UNIT – II ANGLE MODULATION

Phase and frequency modulation, Narrow Band and Wide band FM – Modulation index, Spectra, Power relations
and Transmission Bandwidth - FM modulation –Direct and Indirect methods, FM Demodulation – FM to AM
conversion, FM Discriminator - PLL as FM Demodulator.

Limitations of AM
 More affected by noise due to amplitude variations produced by lightning, spark plug
ignition system.
 Wastage of transmitted power.
 Less efficiency.
To overcome the limitations in AM, Frequency modulation is used.
By increasing the Band width, the noise is reduced in FM.

2.1 Angle Modulation

Definition
It is the process by which the total phase angle of the carrier is changed according to
the modulating signal keeping amplitude constant
di
i 
dt
The angle modulated wave is mathematically expressed as s(t) = Ac [Cos (ct +  )]
= Ac [Cos ( (t)]

Classification of Angle modulation

Angle
Modulation

Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation

Frequency Modulation -FM

It is the process by which the frequency of the carrier is changed according to the modulating signal
[Amplitude of carrier remains constant]

Phase Modulation -PM

It is the process by which the phase of the carrier is varied according to the modulating signal
[Amplitude of carrier remains constant]

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2.2 Phase modulation
It is the process by which the phase of the carrier is varied according to the modulating signal
[Amplitude of carrier remains constant
(t)= 2π fc t + K p m (t)
2π fc t - angle of the un modulated carrier
K p - phase sensitivity constant represented in radians/ volt
PM signal S (t) = Ac Cos (t)
=Ac Cos [2π fc t + K p m(t)]

Phase deviation
The phase angle of the carrier varies from its un modulated signal during the modulation process.
∆ω= K p V m or K p Am

Modulation index of PM
Ratio of maximum phase deviation to the phase of the modulating signal.

2.3 Frequency modulation

It is the process by which the frequency of the carrier is changed according to the modulating signal
[Amplitude of carrier remains constant]
f(t)= fc + K f m(t)
fc- frequency of un modulated carrier
K f- frequency sensitivity in Hertz/ volt
S(t)= 2π fc t +2π K f m(t) dt

1. Derive the expression for FM signal. Nov 2018 May2013/May2016

How the phase and frequency modulation are related? Explain. May2010
When frequency of the carrier varies, phase of the carrier also varies and vice versa
Un modulated carrier is Ac Cos(c t + ) =Ac Cos ϕ.
where ϕ is the total phase angle of the carrier
c- carrier frequency
d
Instantaneous frequency i  i (1)
dt
d
2πfi = i  i
dt
d
 fi = 1/2π i
dt
from (1) i =∫ I dt (2)
Instantaneous value of phase angle is given by
i =c t + KP m(t) (3)

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Where
c – un modulated carrier
KP - phase deviation constant (or) phase sensitivity expressed in radians / volt
m(t) –message or modulating signal.

The phase deviation ∆p=Kp Am

The phase modulated signal is given by
S(t) = Ac Cos  (4)
Sub (3) in (4)

S (t) = Ac Cos [c t + KP m(t)]

Instantaneous frequency is given by

i = c + Kf m(t) (5)
where
c-un modulated carrier frequency
kf – frequency deviation constant or frequency sensitivity expressed in Hz/Volt
Integrating equation (5) to obtain phase of the FM wave
 I dt =  c t + K f m(t)
 I dt = i = c t + K f m(t) i = I dt

Frequency modulated signal is

S(t) = Ac Cosi

S(t) = Ac Cos[c t + K f m(t)]

Where m(t) = Am Cosm t

 S(t) = Ac Cos [c t + K f Am sinm t /m]

K f Am =   frequency deviation

  S(t) = Ac Cos [c t + /m sinm t ]

S(t) = Ac Cos[c t + f/f m sinm t]

f / f m = mf (or)  (or)   Modulation index

Note: In PM , phase angle varies linearly with m(t).

In FM, phase angle varies linearly with integral of m(t)

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Modulation Index for FM:
It is defined as the ratio of frequency deviation to the modulating frequency
mf (or)  =f /fm
f -frequency deviation
fm -Modulating signal frequency
The frequency modulated signal is

S(t) = A c Cos(c t + sin m t)

Frequency deviation:
The deviation of frequency from original carrier frequency is called frequency deviation.
FM and PM waveforms

 For FM signal, the max frequency deviation takes place when modulating signal is at positive and
negative peaks.
 For PM signal, the max frequency deviation takes place near zero crossings of the modulating
signal.
 Both FM and PM waveforms are identical except for the phase shift.
 From modulated waveform, it is difficult to find whether modulation is FM or PM
% Modulation = Actual frequency deviation
max. allowable frequency deviation
Deviation Ratio:
DR = max. frequency deviation (hertz )
max. modulating signal frequency (hertz)
f(max)
fm(max)
Note: DR is basically the modulation index corresponding to maximum modulating frequency.
******************

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2.2.1 Comparison of FM and PM

Sl.No Characteristics FM PM
1. Definition Frequency of carrier is changed Phase of carrier is changed with
with m(t) m(t).
2. Bandwidth BW=2(f + fm) BW  2f

3. Noise More affected by noise when Less affected by noise when

compared to PM compared to FM
4. Applications It is used in radio broadcasting Used for data & voice transmission

2. How can you generate an FM from PM and PM from FM? April 2018

2.2.2 Generation of FM from PM (or) Conversion from PM to FM.

 PM and FM are closely related in the sense that the net effect of both is variation in total
phase angle.
 In FM, phase angle varies linearly with the integral of m(t).
By integrating the modulating signal m(t) and then applied to phase modulator, FM is generated
from PM

m(t) m(t)
FM Integrator PM
modulator modulatorr

Let m(t) = Am cos mt

After Integration

() ∫ ω ω
ω
After phase modulation ()
()

() ω
ω
The instantaneous value of modulated voltage is given by
() (ω )

() (ω ω )
ω
() (ω ω )

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 [ ]

() [ω ω ]
This is the expression for FM wave.
Generation of PM from FM (or) Conversion from FM to PM

m(t) m(t)
PM Differentiator FM
modulator modulator

m(t) is first differentiated and then applied to frequency modulator to generate PM from FM.

() ω

() ω ω

After frequency modulation

()
ω ω
ω [ ω ω ]
ω ω ω ω ]
We know that the instantaneous phase angle of frequency modulated signal is
∫ω ∫(ω ω ω )
ω
ω ω
ω
ω ω
The instantaneous voltage after modulation is given by ( )
() (ω ω )
This is the expression for phase modulated wave. The process of integration and differentiation are
linear. Therefore no new frequencies are generated.

*********************

2.3 Types of Frequency Modulation:

BW of FM depends on Modulation index (). If is high, BW is large

Narrow band FM   << 1 is small compared to one radian.
FM
Wide band FM   >>1 is large compared to one radian

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Narrowband FM

 When  is small, then BW is narrow.

 NB FM is also called as low-index FM.
 BW of a narrow band FM is same as that of AM, which is twice the baseband signal frequency.
BW = 2fm.

Wideband FM

 When  >>1 (e.g 10) then the FM signal has wide BW.
 BW of wideband FM is too large; ideally infinite.

3. Draw the block diagram of generation of narrow band FM and derive an expression for single-
tone narrow band FM. May2009/Dec2011/May2011

Narrowband FM

 When <<1 , then BW is narrow

 NB FM is also called as low-index FM
 BW of a narrow band FM is same as that of AM, which is twice the baseband signal frequency.
BW = 2fm.

Generation of Narrowband FM:

FM signal S(t) = Ac Cos [c t +  sinm t]

= Ac Cosc t Cos (sinm t) – Ac sin ct. sin ( sinm t)
Where Cos (A+B) = Cos A Cos B – Sin A Sin B
For NBFM, <<1
 S(t) = Ac Cosc t – Ac sinc t sinm t (If  is small ,Cos  =1, sin  = )

The modulated signal consists of carrier and two side bands. It is similar to AM and it is not widely
used.

m(t) = Am Cosm t
S(t) = Ac Cos2πfc t - Acsin2πf m t sin2πfc t
S(t) = Ac Cos(2πfc t) - 1/2 Ac [Cos2π(fc – f m) t +Cos 2π(fc + f m) t]
Spectrum of NBFM consists of carrier frequency fc , upper sideband (fc +fm) and lower sideband

(fc – f m } .It is similar to AM

Bandwidth of narrow band FM (NBFM)=2fm

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Block diagram

Operation:

 The block diagram consists of product modulator, -900phase shift network , adder.
 This modulator splits the carrier signal in two paths.
 One path is direct and the other path contains the --900phase shifter.
 The product modulator generates DSB SC signal.
 The difference between these two signals produce Narrow band FM with some distortion.
 Ideally the envelope of FM is constant but the envelope of NBFM has amplitude modulation
and varies with time.
 It produces some harmonic distortion.
 It can be reduced by restricting < 0.3 radians
***************
Phasor representation of NBFM:
 Here carrier phasor is taken as the reference phasor and the resultant of two sideband phasor is
at right angle to the carrier phasor.
 The resultant phasor representing the narrowband FM.
 It has same amplitude as the carrier phasor but out of phase with respect to carrier.
[In AM, the resultant phasor has amplitude different from carrier phasor].

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4. Derive an expression for a single tone FM (WBFM) signal with necessary diagrams and draw
its frequency spectrum. Dec2012/ May 2016/ Nov 2016
Obtain the mathematical expression WBFM signal. Also compare and contrast its
characteristics with NBFM. May 2017

Frequency spectrum (or) Frequency analysis of single tone FM (WBFM)

The FM signal S(t) = Ac Cos[c t + sinm t]
j[c t + sinm t]
In complex form, S(t) = Ac Real Part of e

jc t jsinm t
= Ac RP e e (1)

The complex envelope of FM signal is given by


jsinm t
S(t) = Ac e (2)

jc t
Sub (2) in (1) S(t) = R P S(t)e (3)
The complex envelope is a periodic function of time ‘t’ with fundamental frequency f m
Since S(t) is a periodic function it can be expressed in complex Fourier series.

 
S(t) = Ʃ c n e j2π n f m t (4)
n=-
½ fm 
-j2πn f m t
where C n = 1/2fm  S(t) e dt
- ½ fm
½fm
jsinm t
C n = f m  Ac e e – j2πn f m tdt
- ½ fm
Let 2πfmt = x
2πf m dt = dx
t = x /2πfm
when t = 1/2fm  x = π
t =- 1/2fm  x = - π
π
–j n x jsinm t
C n = f m Ac  e dx /2π f m e
-π

π
jsinm t –j n x
= Ac/2π  e e dx
-π
= Ac J n () (5)

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 π
j( sin x – n x)
Bessel function J n () = 1/2π  e dx
-π
Sub (5) in (4)
 
j2πf m n t
S(t) = Ʃ Ac J n() e
n=-


j2π fm n t j c t
S(t) = RP Ʃ Ac J n() e e
n= -

j(nm + c)t
S(t) = RP Ac Ʃ J n() e
n= -


S(t) = Ac Ʃ J n () Cos (c + nm)t
n= -

Spectrum of FM signal n= - 

S(t) = Ac J0() Cosct + Ac J-1 () Cos (c - m)t + Ac J1 () Cos (c + m)t + ………

It consists of carrier and infinite number of side bands

Bessel function of n th order first kind

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For even values of n
J – n ()= J n ()
For odd values of n
J-n () = -J n ()
 S(t) = Ac J0() Cosc t + Ac J1()[Cos (c - m)t - Cos (c + m)t] + Ac J2()[Cos(c + 2m)t +
Cos (c - 2m) t] +. . . . . . .

Frequency Spectrum

 The spectrum of WBFM consists of infinite no of sidebands which are centered around the
carrier (or) separated from the carrier by  m,  2m  …………….
 The modulation index determines how many sidebands have significant amplitude.
 If  is large, more number of significant sidebands.
 If  is small, then lesser no of sidebands.
 The infinite number of sidebands makes the BW infinite.
 If least significant sidebands are ignored, the BW is finite.
[least significant sidebands is the SB with amplitude  1% of the carrier amplitude]
 The amplitude of FM is unchanged.
 Hence the power of FM is same as that of the un modulated carrier power.
 The average power of FM wave is Ac2/2R which is equal to carrier power.
 Total power = sum of carrier power and sideband power.
Total = Pc + P1 + P2 + P3 + ……………… + Pn
Where Pc  carrier power
P1  power in first set of sidebands
P2  power in second set of sidebands

****************

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2.4 Transmission Band Width of WBFM
Theoretically there is simplest method to calculate the BW = 2f mxx n radians/sec
where n = no of significant sidebands
[n   :  >> 1]
BW  2fm n  2fm 

Carson’s rule:
 Practical BW of FM can be found out by Carson’s rule.
 An empirical formula for the BW of a single tone wideband FM is given by Carson’s rule.
Carson’s rule
BW  2( + m) radians
Where   frequency deviation
BW  2(f + fm)

= 2f [1+fm /f]

 BW  2f (1 + 1/  )

we know  = f /fm

Case (i) f << f m

 NBFM
B.W  2fm

Case (ii) f >> fm

 WBFM
B.W 2 f

This is the practical BW for large .

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5. Comparison of NBFM and WBFM
Sl.No Characteristics NBFM WBFM
1. Modulation Index  << 1  >> 1
2. Frequency Spectrum It consists of carrier & 2 It consists of Infinite no of
sidebands. sidebands.
AC J0 ()
carrier AC J1 ()
LSB USB AC J2 ()

c - m c c + m
3. Bandwidth BW = 2fm BW = 2(f + fm)
4. Maximum frequency 5KHz 75 KHz
deviation
5. Noise Less suppression of noise. Noise is more suppressed.
6. Range of modulating 30Hz to 3KHz 30Hz to 15KHz
frequency
7. Pre-emphasis & Not needed. Needed.
De emphasis
8. Applications Police wireless Radio Broadcasting

2.5 Generation of FM
Varactor diode Modulator
Direct method
Methods of FM Generation Reactance Modulator
Indirect method  Armstrong method
Direct Method:
In the direct method, the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with input base-band
signal.
Indirect method:
In the indirect method of producing FM, the modulating signal is first used to produce a narrow-band
FM signal.
Frequency multiplication is next used to increase the frequency deviation to the desired level.

Page 13 of 41
6. Describe with neat diagram the method of generation of direct FM signal. May2017
Explain with diagram the generation of FM using direct method. May 2015/ Nov 2016

Varactor diode Modulator- Direct Method

 In the direct method, the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with input
modulating signal.
 It is easily accomplished by VCO (voltage controlled oscillator)
 In L-C oscillator, frequency is determined by tuning capacitor and inductor.
Principle :
 The frequency of the oscillator is varied by varying the reverse bias of varactor diode
 Capacitance can be varied which in turn varies the frequency.
 Thus FM is generated.
 This is the concept behind varactor diode & reactance modulator.
Description :
 Varactor diode is a PN junction diode used as a variable capacitor in the reverse biased
condition.
 The variable capacitor is dependent upon the magnitude of the reverse bias C 1/√V.
 Capacitor C isolates the varactor diode from the oscillator as far as dc is concerned and acts as
short circuit for operating frequencies.
 The dc bias to the varactor diode is regulated so that the oscillator frequency is not affected by
supply fluctuations.
Circuit diagram:
R C

Cd m(t)- modulating signal

m(t) L0 C0

Bias voltage

Capacitance

Revere bias

Page 14 of 41
Operation:
 The modulating signal is fed in series with the regulated supply
 Effective bias to the varactor diode = DC bias voltage (V) + instantaneous value of
the modulating signal
 The varactor capacitance varies with the modulating signal and frequency of the oscillator
output changes and thus FM is generated.
 For positive half cycle m(t) increases , reverse bias increases .
 If rev bias increases capacitance decreases and frequency increases.
 For negative half cycle m(t) decreases , reverse bias decreases .
 If rev bias decreases capacitance increases and frequency decreases.
–½
 The capacitance Cd of the diode is Cd = K(VD)
where VD  total instantaneous voltage across the diode.
K  const of proportionality

 VD = V0 + Modulating signal voltage

= V0 + Vm sinmt
Where V0 biasing voltage to maintain reverse bias across the varactor diode.

 Total capacitance of the oscillator tank circuit = C0 +Cd

Instantaneous frequency of oscillation
i = 1/ L0(C0 + Cd)
 i depends on VD
VD depends on m(t)
  i (oscillator frequency) depends on m(t) (modulating signal)
 Thus frequency modulation is generated.
Applications
 Automatic frequency control circuits.
 Remote tuning.
****************
7. Explain the working of Reactance modulator. April 2018
Explain with diagram the generation of FM using direct method.
May 2015/ Nov 2016/May 2017/ Dec 2017

Reactance modulator
 Direct method of FM generation
 Frequency of carrier is directly varied according to message signal.

Principle:
 FET is made to act as capacitive reactance.
 For that an external voltage ‘V’ is applied & corresponding current is calculated to find
[V/I = Z]

Page 15 of 41
Circuit diagram:

Assumptions:
 Bias network current Ib is negligible as compared to the drain current of the FET. (Id>>Ib)
 Drain to gate impedance (Xc) must be greater than the gate to source impedance (R) by more
than 5:1 (Xc >> R).
Description:
 Reactance obtained across terminals A – B.
 Terminals A – B of the circuit is connected across the tuned circuit of the oscillator to get FM
output.
 The varying voltage (modulating voltage) Vg changes the reactance of the FET across terminals
A – B.
 This change in reactance varies the frequency of the tank circuit.
Gate voltage V gs = I b R
I b = V/(R – j X c)  V g s = VR / (R – j X c) (1)

 The drain current of the FET is given as Id = g m V g s (2)

Sub. (1) in (2)
Id = gm. RV/ (R – j X c) (3)

 Impedance between AB assuming Id >> Ib

Z = V/ Id (4)
Sub (3) in (4)
=V/ [gm R V /(R – j X c )] = R – j X c /gm R
Z = 1/ g m (R – j X c )

If Xc >> R, then
Z = - j X c/ g m R =-j X eq
Where X eq = Xc /gm R
= 1/ 2πfC gm R
= 1/ 2πf C eq where C eq = gm RC
 FET behaves as capacitive reactance
 The equivalent capacitance (Ceq depends on the device trans conductance gm = Id/Vgs

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  it can be changed by changing V gs.
 Ceq can be set to any original value by adjusting R&C values.
 If Xc >> R is not satisfied, then Z will not be purely reactive.
 It will have a resistance part in it which is added with Xc.
 Xc must be 5 or 10 times larger than R.
 Xc = nR at carrier frequency. when n = 5 to 10.
[The value of reactance is proportional to gm of FET which can be made to depend on gate
bias and its variations]
Xc = 1/ C = nR
C = 1/ nR
C = 1/ 2πfnR
C eq= gm R/2πfn R ( since C eq = gm RC)
C eq = gm /2πfn [C eq is made independent of R. So amplitude variations can be avoided]

Advantages
 Simple.
 Low cost.
Disadvantages:
 High frequency instability due to LC oscillator.
 Crystal oscillator has higher order stability.
 Even if crystal oscillator is used, frequency cannot be varied.
 So this method cannot be used for broadcast and communication purpose.
******************

8. Explain the Armstrong method to generate FM signal. May2013/May 2016

Explain the Indirect method of FM Generation. May2007

Indirect method
In the indirect method of producing FM, the modulating signal is first used to produce a narrowband
FM signal.
Then frequency multiplication is used to increase the frequency deviation to the desired level.
 Used in commercial broad casting.
 Frequency stability is achieved by using crystal oscillator.
Principle of operation

 Use PM for Generating FM.

 Generate NB FM and frequency multiplier is used to generate WB FM.
 Multiplication process is performed in several stages.
 To increase the carrier frequency as well as the frequency deviation to the desired value.

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Block diagram:

Block diagram of frequency multiplier

Operation:
 PM is used because it is easy to generate.
 But PM is inherent to distortion.
 To minimize distortion, modulation index is kept small.
 The phase modulated signal is S(t)PM = AC cos (ct + mP sinmt)
where mP  modulation index for phase modulation.
 Instantaneous angular frequency i of the phase modulated signal is p = d(t) / dt
 As long as the modulating frequency does not change, phase modulation produces FM output.
 This technique is employed in indirect method.
 NBFM generated by this method is multiplied by frequency multiplier to produce the desired
WBFM.
Frequency Multiplier:
 The frequency multiplier consists of memory less non – linear device followed by BPF
 Frequency multiplier not only increases the frequency but also increases the (modulation
index)
 If S(t) is an FM input signal, then
V0(t) = a1S(t) + a2 S2(t) + ----------- an Sn(t)
[any non – linear device obeys square law]
Where a1, a2 ----- an are co efficients determined by the operating point of the device
‘n’  denotes the highest order of non – linearity

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 Input FM S(t) = AC cos[2fct + 2kf m(t)dt]
 The instantaneous frequency of this FM signal is
fi = fc + kf m(t)
 Consider the max non – linearity of equation
nfi = nfc +nkfm(t)
 Therefore WBFM S(t) is
S1(t) = Ac1cos[2nfct + 2kf m(t)dt]
 where Ac1 = nAc
BPF is tuned to nfc where fc is the carrier frequency of incoming FM signal, S(t).
******************

2.6 Demodulation of FM signal

Detection (or) Demodulation
The process of recovering the original modulating signal from the frequency modulated signal.

Types of FM detector:

FM detector (discriminator)

Frequency discriminator Phase discriminator

1. Slope detector 1. Foster – Seeley discriminator
2. Balanced slope detector 2. Ratio detector

Frequency discriminator

Principle:

 Converts FM to AM by using frequency selective circuit (or) frequency discriminator circuit

whose output voltage depends on input frequency.
 The original signal m(t) is recovered from AM using envelope detector.

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2.6.1 Frequency Discriminator
Slope detector
Balanced slope detector
[Apr - 2019]
9. With necessary diagrams explain the operation of slope detector for demodulating FM signal.
Dec2012
Explain the FM demodulation process using frequency discrimination method. Dec 2017
Demodulation of FM signal
The process of recovering the original modulating signal from the frequency modulated signal.

Frequency discriminator
Principle:
 Convert FM to AM by using frequency selective circuit (or) frequency discriminator circuit whose
output voltage depends on input frequency.
 The original signal m(t) is recovered from AM using envelope detector.
Slope detector
 It depends on the slope of the frequency response characteristic of frequency selective circuit.
 It uses single tuned circuit.
 It is tuned to frequency which is slightly away from carrier frequency f c.

Circuit diagram:

FM i/p EAM m(t)

Discriminator Envelope detector

Operation:
 When the input carrier frequency fc increases, amplitude variations also increases.
 When the input carrier frequency fc decreases, amplitude variations also decreases.
 The frequency variation at the input produces amplitude variations at the output.
 The small variation in the frequency f of the input signal will produce change in the amplitude
of e AM.
eAM = (), where  = de AM /d
 In this way, FM signal is converted into AM signal which is detected by envelope detector to
recover the modulating signal m(t).

Page 20 of 41
Advantages
 Simple and Inexpensive.
Disadvantages
 The non-linear characteristic of the circuit causes harmonic distortion since the slope is not
same at all point of the characteristics.
 It does not eliminate amplitude variations

Balanced Slope Detector (or) Discriminator

To eliminate harmonic distortion produced in simple slope detector, balanced slope detector is used.
Principle:
 Convert FM to AM by using frequency selective circuit (or) frequency discriminator circuit
whose output voltage depends on input frequency.
 The original signal m(t) is recovered from AM using envelope detector.
Circuit diagram:

Description:
 Balanced slope detector consists of slope detector circuits.
 Due to center tapped secondary, the input voltage to the 2 slope detectors, T 1 & T2 are 180
out of phase.
 Primary is tuned to fc,
 T1 (upper tuned circuit of secondary) is tuned above fc i.e., fc+ f and T2 is tuned below fc i.e.
fc - f
 R1 C1 and R2 C2 are the filters used to bypass the RF ripples.
 V01, V02 output voltages
V0 = V01 – V02

Operation:
Circuit operation can be explained by providing the input frequency in 3 ranges as follows,
Case i. At fin= fc
Induced voltage in the T1 winding of secondary = induced voltage in the winding T2.
Input voltage to Diode D1 = input voltage to Diode D2.

Page 21 of 41
 VD1 = VD2
V0 = V01 – V02
 V0 = 0
Case ii. At fin > fc i.e., fin= fc +∆f
Induced voltage in the winding T1 > induced voltage in T2
Input voltage to Diode > input voltage to Diode D2

VD1 > VD2

V0 = V01 – V02
 V0 = positive maximum
Case iii At fin< fc i.e., fin= fc- ∆f
Induced voltage in the winding T2 > induced voltage in T1
Input voltage to diode D 2 > input voltage to Diode D1
VD2> VD1
V0= V01 – V02
 V0 = negative maximum
If output frequency goes outside the range of (fc - f) to (fc + f), the output voltage will fall due to
the reduction in tuned circuit response.
S shaped discriminator characteristics

Advantages
 More efficient than simple slope detector.
 Better linearity than slope detector.
Disadvantages
 Does not provide enough linearity.
 Difficult to tune 3 different frequencies fc, fc + f & fc- f
 Amplitude limiting is not provided.
**********************

Page 22 of 41
2.6.2 Phase Discriminator
Foster – Seeley Discriminator
Ratio detector

10. Draw the circuit diagram of a Foster – Seeley discriminator and explain its working with
relevant phasor diagrams. Nov 2018 Dec2006/May2012/May 2016
With the phasor representation explain the Foster Seeley discriminator. May 2015

Foster – Seeley Discriminator- Phase Discriminator

 Most widely used FM detector.

 Both primary & secondary are tuned to the same center frequency ‘fc ‘ of the incoming signal.
 Phase shift between primary and secondary voltages of the tuned transformer are a function of
frequency.
 Secondary voltage lags primary voltage by 90 at the centre frequency because of C3.
 fc  resonant or tuned frequency of the transformer.
Principle:
 Convert FM to AM by using frequency selective circuit (or) frequency discriminator circuit whose
output voltage depends on input frequency.
 The original signal m(t) is recovered from AM using envelope detector.

Circuit diagram:

Page 23 of 41
Description:
 Primary is coupled to centre tap of the secondary through CP.
 RFC offers high impedance to frequency of FM.
 The secondary voltage V2 is equally divided across upper half and lower half of the secondary
coil.
VD1 = V1+ 0.5V2 , VD2 = V1 – 0.5V2
V0 = VD1 – VD2
V0   V01  -  V02 

 V0   V01  -  V02

 The primary and secondary tuned circuits are tuned to the same center frequency.
 The voltages applied to the two diodes D1 and D2 are not constant and vary depending on the
frequency of the input signal.
 This is due to the change in phase shift between the primary and secondary windings
depending on the input frequency.
Operation:
Case 1: fin=fc, phase shift between V1 and V2 is 90.

V1- Primary voltage V2- secondary voltage

 V01  =  V02 
V0 = V01 – V02
 V0 = 0

Case2: fin > fc, phase shift reduces

The phase shift
 V01  >  V02 
V0 is positive maximum.

Case3: fin < fc, phase shift increases

 V01  <  V02 

V0  negative maximum

Phasor diagram:

Page 24 of 41
Advantages
 Much easier to align than balanced slope detector.
 Only two tuned circuits necessary and both are tuned to same frequency.
 Linearity is better.
Disadvantages
 Does not provide any amplitude limiting.
 The demodulator output responds to any amplitude variations and produce errors and modify
the discriminator characteristics.
 The distortion is decreased using a limiter circuit in the FM receiver.

*************************

Page 25 of 41
11. Explain the working of Ratio detector. Dec2011
Write about the basic principles of FM detection and explain about Ratio detector. Nov 2016
Analyze and brief how ratio detector suppresses the amplitude variations caused by the
communication media without using amplitude limiter circuit. May 2017

Ratio Detector
 It is a phase discriminator circuit used in TV receiver .
 It is an improvement over foster – seeley discriminator and widely used.
 Both are identical expect for the following changes
1. Direction of diode D2 is reversed.
2. A large value capacitor C has been included in the circuit.
3. Output is taken from the centre tap of a resistor ‘R’

Principle:
 Convert FM to AM by using frequency selective circuit (or) frequency discriminator circuit
whose output voltage depends on input frequency.
 The original signal m(t) is recovered from AM using envelope detector.
Circuit diagram:

Operation:

 The polarity of voltage V02 is reversed since D2 is reversed.

 output voltage Vo is sum of voltage appears across the combined load
 Vo =  V01 -  V02 . (when V01  , V02  & vice-versa)
 Output voltage V0 is taken across the terminal AB. From the circuit diagram,

Adding these two equations

Page 26 of 41
 2V0= V01 – V02
V0=1/2[V01 – V02] = 1/2[V01 - V02]
 The output is only half of that given by Foster – Seeley discriminator,
 Ratio detector has exactly same behavior except that its output is reduced.
 A large capacitor ‘C’ is connected across ‘V0 .
 ‘C’ is mainly used to improve the constancy.
 If the input voltage decreases or increases suddenly, the output voltage does not respond
immediately.
 since it is held constant by means of large capacitance.
 Since the two diodes are in series, they have the large time constant.
 It cannot respond to fast changes in input voltage.
 Therefore no need for separate amplitude limiting circuit.

Advantages
 Does not respond to amplitude variations present in the input FM. It is suppressed by shunt
capacitor ‘C’
 Very good linearity due to linear phase relationship between primary and secondary.
 Reduced fluctuations in the output voltage compared to Foster seeley circuit.
Disadvantage
 It does not tolerate the long-period variation in signal strength. This requires an AGC signal

********************

12. Compare AM and FM.

List the advantages of frequency modulation over amplitude modulation. Dec2017

Sl.No Characteristics AM FM
1. Definition Amplitude of the carrier is Frequency of carrier is changed
changed with modulating signal with modulating signal
2. BW BW= 2fm Theoretically BW=2(f+fm)

Page 27 of 41
 BW required is less compared to More BW compared to AM.
FM
3. Modulation index ma = Vm/Vc and cannot be greater  = f/ fm and can be greater
than 1. than 1
4. Frequency J0 ()
spectrum Carrier J1 ()
LSB USB J2 ()
J3 ()

fc – fm fc fc + fm c- m c -2m c c+3m

In AM, the spectrum consists of
carrier & 2 sidebands. In FM, the spectrum consists of
carrier & infinite sidebands

5. Power Power depends on sidebands Power remains constant and

Pt = Pc[1+ma2 /2] depends on carrier only
P = AC2/2R
6. Efficiency Less efficient than FM More efficient than AM
7. Noise Noise interference is more Less noise interference
8. No of channels More number of channels Less number of channel
accommodated since BW less in accommodated since BW is more
AM
9. Adjacent channel Present Absent
interference
10. Frequency Range Medium Frequency & High VHF & UHF
Frequency (300 – 3000) KHz (30 – 3000 MHz)
11. Application It is used in AM Broad coasting It is used in FM Broad casting.
It is used in TV for picture It is used in TV for sound
transmission transmission

********************

2.7 PLL as FM demodulator / detector

PLL is Phase locked Loop. It consists of phase detector, Low pass filter and VCO.

Lock in range: It is defined as the range of frequencies over which PLL will track the input frequency
signal and remains locked.

Dynamic range: It is the range of input frequencies over which PLL will capture the input signal.

Page 28 of 41
 [Apr - 2019]
13. Explain the operation of PLL as FM demodulator Dec 2014
Explain the detection of FM wave using PLL detector. April 2018 May 2017

PLL FM demodulator / detector

The PLL (Phase locked loop ) FM demodulator is one of the most widely used FM demodulator or
detectors.

Elements of PLL
The elements of the phase locked loop system are a phase detector or comparator, low pass filter
and voltage controlled oscillator (VCO).

Block Diagram
Error
FM wave Phase detector e(t) Loop filter Output signal
s(t)

VCO

Feedback Signal
(VCO Output)
Description
 Input signal applied to Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is an FM signal S(t)
 The Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) connected in the form of feedback system has a
frequency proportional to an externally applied voltage.
 Any frequency modulator may serves as a VCO.
 The phase detector (or) Comparator produces a low frequency signal proportional to the
phase difference between the incoming signal and the VCO output signal.
() [ ( )]
where Ac is of carrier Amplitude, kf is the frequency sensitivity of FM, ( ) is phase angle.

() ∫ ( )

 The error signal e(t) or low frequency signal from phase detector is fed to loop filter.
 This output is fed to VCO as control input.

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Operation:
 If the f frequency of Incoming signal shifts slightly, the phase difference between the VCO
signal and incoming signal will increase with time.
 This will change the control voltage on the VCO and the VCO frequency loops back to same
value as the incoming signal.
VCO output, r (t) = [ ( )]
where, Ac = VCO signal Amplitude, Kf is the frequency sensitivity of VCO.

() ∫ ( )

 The loop can maintain lock until the input signal frequency changes.
 The VCO input voltage is proportional to the frequency of the incoming signal.
 In FM signal, the instantaneous frequency varies in accordance with the modulating signal.
 When VCO is locked to fc, the error signal is zero.
 VCO frequency is also equal to zero.
 If an FM signal is applied to the phase detector, there will be a difference in the phases of the
VCO output and the input FM signal.
 Control signal is produced in proportion to phase difference.
 This control voltage will modify the VCO frequency, which is again compared with the
incoming frequency.
 VCO tracks the instantaneous frequency of the applied FM signal.
 The control signal produced is proportional to the frequency deviation in the FM signal.
 Since the frequency deviation is proportional to the modulating signal.
 The control signal appearing at the output of LPF is the modulating signal.
Thus, FM signal is demodulated by PLL.

Advantages of PLL

 Simple circuit that can be implemented in an integrated circuit.

 No need of tuned circuits.
 Small number of external components required and less cost.
 Linearity is good.
 Distortion is less.
Applications of PLL

 Frequency multiplication / Division.

 AM Detection.
 FSK Demodulation.
***********************

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 UNIT II
Angle modulation
1. Define Angle modulation.
Angle modulation is defined as the process of changing the total phase angle of the carrier
according to the modulating signal.

2. Define frequency modulation.

Frequency modulation is defined as the process of changing the frequency of the carrier according
to the modulating signal.

3. Define phase modulation.

May2007
Phase modulation is defined as the process of changing the phase of the carrier according to the
modulating signal.

4. Define modulation index of FM. May2013 /Nov 2016

Define the modulation index of FM wave and specify how you will distinguish narrow band and
wide band FM respectively. Nov 2013
It is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency deviation to the modulating frequency

β= ∆f /fm
β <<1 Narrow band FM
β>>1 wide band FM

5. Define frequency Deviation.

Define carrier swing. May 2017
The maximum departure of the instantaneous frequency from the carrier frequency is called
frequency deviation.
∆f = fc max- fc =fc- fcmin
Carrier swing=2∆f
∆f =Am Kf
Am – amplitude of modulating signal(Volts)
Kf – Frequency deviation constant or Frequency sensitivity (Hz/Volts)

6. Define deviation ratio D.

The deviation ratio D is defined as the ratio of the frequency deviation ∆f, which corresponds to the
maximum possible amplitude of the modulation signal m(t),to the highest modulation frequency .
D = ∆f / fmax
∆f- frequency deviation
fmax- highest modulation frequency

7. Write the expression for the spectrum of single tone FM signal.

The expression for the spectrum of single tone FM signal

( ) ∑ ( ) ( )

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 Ac-Carrier Amplitude
Jn(β)- Bessel coefficient
-carrier frequency
-modulating signal frequency

8. Draw the frequency spectrum of FM signal

9. Give the average power of an FM signal.

The amplitude of the frequency modulated signal is constant .The average power of the FM signal
is same as that of the un modulated carrier power. P=Vc2 / 2R
Vc – un modulated carrier amplitude
R –Resistor across which power is measured

10. How to convert PM to FM?

Illustrate the relationship between FM and PM with the block diagram. May 2012

11. How to convert FM to PM?

Page 32 of 41
12. Compare PM and FM . [Apr-2019] May2007/Nov2007/Nov 2010

FM PM
Frequency of the carrier is changed Phase of the carrier is changed according to
according to the modulating signal the modulating signal
Frequency deviation is proportional to Phase deviation is proportional to
modulating voltage and modulating modulating voltage only
frequency
Noise immunity is better than AM &PM Noise immunity is better than AM but worse
than FM

13. What are the types of Frequency Modulation?

Based on the modulation index, FM can be divided into two types. They are Narrow band FM and
Wide band FM. If the modulation index (β) is greater than one then it is wide band FM and if the
modulation index I s less than one then it is Narrow band FM.
β <<1 Narrow band FM
β>>1 wide band FM

14. State Carson’s rule. [Apr - 2019] May 2017

State Carson’s general rule for determining the bandwidth of an angle modulated wave?(or)
What is Carson’s rule ?
May 2013
An approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM Signal generated by a single tone-
modulating signal of frequency fm is defined as
BW = 2(∆f + fm) or 2 ∆f (1+1/ β )
∆f –Frequency deviation
fm- Modulating frequency
β – modulation index

15. Distinguish between NBFM and WBFM. [Apr - 2019] April 2011/Dec2017

Parameter /Characteristics NBFM WBFM

Modulation index (β) β <<1 β>>1

Spectrum Carrier and two Carrier and Infinite

side bands number of
sidebands
Frequency deviation 5 KHz 75 KHz
Bandwidth 2fm BW = 2(∆f + fm)
Noise Less suppression Noise is more
of noise suppressed
Range of modulating 30 Hz to 3 KHz 30 Hz to 15 KHz
frequency
Application Mobile Broadcasting
communication

Page 33 of 41
16. Draw the block diagram of a method for generating a narrowband FM signal. April 2010

17. Draw the phasor representation of NBFM. Nov 2018 Nov 2006

18. How is the narrowband FM converted into wideband FM. Nov 2011 /Nov 2012

The modulating signal is first used to produce a narrow-band FM signal and frequency multiplication is
next used to increase the frequency deviation to the desired level to generate WBFM

Page 34 of 41
19. What are the methods of generating an FM wave? April 2018
There are two methods of generating an FM wave. They are,
Direct method
In this method the frequency of the carrier is varied directly as the function of the modulating
signal. It is used for the generation of NBFM
Indirect method
In this method the modulating signal is first used to produce a narrow-band FM signal and
frequency multiplication is next used to increase the frequency deviation to the desired level. It is
used for the generation of WBFM

20. What is the use of crystal controlled oscillator?

The crystal-controlled oscillator always produces a constant carrier frequency there by enhancing
frequency stability.

21. What are the generation methods of direct FM?

In direct FM, two generation methods are available.
 Varactor diode modulator.
 Reactance tube modulator.

22. What are the disadvantages of direct method? Nov 2009

The disadvantages of direct method are
 Frequency instability due to the use of LC oscillator. Therefore we have to use the
Automatic Frequency control (AFC) Scheme.
 Even if crystal oscillator is used the frequency cannot be changed
 Due to frequency instability direct methods cannot be used for broadcast and
communication purposes.

23. What are the advantages of indirect method of FM generation?

The advantages of indirect method of FM generation are
 High frequency stability is achieved by the use of crystal oscillato.r
 Used for commercial broadcasting.

24. What is meant by detection or demodulation? May 2011 /May 2012

The process of recovering original message signal from the modulated signal is called as detection.

25. What is the principle of FM detection ? April 2018

 FM signal is converted to corresponding AM signal using frequency selective circuits. i.e.,
circuits whose output voltage depends on input frequency.
 The original modulating signal is recovered from this AM signal by using envelope
detector.

26. Mention the types of FM discriminators or detectors.

Name the methods for detecting FM signals. May 2011 / May 2012
FM discriminators can be divided into two types.
Frequency discriminators( Slope Detectors)

Page 35 of 41
 The principle of operation depends on the slope of the frequency response characteristics of
frequency selective circuits.
Single tuned discriminator (or) slope detector.
Stagger tuned discriminator (or) Balanced slope detector.
Phase Discriminator
Foster-Seeley discriminator.
Ratio detector.

27. Mention the advantages of balanced slope detector.

The advantages of balanced slope detector are
 This circuit is more efficient than simple slope detector.
 It has better linearity than the simple slope detector.

28. What are the disadvantages of balanced slope detector?

The disadvantages of balanced slope detector are
 Amplitude limiting is not provided
 Linearity is not sufficient
 This circuit is difficult to tune since the three tuned circuits are to be tuned to different
frequencies, i.e., fc,, (fc+∆f) and (fc-∆f).

29. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Foster Seeley discriminator?
Advantages:
 Linearity is better than slope detector
 Two tuned circuits tuned to same frequency

Disadvantages:
 An amplitude limiter is required
 Linearity is not sufficient.
30. What are the advantages of ratio detector? Nov 2011
The advantages of ratio detector are
 It does not respond to amplitude variations present in the input of FM. It is suppressed by
shunting capacitor ‘C’
 Very good linearity due to linear phase relationship between primary and secondary.
 Reduced fluctuations in the output voltage compared to Foster – seeley circuit.

31. Draw the block diagram of PLL FM demodulator. Nov2007/May 2007

Draw a simple schematic of a PLL demodulator. Nov 2013
Error
FM wave Phase detector e(t) Loop filter Output signal
s(t

(VCO Output)
VCO

Feedback Signal

Page 36 of 41
32. PLL FM demodulator is widely used for FM detection. Justify
What are the advantages of PLL FM demodulator?
The PLL FM demodulator is widely used for FM detection because
 Simple circuit that can be implemented in an integrated circuit
 No need of tuned circuits.
 Small number of external components required and less cost.
 Linearity is good
 Distortion is less

33. What are the applications of PLL? Nov 2006

The applications of PLL are
 AM detection
 Multiplication / Division
 FSK demodulation

34. List the advantages of FM over AM. Nov 2014

The advantages of FM over AM are
 Noise interference is less
 Less adjacent channel interference
 High efficiency

35. Write the applications of FM.

The applications of FM are
 Radio broadcasting.
 Sound broadcasting in T.V.
 Satellite communication.

36. What are the disadvantages of FM system compared to AM?

The disadvantages of FM are
 A much wider Bandwidth is required by FM.
 FM transmitting and receiving equipments are more complex and costly.
 Less coverage area

37. Compare AM and FM.

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation
Amplitude of the carrier is Frequency of the carrier is
changed according to the modulating changed according to the modulating
signal signal
Carrier and two sidebands are present Carrier and infinite number of sidebands
Are present
Noise interference is more Noise interference is less
Less efficient Efficiency is more
Adjacent channel interference is more Adjacent channel interference is less

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38. Why FM is used for voice transmission?
FM is widely used for mobile applications because the amplitude variations do not cause a change
in audio level. As the audio is carried by frequency variations rather than amplitude ones and
interference is less.
39. Define lock in range and dynamic range of a PLL. May 2015
Lock in range: It is defined as the range of frequencies over which PLL will track the input
frequency signal and remains locked.
Dynamic range: It is the range of input frequencies over which PLL will capture the input signal.
40. Distinguish the feature of Amplitude modulation (AM) and Narrow band frequency modulation
(NBFM). May 2017

NBFM is similar to AM
NBFM consists of two sidebands and carrier as AM.
But noise is less in NBFM than AM

Solved problems

1. A carrier wave of frequency 100MHz is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal wave of amplitude

2 volts and frequency 100 KHz. The frequency sensitivity of the modulator is 2.5 KHz/volt.
Determine the bandwidth of FM signal.
Nov2009
Given data:
fc =100MHz Am = 2V fm =100KHz Kf = 2.5 KHz/V
Solution:
f = Kf.Am

= 2.5 x 103 x 2= 5KHz

BW = 2(f + fm)
= 2(5+100) = 210 KHz

2. A carrier wave of frequency 100MHz is frequency modulated by a signal 20 sin (200πx t).
What is the bandwidth of FM signal if the frequency sensitivity of the modulation is 25 Khz/v.
April 2010
Given data:

Ω m=200πx Am=20
carrier Frequency =100MHz
Frequency sensitivity K f =25KHz

Solution:
2πf m=200πx , fm=100X
BW=2(f +fm)

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 f = K f Am =25000x20 , f=500KHz
BW=2(500+100)
=1200 KHz

3. A Carrier signal is frequency modulated with a sinusoidal signal of 2KHz resulting in a

maximum frequency deviation of 5KHz. Find modulation index, Band Width of the
modulated signal.
Nov 2012/May 2015
Given data:
fm = 2KHz, f = 5 KHz
Solution:
Modulation index,  = f / fm= 5/2 = 2.5
BW = 2(f + f m) =2(5+2)  14 KHz

4. If the maximum phase deviation in a phase modulation system when a modulating signal of
10V is applied as 0.1 radian , determine the value of phase deviation constant.
May 2014
Given data:
Am = 10V, p = 5 KHz
Solution:
K p= Amp = 10x5 =50 radian/volt
5. A carrier signal is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal of 5 Vpp and 10 KHz. If the
frequency deviation constant is 1KHz/V, determine the maximum frequency deviation and
state whether the scheme is narrow band FM or Wide band FM. Nov
2014/May 2016
Given data:
Am = 5V (V pp), f m=10K Hz and K f = 1 KHz /V
=2.5 V
Solution:
f = Kf Am =1x2.5 =2.5
β= ∆f /fm = 2.5/10=0.25
Since the modulation index β is less than 1 it is NBFM.

Exercise Problems:

1. The carrier frequency of broadcast signal is 100MHz and if the audio signal modulating the carrier
is 15 KHz & frequency deviation is 75KHz. Find BW of FM.
Given : f = 75 KHz, f m = 15 KHz , fc = 100 MHz

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 Solution:
B.W = 2 (f m + f m)
= 2 (75 + 15) = 180 KHz

2. A single tone modulating signal cos (15103t) frequency modulates the carrier 10MHz &
produces frequency deviation of 75KHz. Find the modulation index.
Given: f = 75 KHz 2 f m = 15  103 f m = 7.5 x 103
Solution:
 = f/f m = 75 x103 / 7.5 x103=10

3. Carrier signal is frequency modulated with the sinusoidal signal of 2KHz resulting of max.
frequency deviation 5KHz. Find modulation index and BW.
Given: fm = 2KHz, f = 5 KHz
Solution:
 = f / fm= 5/2 = 2.5
BW = 2(f + fm)  15 KHz
4. Find carrier frequency, modulating frequency, modulation index, frequency deviation of FM
signal represented by S(t) = 12 sin(6x108 + 5 sin1250t). Also find the power dissipated for 10
resistor.
Given:
S(t) = 12 sin(6x108 + 5 sin1250t)
Solution:
FM signal is represented by S(t) = AC sin(c t + sinm t)
 AC =12, c = 6x108, m = 1250,  = 5
2fc = 6x108 , fc = 6x108/2x3.14 = 95.5MHz
 = mf = 5
2 f m = 1250  f m = 1250/2 = 199Hz
 = f/f m  f =  x fm = 5 x199 = 995Hz
Power dissipated by 10 resistor is Pd = Ac2/2R = 122/ 2 x 10 = 7.2W
[AC un modulated carrier amplitude]

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5. Obtain the BW of FM signal S(t) = 10cos[2x107t + 8 cos(100t)].
Given : Ac = 10, c = 2x107,  = 8, m = 1000
Solution:
2fc = 2xx107
fc = 107 = 10MHz
2fm = 1000
fm = 500Hz
 = f/fm  f =  x fm = 8 x500 = 4000Hz
BW = 2( f + fm)
= 2(4000+500) = 9 KHz
6. A carrier wave of frequency 1000 Mz is frequency modulated by a sine wave of amplitude 2V,
frequency 100Hz. If the frequency sensitivity of modulator is 2.5 KHz/V, calculate BW.
Given: fc =1000MHz ,Am = 2V , fm =100KHz , Kf = 2.5 KHz/V
Solution:
f = Kf.Am
= 2.5 x 103 x 2
f = 5KHz
BW = 2(f + fm) = 2(5+100) = 210 KHz
7. An angle modulated wave is described by the equation
V(t) = 10 cos (2x106 t+ 10 cos2000 t). Calculate
(i) Power of the modulated signal
(ii) Maximum frequency deviation (iii) BW May 2016
Given : Ac = 10 ,c =2 x 106 ,m = 2000 , fm=1000 Hz =1KHz
(i) P = Ac2/2R = 102/2x1 = 50W
(ii) f =?
 = f/fm  f = fm
 f = 10x1 = 10 KHz
(iii) B.W = 2(f + fm)
= 2(10+1) = 22 KHz

*******************

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