Chapter-1 b
2.1 What is computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b
2.2 WHAT PARTS ARE NEEDED FOR A COMPUTER TO WORK? . . . . . . . . . . . . c
2.3 TYPES OF COMPUTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c

3 HARDWARE d
3.0.1 Processor (CPU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d
3.0.2 Processor (CPU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d
3.0.3 Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d
3.0.4 Memory (RAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d
3.0.5 Storage device) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d
3.0.6 Power supply unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d

4 SOFTWARE d

5 DEFINITION - WHAT DOES OPERATING SYSTEM (OS) MEAN? e

6 THREE EASILY DEFINED OPERATING SYSTEM COMPONENTS e

6.1 Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e
6.1.1 User Interface (UI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f

7 THE USE OF COMPUTING IN OUR DAILY LIFE f

7.1 Banks and financial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f
7.2 Smartphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f
7.3 Defense and military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f
7.4 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g
7.5 Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g
7.6 Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g
7.6.1 Medical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g
7.7 Multimedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h
7.8 Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h

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8 Introduction to Computer Hardware i
8.1 Characteristics of a Computer High Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
8.1.1 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
8.1.2 Storage Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
8.1.3 Diligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
8.1.4 Versatility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
8.1.5 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
8.1.6 Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j
8.1.7 Reduction in Paper Work and Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j

9 FUNCTIONALITIES OF A COMPUTER j

10 Applications of Computers j
10.1 Computer is used in business organizations for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j
10.1.1 Insurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . k
10.1.2 Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . k
10.1.3 Healthcare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . k
10.1.4 Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l

11 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS m

12 Chapter-3 p

13 Chapter-4 q

14 Introduction r
14.1 Objetives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r
14.1.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r
14.2 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r

15 Methods r

16 Introduction r

1 Introduction-1
[1-4]

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2 Chapter-1
The world of business has changed dramatically since the introduction of the first modern multipurpose
computer over 50 years ago. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), designed
by Drs. Mauchly and Eckert, two American engineers, was set up at the University of Pennsylvania in
1946. This 30-ton machine occupied a thirty-by-thirty room, contained 18,000 vacuum tubes linked by
500 miles of wiring, and could perform 100,000 operations per second. It consumed so much electricity
that it dimmed the lights in the section of Philadelphia where it was housed. Thanks to the development
of the integrated chip, the computer has evolved into a far smaller, more powerful, and less expensive
machine. Today’s microcomputer is 3,000 times lighter than the ENIAC, performs 4000 times faster,
and costs several million dollars less. Other innovations have made the computer easy enough for a
child to use and versatile enough for applications ranging from astrophysics to arcade-style games. As
a consequence of their decreasing size and cost, computers can be found today in virtually every corner
of American society, from research facilities and corporate headquarters, to schools and homes. You
need only look around a business office to see evidence of the computer revolution. In a large office you
might find a variety of computers, ranging in size from a mainframe computer housed in a room of its
own, to a palm-sized “personal assistant” tucked into an executive’s briefcase. A growing number of
professions rely on computers, and accounting is one of them. This introduction will provide you with
the fundamentals of computer hardware and software to help you prepare for the material presented in
the text.

2.1 What is computer

When we think of a computer, we generally picture computer hardware: the monitor, the keyboard,
and the electronic circuitry contained within the rectangular case. There is more to a computer than
this, however. The missing element is software–the instructions that tell the computer how to operate
the hardware. All computers must have these two components to function. However, it is software
that gives the computer one of its most distinguishing characteristics—the ability to program a single
machine to perform many different functions. In general terms, a computer is a machine operating
under the control of instructions stored in its own memory. These operations and instructions enable the
computer to receive data from a user (input), transform and manipulate the data according to specified
rules (process), produce results (output). Additionally, data, instructions, and information are stored
(storage) for future retrieval and use. Many computers are also capable of another task: communicating
directly with other machines.
A computer is a programmable device that stores, retrieves, and processes data. The term ”com-
puter” was originally given to humans (human computers) who performed numerical calculations using
mechanical calculators, such as the abacus and slide rule. The term was later given to a mechanical
device as they began replacing the human computers. Today’s computers are electronic devices that
accept data (input), process that data, produce output, and store (storage) the results.
Below is a picture of a computer with each of the main components. In the picture below, you can
see the desktop computer, flat-panel display, speakers, keyboard, and mouse. We’ve also labeled each of
the input devices and output devices.

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2.2 WHAT PARTS ARE NEEDED FOR A COMPUTER TO WORK?
A computer does not require all the components mentioned above. However, a computer cannot function
without having at the very minimum the parts listed below.
Processor - Component that executes instructions from the software and hardware. Memory - Tem-
porary primary storage for data traveling between the storage and CPU. Motherboard (with onboard
video) - Component that connects all components. Storage device (e.g., hard drive) - Slower secondary
storage that permanently stores data. However, if you had a computer with only the minimum parts
above, you would be unable to communicate with it until you connected at least one input device (e.g.,
keyboard). Also, for you to see what is happening, you would need at least one output device (e.g.,
monitor).

2.3 TYPES OF COMPUTERS

When talking about a computer or a ”PC,” you are usually referring to a desktop computer found in
a home or office. Today, however, the lines of what makes a computer are blurring. Below are all the
different examples of what is considered a computer today.

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3 HARDWARE
Physical structure that houses a computer’s processor, memory, storage, communication ports and pe-
ripheral devices. Each of these components (called devices) have a different
purpose, which may be either accepting inputs, storing data or sending outputs.
For example, a mouse and a microphone are input devices used to record user activities and transform
them into data that is transmitted to the system unit. A hard disk is a storage unit where data is stored
and accessed by other devices.

3.0.1 Processor (CPU)

A monitor or a speaker are output devices that transform processed data into (respectively) video and
audio signals. Usually, the core components that represent the bare minimum that allow a computer to
function are:

3.0.2 Processor (CPU)

The component that processes and executes inputs received from hardware and software.

3.0.3 Motherboard

A mainboard that provides basic connection between all the other hardware components and devices
(internal and external).

3.0.4 Memory (RAM)

A temporary data storage space that stores the information the CPU is actively using.

3.0.5 Storage device)

A storage device where data is stored on a permanent basis. It’s slower but less volatile than the RAM.

3.0.6 Power supply unit

That’s pretty self-explanatory: without power, no electronic device can work!

4 SOFTWARE
All parts of a computer that are not strictly physical, such as data, programs, applications, protocols,
etc., are broadly defined as “software.” Although software has no material form, it is no less critical

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to receive information, encode, store and process it. Computer software includes all executable and
non-executable data, such as documents, digital media, libraries, and online information. A computer’s
operating system (OS) and all its applications are software as well.
A computer works with software programs that are sent to its underlying hardware architecture for
reading, interpretation and execution.
Computers are classified according to computing power, capacity, size, mobility and other factors, as
personal computers (PC), desktop computers, laptop computers, minicomputers, handheld computers
and devices, mainframes or supercomputers.

5 DEFINITION - WHAT DOES OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)

MEAN?
An operating system (OS), in its most general sense, is software that allows a user to run other applica-
tions on a computing device.
The operating system manages a computer’s software hardware resources, including: Input devices
such as a keyboard and mouse. Output devices such as display monitors, printers and scanners. Network
devices such as modems, routers and network connections. Storage devices such as internal and external
drives. The OS also provides services to facilitate the efficient execution and management of, and memory
allocations for, any additional installed software application programs.
If several programs are running at the same time (such as an Internet browser, firewall, and antivirus),
the OS will allocate the computer’s resources (memory, CPU, and storage) to make sure that each one
of them receives what is needed to function. While it is possible for a software application to interface
directly with hardware, the vast majority of applications are written for an OS, which allows them to
take advantage of common libraries and not worry about specific hardware details.
In this regard, the OS acts as a comprehensive framework with which all applications can interact in
a consistent way, vastly simplifying the whole development process.
Examples for OSs include: Android iOS Mac OS X Microsoft Windows
And Linux Some operating systems were developed in the 1950s, when computers could only execute
one program at a time. Later in the decade, computers included many software programs, sometimes
called libraries, which were linked together to create the beginning of today’s operating systems.
The OS consists of many components and features. Which features are defined as part of the OS
vary with each OS.

6 THREE EASILY DEFINED OPERATING SYSTEM COM-

PONENTS
6.1 Kernel
This provides basic-level control over all of the computer hardware devices. Main roles include reading
data from memory and writing data to memory, processing execution orders, determining how data is
received and sent by devices, such as the monitor, keyboard and mouse; and determining how to interpret
data received from networks.
Monolithic kernels have a simpler design and consist of a single code that communicates with all
hardware and software.
Microkernels implement user and kernel services in different address spaces, reducing their size, but
forcing the use of message passing to execute services.

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6.1.1 User Interface (UI)

This component allows interaction with the user, which may occur through graphical icons and a desktop
or through a command line. The UI is further divided into Command Line Interface (CLI), consisting
of a text-based interface where advanced users can prompt specific commands by typing them, and a
Graphical User Interface (GUI).
The latter is a visual interface that allows the end user to issue commands by interacting with symbols,
icons, and menus using an input device such as a mouse or touchpad.

7 THE USE OF COMPUTING IN OUR DAILY LIFE

7.1 Banks and financial
Computers play a significant role in handling all of the world’s money. Below are examples of how
computers are used in the financial market and places dealing with money.
ATM - When you make a withdraw from an ATM, you are using a computer. Digital currency -
When depositing money in a bank, it is stored as a digital record. A computer keeps track of how much
money is in your account. Trading - Stocks and commodities are traded using computers. In fact, today
there are even thousands of computers using advanced algorithms that handle trading without needing
humans. Business Business is another big sector for computers and most money earned and spent is
done using a computer. Below are some of the examples of how computers are used in business. Register
- If the business deals with selling goods to a consumer (e.g., a grocery store), a cash register, which is a
computer, is used to complete transactions. Workers computer - Many businesses assign each employee a
computer that allows them to produce work and solve problems for the company. Server - If the business
uses computers, connects to the Internet, or handles e-mail and files, a server is used to help manage
everything. Communication Today’s communication around the world is almost all digital and handled
by computers. Below are examples of how computers are used in the communication industry.

7.2 Smartphone
If you have a smartphone, you have a computer in your pocket. E-mail - More electronic mail (e-mail)
is sent today than postal mail (snail mail), and computers handle all creation and distribution of that
e-mail. VoIP - All voice over IP communication (VoIP) is handled and done by computers. Computer-
assisted speech - Those who are disabled or cannot speak can use a computer to help them communicate.
For example, Stephen Hawking uses a computer to communicated. Voice recognition - Voice recognition
uses a computer to translate recorded audio into text or other data.

7.3 Defense and military

Many technologies (e.g., GPS and the Internet) were initially created or started with a defense- related
purpose. Today, computers are still an important aspect of the defense industry.
Encryption - Secure communication is vital in the defense industry and computers encrypt communi-
cations that should remain secret. GPS - Using computers with GPS allows the military to track people
and equipment and is still used today. Computer-aided flight - Many of today’s jets and other aircraft
require computers to fly and operate. Drones - A drone is either autonomous or remotely driven and
uses computers to operate.

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7.4 Education
As computers evolve, so does how computers are used in the education field. Below is a list of how a
computer can be used in education.
Internet - Connecting a student to the Internet gives him or her access to an endless supply of
knowledge. As mentioned later, the Internet would not be possible without computers. Learning -
Computers can also be used to help design and create a more visual learning experience for students.
Using electronic whiteboards with computers can also benefit a student by giving them a more hands-
on experience. Writing - Although reports can still be done using pen, pencil, or even a typewriter, a
computer makes it easier to write, format, save, share, and print reports. Keep records - Computers
track students scores, identify struggling students, and create a final report. Testing - Computers can
assist students and teachers with the testing process by stepping the student through a series of questions
and keep track of the results.

7.5 Internet
Without computers, the Internet would not exist. Below are a few examples of how computers help run
the Internet.
DNS - When you type in a URL like https://www.computerhope.com/, a DNS translates it into an IP
address, which directs the computer to the server. Web server - Every web page requires a web server or
computer capable of receiving and sending requests when someone wants to view a web page. Programs
- A computer is also needed to run scripts and programs. For example, a search engine, shopping cart,
or forum are all examples of programs that need a computer.

7.6 Services
Other services like e-mail, FTP, and SSH also require a computer or are daemons on the web server.

7.6.1 Medical

The medical field is another place where computers are vital and used every day. Below are examples of
how computers help those in the medical field.
Medical records - More and more medical records are being digitally stored. Storing these files
digitally allow for quick access and transfer of medical information so doctors can know your history.
Monitoring - Computers help with monitoring a patient and can alert staff in the case of an emergency.
Research - A lot of the medical research is computer assisted. Without the assistance of a computer,
it would either not be possible or take too long to be viable. Diagnosis - Computers can assist in the
diagnosis of a patient, from gathering a patient’s history and conditions to comparing that information
against a database of existing information. Surgery - Although most surgery is still done with humans, it
is becoming more practical and accessible for computer robot-assisted surgery. After being programmed,
these robots can make surgery more accurate, faster, and less prone to human errors. Transportation
Computers also play an important part in transportation. Below are a few examples of how computers
help the transportation field.
Cars - Most may not realize it, but all modern cars today have multiple computers that help control
and manage the vehicle. Traffic lights - The traffic lights that help control traffic are all run by computers.
GPS - Cars that include a GPS mapping system have computers for display and calculating routes.
Airplanes - The airplanes that help transport millions of people and goods every year are filled with
computers that help control the plane. Public transportation - Train, bus, subway, and all forms of
public transportation are highly dependent on computers to manage traffic flow, monitor operation, and

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handle payments. Self-driving cars - Although relatively new, self-driving cars are becoming increasingly
popular and rely on a computer to make all decisions on how to drive.

7.7 Multimedia
Computers also play a significant role in video and audio. Below are examples of how computers are
used in the film and audio industry.
Editing - Once a movie, video, song, or audio track is created a computer can edit that media instead
of having to manually make cuts to the film or audio track. CGI - Computer animation and CGI has
become a norm in big budget films. To create these effects computers and sometimes server farms are
used. Manipulation - Computers can manipulate pictures, video, and audio. For example, someone could
use Adobe Photoshop to add or remove elements from an image. Recording and playback - Computers
can also be used to assist in the recording of audio tracks and then selectively playback each audio
track. Creation - Computers can also be used to help in creating new multimedia content. For example,
creating 3D animation, 3D model, or a techno audio track can be done on a computer. After creating
a 3D model, a 3D printer could also be used to build a product. TV, DVD, media players - Today’s
Smart TVs, DVD players, DVRs, etc., contain simple computing circuitry to connect the device to the
Internet, run apps, and more.

7.8 Robot
The industry of robotics is exploding and computers once again play an important role in controlling
robots. Below are examples of how computers help control robotic machinery.
Control - Computers are what help control robotics. For example, without a computer, a robotic
arm would not know where to place a part. Learning - Computers can take the input given by a robot
and take that information to help learn and adapt to new conditions. Simulations Some problems are
so complex that it would be impossible for humans to calculate or would take too long to calculate.
Computers help solve these complex problems in a timely fashion.
Weather prediction - Earth has an extremely complex weather system, and computers gather all of the
variables and create weather reports. Product simulations - Before some products go into development,
computers simulate how they would work in the real world. By creating a simulation, a company or
government agency can make adjustments before the product goes into development. Big data simulation
- With cheap data storage companies can now store a massive amount of data. With this big data, a
computer can find unknown patterns.

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8 Introduction to Computer Hardware
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory
that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, produce information (output),
and store the information for future use.

8.1 Characteristics of a Computer High Speed

• Computer is a very fast device.
• It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
• The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
• It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend many
months to perform the same task.

8.1.1 Accuracy

• In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

• The calculations are 100• Computers perform all jobs with 100

8.1.2 Storage Capability

• Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

• A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
• It can store large amount of data.
• It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

8.1.3 Diligence

• Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration.
• It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
• It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

8.1.4 Versatility

• A computer is a very versatile machine.

• A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
• This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
• At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be
playing a card game.

8.1.5 Reliability

• A computer is a reliable machine.

• Modern electronic components have long lives.
• Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

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8.1.6 Automation

• Computer is an automatic machine.

• Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives a program
i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and instruction can control the
program execution without human interaction.

8.1.7 Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

• The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and
results in speeding up the process.
• As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large
number of paper files gets reduced.
• Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the cost of each
of its transaction.

9 FUNCTIONALITIES OF A COMPUTER
1.Takes data as input.
2.Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
3.Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
4.Generates the output.
5.Controls all the above four steps

10 Applications of Computers
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which has made
it an integrated part in all business organizations.

10.1 Computer is used in business organizations for

• Payroll calculations
• Budgeting
• Sales analysis
• Financial forecasting
• Managing employee database
• Maintenance of stocks, etc. Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities:-
• Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and overdrafts,

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checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records. • ATM machines which are completely automated
are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

10.1.1 Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance companies,
finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
• Procedure to continue with policies
• Starting date of the policies
• Next due installment of a policy
• Maturity date
• Interests due
• Survival benefits
• Bonus Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system. • The com-
puter provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based Education).
• CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
• Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
• There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to educate the
students.
• It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis.

10.1.2 Marketing

In marketing, uses of the computer are following:-

• Advertising With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy,
and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.

• Home Shopping Home shopping has been made possible through the use of computerized catalogues
that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

10.1.3 Healthcare

Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being used
in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing
different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used. • Diagnostic
System Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.
• Lab-diagnostic System All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.
• Patient Monitoring System These are used to check the patient’s signs for abnormality such as in
Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
• Pharma Information System Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful side effects,
etc.
• Surgery Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery. EngineeringDesign Computers are

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widely used for Engineering purpose.

One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and modification of
images. Some of the fields are
• Structural Engineering Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings, budgets,
airplanes, etc.
• Industrial Engineering Computers deal with design, implementation, and improvement of integrated
systems of people, materials, and equipment.
• Architectural Engineering Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range
of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

10.1.4 Military

Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also employs
computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are
• Missile Control
• Military Communication
• Military Operation and Planning
• Smart Weapons Communication

Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category
are • E-mail
• Chatting
• Usenet
• FTP
• Telnet
• Video-conferencing Government

Computers play an important role in government services.

Some major fields in this category are
• Budgets
• Sales tax department

• Income tax department

• Computation of male/female ratio

• Computerization of voters lists

• Computerization of PAN card
• Weather forecasting

•Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used. Ini-
tially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. Nowadays,
generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer system.
•There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail
along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate dates against each

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generation have been mentioned, which are normally accepted.

11 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

Sr.No. Generation Description

1 First Generation The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
2 Second Generation The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
3 Third Generation The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
4 Fourth Generation The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
5 Fifth Generation The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

First Generation Computers: The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The comput-
ers of first generation used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU
(Central Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations
used to fuse frequently. Therefore, they were very expensive and only large organizations were able to
afford it. In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards, paper
tape, and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The computers in this generation used
machine code as the programming language. The main features of the first generation are: Vacuum tube
technology, Unreliable, Supported machine language only, Very costly, Generated a lot of heat, Slow
input and output devices, Huge size, Need of AC, 15 Non-portable, Consumed a lot of electricity.

Second Generation Computers: The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this
generation, transistors were used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more
reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, mag-
netic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices. In this generation, assembly language and high- level programming languages like FORTRAN,
COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system.
The main features of second generation are: Use of transistors, Reliable in comparison to first generation
computers, Smaller size as compared to first generation computers, Generated less heat as compared to
first generation computers, Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers, Faster
than first generation computers, Still very costly, AC required, Supported machine and assembly lan-
guages.

Third Generation Computers: The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The com-
puters of third generation used Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many
transistors, resistors, and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The IC was invented by Jack
Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable, and efficient. In this generation re-
mote processing, time-sharing, multi-programming operating system were used. High-level languages
(FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this gen-
eration. The main features of third generation are: IC used, More reliable in comparison to previous
two generations, Smaller size, Generated less heat, Faster, Lesser maintenance, Costly, AC required,
Consumed lesser electricity, Supported high-level language.

Fourth Generation Computers: The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers

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of fourth generation used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000
transistors and 18 other circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible
to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful, com-
pact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this
generation, time sharing, real time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level
languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation. The main features of fourth genera-
tion are: VLSI technology used, Very cheap, portable and reliable, Use of PCs, Very small size, Pipeline
processing, No AC required, Concept of internet was introduced, and Great developments in the fields
of networks, Computers became easily available.

Fifth Generation Computers: The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth gen-
eration, VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the
production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based
on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in
computer science, which interprets the means and method of making computers think like human beings.
All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation. AI includes:
Robotics, Neural Networks, Game Playing and Development of expert systems to make decisions in
real-life situations, Natural language understanding and generation.

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates
a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form
understandable by the computer.

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
• Optical Character Reader(OCR)

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• Bar Code Reader
• Optical Mark Reader(OMR) Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are
also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows

Sr.No. Keys
1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z
2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it con
3 Function Keys The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged
4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow ke
5 Special Purpose Keys Keyboard also contains some special purpos

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14 Introduction
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14.1 Objetives
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14.1.1 Summary

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14.2 Overview
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15 Methods
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16 Introduction
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