BIOLOGY NOTES GRADE 10-12

PASSING BIOLOGY WITH A

DISTINCTION

PREPARED BY MR. BUBALA NCHIMUNYA/2023/M. S TUITION

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 GRADE 10 WORK

TOPIC 1: LIVING ORGANISMS AND LIFE PROCESSES.

1. Identify the characteristics of living organisms.
The characteristics of living organisms are: (Memory aid: MR.GREFI)
Movement: This is the process by which a living organism changes its location and posture without
external help. The movement of an entire organism from one place to another is also called locomotion.
Respiration: This is the release of energy from food substances inside living cells. There are two types
of respiration. These are aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration is the release of energy
from food substances inside living cells in the presence of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration is the release
of energy from food substances inside living cells in the absence of oxygen. Aerobic respiration yields
more energy than anaerobic respiration.
Growth: This is a permanent increase in size, mass, number of cells and complexity of an organism.
Reproduction: This is the process by which living organisms produce their young ones (offspring).
There are two types of reproduction, sexual and asexual. In sexual reproduction offspring are produced
by the fusion of male and female gametes (from one or two parents) and are genetically different from
their parents. In asexual reproduction the offspring are produced from one parent without involving any
gametes and are genetically identical to the parent and each other.
Excretion: This is the removal of toxic metabolic wastes from the cells of the body such as urea, excess
salts, excess water, bile pigments and carbon dioxide.
Feeding/Nutrition: This is the process by which living organisms obtain food. There are two types of
nutrition which are autotrophic and heterotrophic. Autotrophic nutrition is the type where an organism
makes its own food e.g., green plants through the process called photosynthesis. Heterotrophic nutrition
is the type where an organism takes in food present in bodies of others.
Irritability/Sensitivity: This is the ability to detect and respond to stimuli (singular=stimulus). A
stimulus is any change in the environment which causes a response from an organism.
2. Distinguish between living organisms and non-living things.
The main differences between living and non-living organisms are tabulated below:
Living organisms Non-Living things
Feed Do not feed
Reproduce Do not reproduce
Grow Do not grow
Excrete Do not excrete

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 Are sensitive Are not sensitive
Are capable of locomotion and movement Are not capable of locomotion and
movement

Respire Do not respire

Have cells Do not have cells

3. Describe life processes of living organisms.

Life processes of living organisms are the chemical reactions that take place inside living cells.
The sum total of chemical reactions that take place inside living cells are collectively called
metabolism. There are two types of metabolic reactions, namely anabolic and catabolic reactions.
i Anabolic reactions (Anabolism).
Anabolic reactions are metabolic reactions where large and complex molecules are synthesized from
small and simple molecules e.g. photosynthesis.
Work equation:

Chemical equation:

ii Catabolic reactions (Catabolism)

Catabolic reactions are metabolic reactions where large complex molecules are broken down into
smaller and simpler molecules eg Respiration.
Word equation:

Chemical equation:

All metabolic reactions are catalysed by enzymes. An enzyme is a biological catalyst inside a
living organism, it is important in speeding up or slowing down life processes.

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 TOPIC 2: CELL STUCTURE AND ORGANISATION.
MICROSCOPES.
A microscope is a device that produces a magnified image of the structure that is too small to be
seen by our naked eye. A Microscope can be simple or compound.
A simple microscope is a hand lens.
STRUCTURE OF A HAND LENS.

A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE.
A Compound microscope has two or more lenses. The eyepiece lens is situated on the top of the
microscope, the objective lenses at the bottom of the tube on the revolving nose piece. By rotating
the nose piece, you can select the objective lens through which you will view your specimen.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

THE PARTS OF A LIGHT MICROSCOPE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

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 (i) Ocular (eye piece) lens: This is the lens you look through. It magnifies the object further.
(ii) Body tube (Barrel): It maintains the proper distance between the ocular and objective lenses.
It keeps light from scattering as it goes up through the lenses. It also moves up and down when
focusing
(iii)Revolving nose piece: It holds the objective lenses. It rotates to change the lens (lens must
click into place)
(iv) Objective lenses: These are lenses at the base of the body tube. There is Low power (X10),
Medium power (X40) and High power (X100). They magnify the object.
(v) Stage: It supports the slide. It has a hole in the middle to allow light to pass through
(vi) Stage clips: They hold the slide in place on the stage
(vii) Diaphram: It controls the amount of light going through the object and up the body tube
(viii) Mirror: It reflects (bounces) light up through the diaphragm, the stage, the object and
into the lenses
(ix) Coarse adjustment knob: It moves the body tube up and down in large movements to focus
the image. It is used when focusing with the low or medium power objective lens in place.
(x) Fine adjustment knob: It moves the body tube in small movements to sharpen the focus. It
is used when focusing with the high-power objective lens in place.
(xi) Arm: It acts as a handle. It supports the body tube.
(xii) Base: It supports the entire microscope

1. Demonstrate the correct use of a light microscope.

Make sure the stage is well-lit by adjusting the mirror or illuminator. Prepare the tissue to be studied
and place it on a microscope slide. Ensure that the specimen is moist by adding a drop of water.
Then cover the specimen with a cover slip making sure no air bubbles are trapped underneath. Place
the slide on the microscope stage and secure it with the clips on the stage. Using the coarse
adjustment knob, lower the objective lens until it is about half a centimetre from the slide. As the
objective is lowered, view from the side to ensure that the objective lens does not come into contact
with the glass slide as this may crush the slide and smash the specimen. Move the objective upwards
by moving the coarse adjustment in the opposite direction. This should be done while looking in
the eye piece. Continue doing this until you can see the specimen through the eye piece. While still
looking through the eye piece, use the fine adjustment to make the specimen clearer or sharp. Study
the specimen and make drawings as required.
2. Prepare and examine specimen using a microscope
i Preparing the specimen: onion epidermis cells
Carefully remove an inner layer of onion epidermis with a razor blade (do not touch the sample
of epidermis with your hands). Place a drop of water with iodine (stained water) in the centre of
the microscope slide. Use the forceps and place the strip of epidermis on the slide. Use a dissecting
needle to lower the cover slip slowly over the specimen. Tap slightly with the back of the
dissecting needle to remove air bubbles. Use tissue paper to remove the excess stain

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 Examining the specimen
Place the prepared slide under the microscope. Use the clips to hold it in position. Study the
specimen using X4, X10 and X40 magnification.
3. Calculate magnification of specimen
Magnification is the number of times the image of the object is enlarged (magnified) as
compared to the specimen. For example, a magnification of four (x 4), means that the object
is enlarged four times. Magnification has no units.

When you are using the microscope, magnification is obtained by multiplying the number
on the eye-piece lens by that on the objective lens; i.e.
M= power of eye-piece x power of objective lens

When the specimen is drawn, magnification is calculated using the formula given below.
• Magnification = Size of Image/Drawing
Size of Object/Specimen

• The substitution must be correctly done with identical units in the numerator and
denominator. The units in the numerator and denominator must be identical, if an
individual measures the specimen size as 6.4cm and the corresponding measurement on
the diagram is 7.2 cm, the substitution will be correct if written as:
• 7.2 cm/6.4 cm or 72 mm/64 mm but will be wrong if written as: 7.2/6.4 or 72/64 or
7.2cm/64 mm or 72 mm/6.4 cm.
• The final answer for magnification must be written to one decimal place with a
multiplication sign (X) or the word ‘times’ either before or after the magnification and
without units. e.g., the answer for the substitution given above is 1.125 but should be
written as: X1.1 or 1.1X or times 1.1 or 1.1 times.
In summary, the magnification for the above given situation would be calculated as
follows: Magnification = Size of Image = 7.2 cm = X 1.1
Size of Object 6.4 cm

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

A Cell is a basic functional unit of living organisms. All chemical processes of life take place inside
cells.
A cell consists of a semi-liquid material called cytoplasm which is enclosed or surrounded by a
cell membrane or plasma membrane. The cytoplasm contains a number of dissolved substances
and minute specialized structures called organelles.
1. Investigate the structure of cells and functions of the cell organelles.
Simple structure of a plant and an animal cell

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 Detailed structure/ultrastructure of an animal cell

Detailed structure/ultrastructure of a plant cell

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 (c) Functions of cell organelles.
(i) Nucleus: This part is responsible for controlling all cell activities and storage of genetic
information on threads of DNA called chromosomes. It is surrounded by a double
membrane called the nuclear membrane which has openings called nuclear pores. The
inside of the nucleus contains a fluid called the nucleoplasm and a dense body of DNA
called the nucleolus.
(ii) Cell membrane: This part is made of lipids and proteins and is responsible for controlling
the substances that enter and leave the cells. It is adapted for this function by being
selectively/partially permeable. This means it allows some substances to pass through it
and prevents others from passing through. The substances that cross the cell membrane
freely include gases (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide) and water because their
molecules are smaller in size. On the other hand, substances such as urea whose molecules
are large do not freely cross the cell membrane but use special carrier proteins to do so.
(iii) Cytoplasm: This is a jelly-like fluid made of water and dissolved substances such as
proteins, salts and sugars. It contains suspended cell structures called organelles and is the
site for cell activities. Note: The three parts (nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane) are
collectively called the protoplasm. The protoplasm is defined as the living part of a cell.
(iv) Mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria): These are rod-shaped or sausage-shaped structures
in the cell. This is where respiration takes place. For this reason mitochondria are called
the power house of the cell.
(v) Ribosomes: These are small round structures in the cell where protein synthesis takes
place. Some ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm while others are attached to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
(vi) Endoplasmic Reticulum: This is a network of membranes used for transportation of
substances within the cytoplasm. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum, namely
smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough endoplasmic reticulum. Rough endoplasmic
reticulum has ribosomes on its surface and transports proteins. Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum has no ribosomes on its surface and transports lipids.
(vii) Golgi Bodies: These are a pile of flattened vesicles which modify and carry proteins such
as enzymes from the sites of synthesis to the sites of reaction. They are collectively called
the Golgi apparatus.
(viii) Chloroplasts: These are oval-shaped structures found in plant cells. They carry out
photosynthesis. They contain a green pigment called chlorophyll which absorbs light
energy for photosynthesis.
(ix) Vacuole: This is a fluid filled space inside the cytoplasm of a plant cell. It contains a fluid
called cell sap (a solution of sugars and salts in water) and is surrounded by a membrane
called tonoplast. The concentration of the cell sap plays a role in the movement of water
into and out of the cell.
(x) Cell wall: This is the outermost boundary of the plant cell. It is made of a substance called
cellulose. It is important for protection against damage and prevention of bursting when

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 the plant cell gains a lot of water. It also gives shape to the plant cell. It is fully permeable
to all substances.

2. Distinguish between plant and animal cell structure.

Differences between animal and plant cells
Plant Cell Animal Cell
Has cellulose cell wall Does not have cellulose cell wall
Has large permanent vacuole Does not have large permanent vacuole
Has chloroplasts Does not have chloroplasts
Has regular shape and bigger size Has irregular shape and smaller size

3. Relate cell structure to functions.

New cells are formed from already existing cells by cell division in an organism. At first, they are
all similar in structure. But in order to be suited for their functions they have to undergo cell
specialization. This is a process by which a cell undergoes specific changes in structure and chemical
composition of the cytoplasm in order to perform a specific function. Examples of specialized cells
are ciliated cells, root hair cells, xylem vessels, guard cells, nerve cells, muscle cells, white blood
cells and red blood cells etc.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANT CELLS.
(i)Root Hair cells: These are cells found near the tips of roots.

Functions.

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 a. Absorption of water and mineral salts
b. Anchor the plant in the ground

Adaptations.
a. Has an elongated outgrowth (long extension) which increases the surface area for faster
diffusion during absorption.
b. Absence of chloroplast to create more room for absorption.
c. High concentration of mitochondria to provide energy for active absorption /transport of
mineral salts. In addition, root hair cells are numerous which further increase their surface
area.

(ii)Xylem Cells:

Functions.
a. Conduction of water and mineral salts - Mechanical support of the plant.

Adaptations.
a. End walls of neighbouring cells broken to form continuous tubes.
b. Protoplasm is absent leaving a hollow space in the middle of the cell.
c. Walls are lignified (filled with lignin) to provide mechanical support.

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 (iii)Phloem cells:

Function.
a. To transport manufactured food from one part(leaves)to another part of the plant.

Adaptations.
a. End walls between neighbouring cells are perforated to form sieve plates.
b. Protoplasm is partly lost leaving behind some cytoplasm strands.
c. Presence of companion cells which supply phloem cells with enzymes and ATP.

(iv)Palisade cells.

Function.
Carrying out the process of photosynthesis.

Adaptations.
a. A high concentration of chloroplasts.

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 b. The cells are vertical and longer. This allows chloroplasts to migrate upwards or downwards
as light intensity changes so that they are not damaged by excess light.

(v) Guard Cells

These are a pair of cells that surround each stoma.

Function

a. To control the size of the stoma

Adaptations

b. They occur in pairs and each cell has a semi-circular (curved) shape when turgid and a
straight shape when plasmolysed.
c. Their cell walls are thicker around the stoma than anywhere else; this makes it possible for
the stoma to open when these cells absorb water.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF ANIMAL CELLS.

(i) Ciliated cells

Functions
These are cells found in the inner lining of the respiratory tract and the oviducts.
▪ In the respiratory tract they sweep out mucus containing dust particles and germs.

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 ▪ In the oviduct they move the ovum towards the uterus.
Adaptations
❖ Presence of cytoplasmic hairs called cilia
❖ A high concentration of mitochondria in the cytoplasm to generate energy for movements of the
cilia

(ii) Muscle Cells:

Functions.
a. Contraction to produce movement

Adaptations.
a. Abundance of mitochondria to release energy for contraction
b. Presence of actin and myosin filaments in the cytoplasm which carry out contraction

(iii) Red blood cell (Erythrocyte):

Functions.
a. Transportation of oxygen and small amounts of carbon dioxide.

Adaptations.
a. Biconcave disc shape to increase the surface area for diffusion of oxygen.

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 b. Presence of a red pigment called haemoglobin which has a high affinity (attraction) for
oxygen. Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxy-haemoglobin when oxygen
concentrations are high (e.g. in the lungs). When oxygen concentrations are low e.g. in the
muscles, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates forming haemoglobin and oxygen.

c. Absence of nucleus makes more room for haemoglobin.

(iv) Nerve Cell (neurone):

Functions.
a. To conduct electrical impulses (nerve impulses) from one part of the body to another.

Adaptations.
a. Presence of dendrites that collect impulses from neighbouring cells.
b. Presence of axon that carries impulses from one end of the neurone to another.
c. Presence of synaptic knob that forms a link with other neurones.
d. Presence of nodes of ranvier that make impulses move faster.
❖ Note the part of the neurone having the nucleus and cytoplasm is called the cell body.
(v) White Blood Cells: These are cells that defend the body against infection (diseases). Two
examples of white blood cells are phagocytes and lymphocytes.
-Phagocytes.

Functions.
- They defend the body against infection by engulfing and digesting germs (foreign bodies).

Adaptations:
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 - Lobed nucleus which makes engulfing of germs easy.
- Amoeboid movement which makes it possible for them to move towards germs.

- They have no fixed shape but can change their shapes, making engulfing of foreign bodies
possible.
-Lymphocytes.

Functions.
- To defend the body against infection by producing antibodies and antitoxins. Antibodies are
proteins that destroy germs/foreign bodies while anti-toxins are proteins that neutralize poisons
from germs.

Adaptations:
Presence of a large nucleus and thin cytoplasm.

4. Describe cell organization in multicellular organisms

A group of specialized cells having the same shape/structure and function make up a tissue.
Examples of tissues are epidermis, palisade tissue, spongy tissue, blood, and epithelium and bone
tissue.
A group of tissues performing a specific function make up an organ. Examples of organs are roots,
stems, leaves, liver, skin, heart, brain, eyes, ears, kidneys and lungs. What tissues make up each of
these organs?
A group of organs performing a specific function make up a system. Examples of systems are
vascular system, digestive system, excretory system, endocrine system, nervous system, skeletal
system, respiratory system and reproductive system. What organs make up each of these systems?
A group of systems performing a specific function make up an organism. There are two types of
organisms namely: unicellular which has only one cell e.g amoeba and multicellular which has many
cells e.g a human being.
Levels of cell organization may be summarized as follows:

5. Identify tissues in plants and animals

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 (i) Plants: palisade, phloem, epidermis, xylem, spongy.
(ii) Animals: muscle, bone, nerves, blood.
6. Explain the general functions of each tissue
(i) Phloem tissue. To transport manufactured food from one part of the plant to another
(ii) Palisade tissue. That’s where photosynthesis mainly takes place
(iii) Xylem tissue. To transport water and mineral salts from the roots to all parts of the
plant.
(iv) Muscle tissue. To conduct electrical impulses (nerve impulses) from one part of the
body to another. To contract to produce movement.
(v) Nerve tissue. To conduct electrical impulses (nerve impulses)from one part of the body
to another.
(vi) Blood tissue: This is a tissue made up of liquid called plasma. Plasma is mainly water
with dissolved substances like hormones, enzymes, gases and nutrients.
Functions.
a. To transport materials to and from all parts of the body.
b. To protect the body from diseases.
c. To regulate the body temperature.
7. Identify organs in plants and animals.

Plants:

a. Stems and branches: Stems and branches hold up the leaves and space the leaves out.
This helps the plant to get the light it needs.
b. Roots: Roots help fix the plant to the soil or to other plants. Roots take in water and
nutrients.
c. Leaves: Leaves make all the food for the plant. They do this by changing light, water
and gases into food. This process is called photosynthesis.

d. Flowers: Flowers contain the male and female parts of the plants. Successful
pollination of the flower can result in the production of fruit and seeds.
Animals: The animal organs and their function are shown in the table below

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 Various organs are grouped together to form a body system which carries out a special job.
Organs in the Body Function
1 The heart Circulates oxygen -rich blood and throughout
the body and carbon dioxide rich blood to the
lungs for gaseous exchange
The liver Stores nutrients, including glycogen and
2 vitamin A. The liver breaks down or hides
harmful substances. It is also involved in
protein synthesis and production of
biochemical necessary for digestion.
The brain Controls the body and conducts millions of
3 messages to and from the muscles.
The lungs Help to exchange gases (carbon dioxide and
4 oxygen) for respiration
The kidneys Excrete waste products that are toxic in the
5 body

DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT

1. Describe the processes of diffusion and osmosis
Diffusion: This is the movement of particles from their region of higher concentration to their
region of lower concentration (down a concentration gradient).
Experiment to Demonstrate Diffusion
Materials: A 250 cm3 glass beaker, a long glass tube, a holed rubber bung or stopper, a coloured
crystal such as potassium permanganate or copper (II) sulphate and water
Method: Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram

First insert one end of the glass tube halfway into the rubber stopper. Place the rubber stopper and
glass tube into the beaker, keeping the rubber firmly pressed to the bottom of the beaker. Introduce
the coloured crystal of potassium permanganate down the tube. Close the open end of the glass

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 tube with a finger and fill the beaker halfway with water. With one end of the glass tube still closed
with a finger, gently lift the glass tube and rubber stopper out of the beaker without disturbing the
crystal. Observe what happens in the beaker until there are no further changes.
Observations:
At the beginning, the clear water and coloured crystal are each clearly visible. After some time,
the colour of the crystal starts spreading out but some of the water still remains clear. Eventually,
all the water is evenly coloured by the colour of the crystal
Conclusion:
The particles of the potassium permanganate crystal spread out in the water by the process of
diffusion.

Factors that affect the rate of Diffusion

The rate at which particles diffuse is affected by the following factors:
Concentration gradient: This refers to the difference in concentration of particles between two
regions. The higher the concentration gradient, the faster the diffusion rate
Surface area of Diffusion Surface: The larger the surface area of the diffusion surface, the faster
the rate of diffusion.
Thickness of Diffusion Surface: The thinner the diffusion surface, the faster the diffusion rate.
Temperature: Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles causing them to
diffuse at a faster rate.
Size of Diffusing Particles: The bigger the diffusing particles, the slower the diffusion rate; the
smaller the diffusing particles, the faster the diffusion rate.

Importance of Diffusion
Diffusion is important in living organisms in the following ways:
➢ Oxygen moves from the lungs to the blood and from the blood to the tissue cells by
diffusion.
➢ Carbon dioxide moves from the tissue cells to the blood and from the blood to the lungs
by diffusion.
➢ Dissolved food moves from the blood into the tissue cells by diffusion.
➢ Metabolic wastes such as urea move from the tissue cells into the blood by diffusion.
➢ Carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis by plants moves from the atmosphere into the
leaves by diffusion.
➢ Oxygen produced during photosynthesis moves out of the leaves to the atmosphere by
diffusion.
➢ Water vapour moves out of the air spaces of leaves to the atmosphere during transpiration
by diffusion.

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 Osmosis: Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential
to a region of lower water potential through a selectively permeable membrane. Water potential
is a measure of the capacity or tendency of water molecules to move from one solution to another.
Distilled water has the highest water potential. The more concentrated a solution becomes, the
less its water potential becomes. A selectively permeable membrane can allow water molecules
to pass through because of their small size but cannot allow solute molecules to pass through
because of their big size. Osmosis is a special type of diffusion. The following diagram illustrates
what occurs during osmosis.

Experiment to Demonstrate Osmosis

Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram

Mark the initial level of liquid in each of the three glass tubes. Record what happens to the liquid
level in each glass tube after five minutes.
Observations
In A the liquid level drops. In B the liquid level stays the same. In C the liquid level rises.
Conclusion
During osmosis, water molecules move from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated
solution through a selectively permeable membrane until a dynamic equilibrium is reached.
Equilibrium is a state where the number of water molecules moving to either side of the
selectively permeable membrane is equal.

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 Osmosis is important in living organisms mainly in movement of water into and out of cells
(absorption of water by plants, movement of water from cell to cell etc.)

2. Explain the effects and importance of diffusion and osmosis in living organisms

Effects of Osmosis in Living Organisms

The cells, tissues, organs and systems of living organisms are always exposed to body fluids or
solutions of different concentrations. There are three types of solutions an organism may be
exposed to, namely hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solutions.
Hypotonic: A hypotonic solution is one whose concentration is lower than the concentration
inside a living cell.
Isotonic: An isotonic solution is one whose concentration is equal to the concentration inside a
living cell. Isotonic solutions have no net osmotic effects in living organisms because a dynamic
equilibrium exists between them and the living cells.
Hypertonic: A hypertonic solution is one whose concentration is higher than the concentration
inside a living cell.

Effects of Osmosis in Animals

Cell lysis and cell crenation
When an animal cell such as a red blood cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it gains water by
osmosis. This is as a result of the water potential of the hypotonic solution being higher inside the
cell than outside the cell. Eventually the cell swells up and bursts. The bursting of an animal cell
due to osmotic gain of water is called cell lysis. An animal cell which is placed in a hypertonic
solution loses water by osmosis because the water potential inside the cell is higher than the water
potential of the hypertonic solution. This leads to shrinking and crinkling/wrinkling of an animal
cell. This is a condition called crenation. Osmotic loss of water by animal tissues leads to
dehydration of the animal. The following diagrams illustrate cell lysis and crenation.
Cell lysis and crenation in a red blood cell

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 Effects of Osmosis in Plants
(i) Turgidity
When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it gains water by osmosis because the water
potential of the hypotonic solution is higher than the water potential inside the plant cell. The
protoplasm swells and eventually starts pressing against the cell wall. The condition where the
protoplasm of a plant cell presses against the cell wall due to osmotic gain of water is called
turgidity. A plant cell that is undergoing turgidity is said to be turgid. The plant cell does not
burst because it has a cellulose cell wall which protects it from bursting.
(ii) Plasmolysis.
When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, it loses water by osmosis because the water
potential inside the cell is higher than the water potential of the hypertonic solution. The
protoplasm shrinks and pulls away from the cell wall due to osmotic loss of water. This is a
condition refered to as plasmolysis. A plant cell that is undergoing plasmolysis is said to be
plasmolysed. The following diagrams illustrate turgidity and plasmolysis.

(iii) Flaccid
When a plant tissue such as a peeled potato tuber is placed in a hypotonic solution, it gains water
by osmosis and becomes bigger and more firm. The presence of water in plant tissues forms a
hydrostatic skeleton which renders mechanical support to the entire plant When a plant tissue
such as a peeled potato tuber is placed in a hypertonic solution, it loses water by osmosis and
becomes flaccid/flabby (smaller and weaker). In a living plant, this leads to a condition called
wilting. Wilting is the sagging of delicate plant parts such as leaves, flowers and young stems
due loss of water. Temporary wilting is one which can be reversed by supplying a plant with
water. Permanent wilting cannot be reversed even if a plant is supplied with water the plant
tissues have already died. Suggest why it is not advisable to apply too much fertilizer on plants.
3. Describe what active transport is.
Active transport is the movement of particles against a concentration gradient using energy from
ATP. It is the main process by which mineral ions move into and out of living cells e.g. ion uptake
by root hairs, uptake of glucose by epithelial cells of the villi and transportation of glucose to storage
organs in plants

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 TOPIC 3: ENZYMES
Enzymes are defined as biological catalysts. A catalyst is any substance that speeds up the rate of a
chemical reaction without itself being changed by the reaction. Enzymes catalyse chemical reactions in
living organisms. Those that work inside of living cells are called intracellular enzymes while those that
work outside living cells are called extracellular enzymes. The substances on which enzymes act to form
products are called substrates. The part of an enzyme where the substrate fits during an enzyme-
catalyzed reaction is called the active site while the other parts of the enzyme are called allosteric sites.
A typical enzyme-catalyzed reaction may be represented as follows:

1. Describe the characteristics of Enzymes.

• Most of them are protein in nature.
• They are catalysts.
• They catalyze both forward and reverse reactions.
• Their activity is affected by temperature, PH, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration,
inhibitors and cofactors (coenzymes and activators).Memory aid: SEPTIC
• They are specific. This means each enzyme acts on only one substrate or a narrow range of
related substrates. One of the theories used to explain enzyme specificity is called the lock-and-
key mechanism. This theory states that each substrate fits into the active site of a particular
enzyme in the same way a key fit into a specific lock because the two have complementary
shapes. The following diagram illustrates the lock-and-key mechanism.

2. Explain the effects of temperature and pH on enzyme action )

Temperature
Enzyme activity increases with increase in temperature up to the optimum temperature. Optimum
temperature is the temperature at which an enzyme works best. This occurs because an increase in
temperature results in increase in the kinetic energy of both the enzyme and the substrate. every

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 increase of 10 o C. The optimum temperature is the temperature at which an enzyme works best.
The activity reduces after the optimum temperature because the enzyme gets denatured and loses
its catalytic function. Enzyme denaturation is the disturbance of the shape of an enzyme and its
active site such that the substrate no longer fits in the active site. Hence the enzyme can no longer
carry out its catalytic function. The following graph shows how enzyme activity is affected by
temperature.

pH
PH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a substance is. PH values range from 1 to 14.As shown in
the diagram below.

The PH value at which a given enzyme works best is called the optimum pH. Values lower or higher
than the optimum PH lower enzyme activity. The optimum pH varies from enzyme to enzyme,
depending on the enzyme’s natural occurrence. For instance, the digestive enzymes of the stomach
work best at acidic PH values while those of the duodenum work best at alkaline PH values. A graph
of enzyme activity against PH is always symmetrical and has its peak at the optimum PH, as illustrated
by the following diagram

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 3. Explain industrial application of enzymes.

Making of Biological Detergents: Enzymes are included in biological detergents so that

they can hydrolyze stains of biological origin. The most commonly used enzymes are
proteases which breakdown protein stains such as blood and chlorophyll stains, forming
colourless amino acids as products. Lipases and carbohydrases may be used to get rid of
lipid and carbohydrate stains, respectively, but these are easy to wash even with ordinary
detergents.
Baking: When baking, flour, water, sugar and yeast are mixed to make dough. Yeast
secretes zymase which breaks down sugars to form alcohol and carbon dioxide. The carbon
dioxide forms bubbles which cause the dough to rise.
Brewing: When brewing cereal seeds are soaked until they start germinating. During the
process of germination, starch is broken down to maltose by the enzyme amylase. Maltose
is broken down to glucose by maltase. The seeds are dried and ground to form a powder.
The powder is boiled in hot water to form a paste. After the past cools, yeast is added. The
enzyme zymase from yeast acts on sugars to form alcohol and carbon dioxide. The alcohol
is removed from the mixture by distillation. Baking and brewing both make use of the
enzyme zymase which is found in yeast.
Making Sweeteners for Foods and Drinks: In sweetening of confectioneries, glucose is
converted into fructose by the enzyme glucose isomerase because fructose is sweeter than
glucose.
In the Dairy Industry: In the dairy industry, the enzyme rennin is used to coagulate milk
during the making of yoghurt and cheese.
Tanning of Leather: Tanning is a process by which leather is made soft and pliable. Trypsin
is utilized to digest proteins in the leather during tanning.
Extraction and Processing of Fruit Juice: When extracting juices from fruits enzymes
known as cellulases and pectinases are used to increase the juice yield and prevent jellying
of the juices, respectively.
Tenderizing of Meat: The meat industry makes use of Trypsin to tenderize meat and
predigest baby food.

TOPIC 4: NUTRIENTS
A nutrient is a chemical or substance that provides what is needed for plants or animals to live
and grow. There are seven classes of nutrients namely: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water,
mineral salts, vitamins and roughage. Memory aid: Calipro Wamiviro.
(i) Carbohydrates: These are nutrients that are made of elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen and are a source of energy. Lack of carbohydrates in diet leads to marasmus.
They are commonly obtained from plants. There are three classes of carbohydrates,

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 namely monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

(ii) Lipids: These are nutrients made of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
However, the amount of oxygen in lipids is less than the one found in carbohydrates.
They are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol and organic solvents such as acetone,
benzene and chloroform. Edible lipids include oils and fats. Oils are liquid at room
temperature while fats are solid at room temp. The building blocks of lipids are glycerol
and fatty acids. Each molecule of a fat comprises one molecule of glycerol and three
molecules of fatty acids.

(iii) Proteins: All proteins contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Most of them also contain sulphur or phosphorous and a small number of them contain
metals such as iron (haemoglobin) and magnesium (chlorophyll). The building blocks
of proteins are amino acids. There are twenty amino acids commonly found in living
organisms and theses may be divided into two groups namely essential and non-
essential amino acids. Essential amino acids are those that the body cannot synthesize
but must be part of the diet. Non-essential amino acids are those that the body can
synthesize and so are not required in the diet. Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds
to make molecules known as peptides. A peptide molecule consisting of two amino
acids is called a dipeptide while one with more than two is called a polypeptide. Most
proteins are polypeptides.
(iv) Water: It is an inorganic molecule made of the elements hydrogen and oxygen, its
chemical formula is H2O.
(v) Mineral Salts: These are inorganic substances and are required by the body in small
amounts and their absence causes serious deficiency diseases. They are absorbed into
the body in the form of ions (charged particles formed when an atom gains or loses
electrons). They function as enzyme activators. Examples of mineral salts are calcium
and iron.
(vi) Vitamins: Vitamins are organic molecules required by the body in small amounts and
their absence leads to deficiency diseases. They function as co-enzymes. There are two
groups of vitamins, namely water soluble (those that dissolve in water i.e. B and C)
and fat soluble vitamins (those that dissolve in fats i.e. A, D, E and
(vii) Roughage: This is the indigestible part of the diet made of cellulose. It adds bulk to
faeces and stimulates peristalsis (wave like motion) along the alimentary canal, thereby
preventing constipation. Lack of roughage leads to constipation (difficult defaecation
due to hardness and dryness of faeces). The other name for roughage is dietary fibre.

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 1. Investigate the presence of nutrients in food samples.
a) The Iodine Test for Starch.
(i)If the sample is in solid /powder form
• Place a small amount of sample on a white tile
• Add 2 drops of iodine solution to the sample; then observe and record what happens.
(ii) If the sample is in solution/suspension form
• Place 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
• Add 2 drops of iodine solution to the test tube and shake; then observe and record what
happens.

The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the table below:
Observation Conclusion
Solution remains yellowish-brown Starch absent
Solution turns blue-black Starch present

(b). The Benedict’s test for Reducing Sugars.

This test requires the sample to be in solution form and may be performed on suspensions. If the
sample is in solid form, it will first need to be ground /crushed/cut into very small pieces and to
be shaken with distilled water for extraction of reducing sugars if they are present. Filter and
then proceed with the following test method on the filtrate:
• Place 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
• Add 2 cm3/an equal volume of Benedict’s solution to the sample solution and shake.
• Gently heat the mixture using a water bath; then observe and record what happens.
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:

Observation Conclusion
Solution remains blue Reducing sugars absent
*Solution turns green/yellow/orange/brick red Reducing sugars present
*Only state the final colour observed and not all
the colours mentioned in the table. The extent of
the colour change indicates the quantity of
reducing sugars present i.e. green and yellow
colours

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 indicate that little/traces/small amounts of
reducing sugars are present, orange indicates that
reducing sugars are present and brick red
indicates high concentrations of reducing sugars
present.

(c). The Benedict’s test for Non-reducing Sugars.

• First carry out the Benedict’s test for reducing sugars. If the colour of the solution remains
blue, proceed with the next steps.
• Place another 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
• Add 1 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric, heat in water bath for 3 minutes and cool.
• Add sodium hydrogen carbonate solution or sodium hydroxide solution to the mixture, a
little at a time until fizzing stops.
• Add an equal volume of Benedict’s solution to the mixture.
• Gently heat the mixture using a water bath; then observe and record what happens.
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:
Observation Conclusion
Solution remains blue Non-reducing sugars absent
Solution turns green/yellow/ orange/brick red Non-reducing sugar present

(d). The Biuret Test for Proteins.

This test also works best for solutions and suspensions. Extraction by grinding and shaking with
distilled water is therefore necessary where samples are in solid form. The filtrate will then be
tested as follows:
• Place 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
• Either add 5 drops of sodium hydroxide solution to the sample solution followed by a 2
drops of copper (II) sulphate solution, drop by drop, shaking and observing after each drop.
• Or add an equal volume of Biuret solution; then observe and record what happens.
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in following table:
Observation Conclusion
Solution remains blue Proteins absent
*Solution turns purple/violet/lilac/mauve Proteins present

35

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 Only one of these options needs to be mentioned. Candidates are advised to use colour names
which are commonly used e.g. it is better to use the name purple or violet instead of mauve or
lilac.
Testing for Lipids (Fats and Oils).
(i) The Emulsion Test
• Shake a small sample/a drop of sample solution with 2 cm3absolute ethanol in a test tube.
• Add a few drops of distilled water to the test tube; then observe and record what happens.
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:
Observation Conclusion
Solution remains clear Fats/oils absent
Emulsion formed/solution turns cloudy Fats/oils present

The Grease Spot Test.

• Place a drop of sample/sample solution on filter paper or brown paper.
• Place a drop of distilled water next to the drop of the sample.
• Hold the paper against light until the drop of water disappears; then observe and record
what happens to the sample spot.
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:
Observation Conclusion
Sample spot disappears Fats/oils absent
Permanent translucent/oily/greasy spot formed Fats/oils present

2. Identify good sources of nutrients

• Carbohydrates: rice, potatoes, bread, nshima, cassava.
• Proteins: fish, meat, chicken, beans, eggs.
• Lipids: fats and oils.
• Vitamins: Mango, orange, pineapple, apple, banana and vegetables.
• Rouphage: maize, unpolished cereals, fruits etc.

3. Describe the importance of nutrients, salts, vitamins and roughage to the body.
(i) Carbohydrates
- Supply of energy to the body
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 (ii) Lipids
- Water proofing- certain organisms such as ducks secrete lipids which prevent
their bodies from getting wet with water
- Insulation- animals have a layer of fat under their skins which prevents heat
loss from the body
- Formation of cell membrane- the cell membrane is made of lipids called
phospholipids which can be synthesized from fats and oils
- Energy source-lipids store a lot of energy which is made available when the
supply of carbohydrates in the body is low. In fact, lipids store twice as much
energy as an equal amount of carbohydrates.
The uses of lipids can be summarized by the mnemonic WIFE
(iii) Proteins
- Growth and repair of body tissues
- They are important for making body chemicals such as hormones, enzymes,
antibodies, antitoxins, haemoglobin, keratin, melanin, collagen, actin and
myosin
(iv) Water
- It is a universal solvent- where substances needed by the body are dissolved
and transported
- Thermoregulation- water is a coolant when the body gets hot and also helps
distribute body heat from active organs
- Digestion- involved in chemical breaking down of large molecules into
smaller ones, also called hydrolysis.
- It is a component of body fluids- saliva, blood, lymph e.t.c
- It is a participant in metabolic reactions such as photosynthesis.
- It makes up the hydrostatic skeleton in some organisms such as worms.
- It prevents constipation (difficult defaecation due to dryness and hardness of
faeces).
(v) Roughage
- It adds bulk to faeces and stimulates peristalsis (wave like motion) along the
alimentary canal, thereby preventing constipation
- Lack of roughage leads to constipation (difficult defaecation due to hardness
and dryness of faeces). The other name for roughage is dietary fibre.

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 (vi) Vitamins
VITAMIN FUNCTION FOOD SOURCE DEFICIENCE
DISORDER
Vitamin A (retinol) Keeps the eyes, Oranges, green Dry eyes and skin,
immune system and vegetables, carrots, night blindness.
skin health pumpkins
Vitamin B Needed for healthy Meat, eggs, liver Beriberi, a disease
(thiamine) nerves and muscles. and cereals that causes
Helps to release inflammation of the
energy from nerves and heart
carbohydrates failure.
Vitamin C Improves the Spinach, tomatoes, Scurvy, a disease
(ascorbic acid) immune system and grapes and citrus that causes swollen,
keeps bones, gums, fruits such as bleeding gums and
teeth and blood oranges and the opening of
vessels healthy. lemons. previously healed
wounds.
Vitamin D Works with calcium Eggs fish, oils. The Rickets, a disease
(calciferol) and phosphorous to skin makes vitamin that causes bones to
keep bones strong D when exposed to become soft and
and healthy. sunlight. deformed.
Vitamin E Improves the All green leafy Weak immune
(tocopherol) immune system and vegetables, oils and system, infertility.
helps the body fight nuts
heart diseases and
cancer.

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 (vii) Mineral salts
MINERAL FUNCTION FOOD SOURCE DEFICIENCY
ELEMENT DISORDER
Calcium (Ca) Makes bones and Milk and milk Rickets in children
teeth strong, helps products, leafy and osteoporosis in
blood to clot vegetables. older women.
Magnesium (Mg) Helps to form Meat, fresh Muscle cramps
bones, teeth, vegetables
,muscles and nerves
Phosphorus (P) Makes strong bones Milk and milk Rickets
and teeth. Needed to products, leafy
build cell green vegetables
membranes
Iron (Fe) Is part of Red meat, egg Anaemia, a
haemoglobin, yolks, liver, condition when a
proteins that that is spinach. person is very pale,
needed to carry has weak immune
oxygen to the system and gets tired
tissues. quickly.
Zinc (Zn) Improves the Fresh vegetables Weak immune
immune system, system
growth and
development of all
tissues in the body.
Iodine (I) Needed for the Sea foods and Enlarged thyroid
thyroid gland to iodised salt. gland, called goitre.
function Goitre leads to
malfunctioning of
the thyroid gland.

4. Identify nutritional related disorders/ conditions

➢ KWASHIORKOR: This disease is caused by lack of proteins in the diet. It is common
in children who mainly feed on carbohydrates. A child suffering from kwashiorkor
usually has a bloated stomach and very thin arms and legs. The child grows slowly and
mental development is also slow.
TREATMENT: Feed the child with food rich in proteins like meat, milk, fish and
beans.
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 ➢ MARASMUS: This is a condition that develops when a person starves. It is caused by
lack of carbohydrates in the body, mainly in infants. A person suffering from marasmus
is very thin, with skin hanging in folds.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Supply of food rich in carbohydrates.
Balanced diet and educate mothers on the need for a balanced diet for their children.
➢ GOITRE. This is the swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck. It is caused by lack of
iodine in the diet.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT: Supply of iodine in the diet and surgical
removal of thyroid gland especially in adults.
➢ SCURVY: t is caused by lack of water soluble vitamin C that is essential for healthy
gums and teeth.
PREVENTION/TREATMENT: Supply food rich in vitamin C,e.g citrus fruits, green
vegetables ,sweet and Irish potatoes. Use of vitamin C supplements to supply the
required vitamin C.
➢ RICKETS. It is caused by the following:
Lack of vitamin D.(calciferol) in the diet. Inability for the skin to synthesize vitamin D
using ultra-violet radiations from the sun. Poor absorption of calcium and phosphorous
in the body and reduced calcification and bone formation.
PREVENTION: Supply of food rich in vitamin D like fish, liver and code liver oils.
Exposure of oneself to sunlight /ultra-violet radiations to allow the skin to synthesize
vitamin D (Calciferol).
➢ ANEAMIA: Anaemia is caused by lack of iron ,vitamin B12.
PREVENTION: Supply of food rich in iron and B12 eg liver,lean meat,fish,milk and
eggs, take supplements of vitamin B12 and iron and deworm periodically.
➢ OBESITY: This is a medical condition in which the body accumulates fats beyond a
certain limit. It is caused by the following:
- Eating bulky food.
- too much carbohydrates.
- Psychological disturbances that slows down metabolism which leads to the
build up of fats. Anxiety may result in over-eating.
- Lack of exercises to keep the weight within accepted limit by burning excess
calories.

MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF OBESITY.

- Control energy giving foods intake.

- Use drugs that reduce appetite and stimulate lipid metabolism.
- Doing physical exercises.
5. Design a balanced diet for people with different conditions.
Different conditions in different people require different diets, consisting of all food nutrients
in their right proportions.

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 (i) DIET FOR THE AGED
An aged person requires a deity that consists of mainly fluids, should comprise of several
small meals per day which helps in the efficient digestion of the food.
- Little carbohydrates should be given due to the reduced ability to do work.
- A lot of vitamins must be given to prevent infections as their immune system has
reduced. Mineral elements must also be given to prevent diseases like goitre and
have strong bones.
- Fats should be given so that they act as shock absorbers around organs.
(ii) DIET FOR A PREGNANT WOMAN: A pregnant woman requires a balanced diet for
herself and the developing baby in her womb. She must have a diet rich in:
- Proteins because new cells for growth are made.
- Vitamin C to prevent infections.
- Mineral ions like calcium and phosphorus for strong and proper formation of
bones and teeth, if she takes less calcium, her teeth would ache.
- Iron for the formation of red blood cells, if little is taken, much of it is used by
the foetus alone and the mother becomes anaemic.
- A lot of fluids because many chemical reactions take place in fluid medium and
the water are also required for buoyancy in the amniotic cavity.
- A lot of carbohydrates in order to be energetic.
(iii) DIET FOR A SICK PERSON: The diet for the sick person should provide nutrients
that will address the following factors:
- The sick maybe weak and may lose weight during the illness.
- The immune system may be weakened.
- The person may lose a lot of water especially if they have a fever, diarrhoea or
vomiting.
- The person may have reduced or no appetite.
The following are the components that should be contained in a sick person’s
diet:
- Adequate protein for repair of damaged cells and the replacement of dead cells.
- Adequate carbohydrates and fats to help the sick gain weight and energy.
- Adequate safe water to replace that which was lost due to sickness.
- Mineral salts and vitamins that the body needs.
(iv) DIET FOR A LACTATING WOMAN: A lactating mother requires a balanced diet
so that the baby receives sufficient milk. She must eat a lot of food containing:
- Proteins so that more milk is made for her baby.
- Fluids to increase the amount of milk in the mammary glands.
- Carbohydrates so that she gets enough to her child.
- Vitamins and Mineral salts to prevent deficiency diseases and keep her look
young and healthy.
(v) DIET FOR THE PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN: Children in this group use a lot of
energy because they are very active. They require a balanced diet that will provide all
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 nutrients they need, because they eat in small portions, they ought to at least eat five
meals a day. Their diet should comprise:
- Energy giving foods.
- Proteins.
- Fruits and vegetables for the supply of minerals and vitamins.
- Milk should also be given.
(vi) DIET FOR A SPORTSMAN: A sportsman is involved in intense physical activity.
Sportsmen need:
- A lot of carbohydrates for energy.
- Mineral salts for the muscles.
- Adequate proteins for muscular development and healing of injuries.
- Enough water to replace that which is lost during sweating in order to maintain
the cellular fluids at the right concentration.
(vii) DIET FOR THE YOUTH: The youth require many different types of nutrients in
the body. They are so energetic and vulnerable to diseases. It is important to reduce
sugar intake as this may cause obesity, heart disease and diabetes. The youth need:
- Proteins for body growth and repair.
- Carbohydrates for energy.
- Fats for energy and warmth.
- Vitamins such as B12 and B6.
- Minerals such as Zinc.

6. Describe the micro and macro plant nutrients and their deficiency.
Plants require several elements in order to grow properly. These elements are absorbed by the
roots from the soil in the form of mineral ions. There are two groups of elements needed by
plants for proper growth namely major elements and minor elements.
Macro Plant Nutrients: Macro elements are required by plants in large quantities. Three
examples of major elements are nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (NPK)
Micro plant nutrients: Micro elements are needed by the plant in small quantities. Examples
of mineral ions needed by plants are magnesium, calcium, sulphur, boron, copper and iron.

NUTRIENT FUNCTION DEFFIECIENCY DISEASE

Nitrogen (N) Needed to make proteins for Stunted growth, small poorly
growth developed yellow leaves (leaves
are flecked with spots)

Phosphorus (P) Part of DNA, membrane lipids Poor nutrient uptake and cell
and ATP (energy carrier) membrane formation

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 Potassium (K) Stimulates growth of flowers Poor growth of flowers and fruit
and fruit

Calcium (Ca) Keeps cell membranes healthy Reduces permeability of the cell
membranes

Magnesium (Mg) Needed for the formation of the Chlorosis, a disease that causes
green pigment, chlorophyll. leaves to turn yellow, usually
starting with the bottom leaves.

Sulphur (S) Needed to form chlorophyll, Chlorosis (poor root growth and
improves root growth and seed seed production)
production

Boron (B) Keeps the cell walls strong, Weak cell walls, leads to poor
regulates the secretion of plant production of proteins.
hormones, helps to absorb
nitrogen.

Copper (Cu) Needed for root formation and Poor root growth and
growth of reproductive organs reproductive organs not grown
to full size.

Iron (Fe) Needed to make chlorophyll but chlorosis

it is not part of it

7. Describe deficiency diseases of macro and micro plant.

Deficiency diseases include the following:
(i) Chlorosis
(ii) Stunted growth
(iii) Leaf flecking.

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 TOPIC 5: NUTRITION IN PLANTS
1. Describe the external and internal structure of a leaf.

External parts of the leaf and their functions:

➢ Leaf Blade (lamina): Wide flattened area of leaf for concentrating sunlight on
photosynthetic cells.
➢ Leaf stalk or Petiole: Short stem that attaches leaf to main stem or branch. It holds the
leaf away from the stem so that the leaf can get more sunlight.
➢ Veins: Vascular bundles within leaf for transport. The veins deliver water and salts to
the leaf cells and carry away the food made by them. The veins also act as skeletons
that support the softer tissues of the leaf blade
Internal parts of the leaf and their functions:

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 Part of Details
leaf
Cuticle Made of wax, waterproofing the leaf. It is secreted by cells of the upper
epidermis. The cuticle protects the epidermis and prevents excessive
water loss through evaporation. It is transparent to allow sunlight to pass
through.
upper This is a single layer of irregular, closely packed cells covered by a layer
epidermis of waxy cuticle. Epidermal cells contain no chloroplasts.
palisade These cells are thin and transparent to allow light to pass through. Cells
mesophyll are columnar (upright or column) in shape and closely packed. They
contain a lot of chloroplasts to increase absorption of sunlight for
photosynthesis.
spongy These cells are more spherical and loosely packed. They contain
mesophyll chloroplasts, but not as many as in palisade cells. Air spaces between cells
allow gaseous exchange – carbon dioxide to the cells, oxygen from the
cells during photosynthesis.

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 vascular This is a leaf vein, made up of xylem and phloem. Xylem vessels bring
bundle water and minerals to the leaf. Phloem vessels transport sugars and amino
acids away (this is called translocation).
lower This acts as a protective layer. Stomata are present to regulate the loss of
epidermis water vapour (this is called transpiration). It is the site of gaseous
exchange into and out of the leaf.
Stomata Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells. These can control
whether the stoma is open or closed. Water vapour passes out during
transpiration. Carbon dioxide diffuses in and oxygen diffuses out during
photosynthesis.
Guard These are bean-shaped, chloroplast-containing cells located in the lower
cells epidermis. They control the opening and closing of the stoma (plural:
stomata), the gap between the guard cells. The stomata allow carbon
dioxide to diffuse in, oxygen to diffuse out and water vapour to escape.

Photosynthesis
To determine whether photosynthesis has taken place, the leaves of plants are tested for starch.
The steps involved in testing a leaf for starch are:
➢ Boil the leaf in water (to kill the protoplasm and make it permeable to Iodine solution)
➢ Boil the leaf in alcohol using a water bath. This is to extract the chlorophyll so that it
does not interfere with colour changes; a water bath is used because alcohol is highly
flammable. However, the alcohol also makes the leaf brittle.
➢ Place the leaf in warm water to soften it.
Spread the leaf on a white tile and add a few drops of Iodine solution this is to test for starch.
If the Iodine solution turns blue-black, starch is present and if it remains yellowish brown,
starch is absent.
2. Investigate factors necessary for photosynthesis
These are factors that need to be present for photosynthesis to take place and they include
carbon dioxide, water, sunlight and chlorophyll.
Experiment to show that Carbon Dioxide is necessary for Photosynthesis
- Destarch a well-watered potted plant by placing it in the dark for at least 24 hours.
During this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is used up.
- Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram:

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 Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours.
- Test leaves A and B for starch
Leaf A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while leaf B turns yellowish
brown (showing the absence of starch). This shows that carbon dioxide is necessary
for photosynthesis.
Experiment to show that light is necessary for Photosynthesis
- Destarch a well-watered potted plant by placing it in the dark for at least 24 hours.
During this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is used up.
- Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram:

Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours. While the plant is in sunlight, draw the selected
leaf showing the exposed parts and the covered parts.
- Test parts A (exposed part) and B (covered part) for starch
Part A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while part B turns yellowish brown
(showing the absence of starch). This shows that light is necessary for photosynthesis.
Experiment to show that Chlorophyll is necessary for Photosynthesis
- Destarch a well-watered potted plant which has variegated leaves by placing it in the
dark for at least 24 hours. During this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is
used up.

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 - Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours. While the plant is in sunlight, draw a
selected leaf showing the green parts and the white parts so that they can easily be
identified even after chlorophyll has been removed from the leaf. Label the green parts
as A and the white parts as B.
- Test the parts A (green part) and B (white part/ yellow) for starch.
Part A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while part B turns yellowish brown
(showing the absence of starch). This shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.
3. Describe the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis.
Light Reaction: Light is essential for this phage. It takes place in the grana, a part of
chloroplasts. Chlorophyll molecules absorb light energy from the sun. In this process water
breaks down to O2, e- (electron) and Hydrogen (proton = H+) by the help of energy obtained
from sunlight. Such break down is called Photolysis or Photolysis of water. Large amount of
light energy is assimilated in chemical compound named ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate) and
NADPH (Nicotinamide Adenosine Dinucleotide Hydrogen Phosphate) as chemical energy.
ATP and NADPH are called assimilatory Power. This process of formation of ATP by using
light energy is called Photophosphorylation.

Dark Reaction: This follows after the light phase. Light energy is not needed for this phase.
It takes place in the liquid stroma of the chloroplast. In this reaction, carbon dioxide reacts
with ATP and NADPH to form simple sugars. The dark phase consists of a series of reactions.
Each step in the cycle is controlled by enzymes. Energised hydrogen and NADPH in the light
reaction combine with carbon and oxygen atoms from carbon dioxide to produce simple
carbohydrates like glucose. Energy from ATP controls each step.

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 4. Describe the chemical reactions for photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants manufacture glucose/ starch/
carbohydratesc from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light energy absorbed by
chlorophyll. Oxygen is produced as a by-product. This process takes place in leaves and may
be summarised by the following word and chemical equations:
Word equation

Chemical equation

5. Describe the fate of glucose in plants.

The products for photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. The oxygen is released out of the
plant while some of it is used for respiration. The glucose formed is metabolically active and
takes part in the following reactions:
- Some of it is used for respiration
- Some of it is converted to cellulose and becomes part of cell walls
- Some of it is combined with nitrogen and used to synthesise amino acids
- Some of it is converted to sucrose in order to be transported
- Some of it is converted to fats and oils
- Some of it is converted to nucleic acids
- The excess is converted to starch for storage

6. Describe the importance of nutrients in plant.

Photosynthesis is the only process that can capture the energy of the sun, convert it
into glucose and store it as starch. The stored starch is then available as food and

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 energy to the plants and to the animals that eat the plants in this way, all life on earth
depends on photosynthesis. Plants can make oils, proteins and vitamins from
carbohydrates. These compounds all form part of nutrients that are essential to living
organisms. During photosynthesis, oxygen is released into the atmosphere. This
occurs when a water molecule is split. Animals use oxygen for breathing and
respiration. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This gas is
exhaled by all living organisms. In this way, the amount of carbon dioxide in the air
and the oceans is maintained at a constant level.

7. Identify storage organs of plants.

The food manufactured by plants is normally converted to starch and oils for storage. Oils are
mainly stored in seeds e.g. in groundnuts and sunflower. Starch is stored in a range of modified
plant organs, some of which are discussed below:

(i) Root tuber: This is a lateral root swollen with stored food e.g. sweet potato
(Ipomeabatatas) tuber.

(ii) Stem tuber: This is an underground stem swollen with stored food e.g. Irish potato
(Solanumtuberosum)

(iii) Bulb: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem e.g.
onion (Allium sp)

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 (iv) Rhizome: This is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger

(v) Corm: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem e.g. Crocus sp.

(vi) Seed: A sexually produced structure containing a plant embryo and its food store
protected by a testa.

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 TOPIC 6: SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION
1. Investigate the structure of Rhizopus or Mucor.
The bodies of Mucor and Rhizopus are made of threads called hyphae. A mass of hyphae
is called a mycelium. Horizontal hyphae are called stolons; root like hyphae are called
rhizoids while those that bear spore cases (sporangia) are called sporangiophores. Each
spore case contains numerous spores. Spores are microscopic structures produced
asexually which are capable of germinating under favourable conditions.

2. State the functions of the parts of Rhizopus.

(i) Hyphae: it forms a tangled mass called mycelia (single: mycelium). Horizontal
hyphae are called stolons.
(ii) Rhizoids: These are root-like structures that grow into the substrate that the fungus
feeds on.
(iii) Sporangiophores: these are vertical hyphae. They bear specialised sacs called
sporangia which contain spores. When spores mature they are dispersed by the
wind.
(iv) Sporangia (singular: sporangium): this is a structure at the tip of the
sporagiophore. Each sporangium contains numerous microscopic spores. These
spores germinate when conditions are favourable.
3. Describe what saprophytic nutrition is.
Saprophytic nutrition is a type of nutrition where an organism called the saprophyte feeds
on dead and decaying organic matter known as the substrate. Saprophytes digest food
outside living cells. This is called extra-cellular digestion. The saprophyte feeds by
secreting extracellular digestive enzymes from its hyphae. These enzymes hydrolyse the
substrate and the saprophyte absorbs the end products. Examples of saprophytic organisms
are mould fungi such as Mucor and Rhizopus.
4. Explain the importance of saprophytic nutrition.
Saprophytes are important in the following ways:
- They decompose dead organic matter, thereby preventing accumulation of dead
bodies
- They play a role in the recycling of nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen
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 - Some saprophytes are used as food e.g. mushrooms.
- Some saprophytes such as yeast are important in brewing and baking
5. State other types of saprophytic nutrition
(i) Symbiosis/Mutualism: This is an association between two different species of
organisms where each species benefits the other. Examples of mutualism are:
- The association between ruminants and the microbes which are found in their guts.
The ruminants provide a habitat and gather food which is used by the microbes.
- The association between legumes and nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium sp). The
legumes provide a habitat to the Rhizobium while the Rhizobium fixes nitrogen
into the legume plant.
(ii) Parasitic nutrition (Parasitism): This is a type of nutrition where an organism
known as the parasite lives and feeds off another organism called the host, often
causing harm such as disease, physical injury or even death in the process. The
parasite is always smaller than the host. There are two types of parasites which are
exoparasites (those that live on external surfaces of the body e.g. lice) and
endoparasites (those that live inside the body e.g. tapeworms and roundworms)
(iii) Commensalism: This is the sharing of the same environment by two organisms
where one species benefits and the other is unaffected. An example is barnacles on
whales.
(iv) Amensalism: This is a form of symbiosis in which one species is harmed and the
other is unaffected.

TOPIC 7: NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

DENTITION
Dentition refers to the types, numbers and arrangement of teeth in the mouth of an animal.
On the other hand, the term dental formula refers to the numbers and arrangement of teeth
according to type on the upper and lower jaw in one half of the mouth.

1. Identify the external structure and function of the human teeth.

Each tooth has a part that grows above the gum called the crown. The outer part of the
crown is covered with a substance called enamel. Enamel is the hardest substance in the
body of an animal. The part of the tooth found in the gum region is called the neck while
the part that grows below the gum is called the root.

Types of teeth and their functions

There are four types of teeth namely incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
(i) Incisors: These are chisel-shaped teeth used for cutting and biting. Each incisor
only has one root. There are four incisors in the upper and lower jaw.

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 (ii) Canine: These are dagger-shaped (pointed) teeth used for tearing flesh, suffocating
prey and carrying young ones. Each canine only has one root. In carnivorous
animals, the canines are very long and pointed. There are canines in the upper and
lower jaw.
(iii) Premolars: these are broad and ridged teeth used for grinding or crushing food.
Each usually has two roots. There are four premolars, two each next to the canines.
(iv) Molars: these are broad and ridged teeth used for grinding or crushing food. Each
molar has from two to four roots. The projections on top of the crowns of premolars
and molars are called cusps or ridges. An adult has six molars in each jaw, three on
each side next to the premolars.

2. Describe the internal structure and function of the human tooth.

Internal Structure of a Tooth (Internal structure of a molar)

Functions of tooth parts:

(i) Enamel: This is the hardest substance in the body of an animal. It’s made of Calcium
and Phosphate salts and its functions are:
- Preventing wearing away of the tooth
- Protecting the tooth from damage
- It is used as a biting and grinding surface
However the enamel can be corroded (dissolved) by acids.
(ii) Dentine: This is a bone-like tissue below the enamel which is made of calcium and
phosphate salts, collagen fibres and cytoplasmic strands. It contains fine canals which
link the pulp cavity to the enamel.

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 (iii) Pulp Cavity: This is a space within the dentine which is made of tooth-producing cells,
nerves and blood vessels. The nerves make the tooth sensitive to stimuli such as
temperature, pH and pressure. The blood vessels supply the tooth with food and oxygen
(iv) Cement: This is a bone-like tissue with fibres that anchor the tooth to the jawbone
3. Describe the dental formulae of a dog and human being.
Dental Formula (Plural: Dental Formulae): The dental formula is the number and
arrangement of teeth according to type on the upper and lower jaw in one half of the mouth
of an animal. Examples of dental formulae are:
Dental formula of a dog

Dental formula of a Human being

Dental formula of a cow

Where: I = Incisors, C = Canines, PM = Premolars and M = Molars

Note that the dental formulae only show the number of teeth present in one half of the mouth.
To get the total number of teeth, the numbers in the dental formula must be multiplied by two.
Examples
Determine the total number of teeth in the following for Man
Total
4. Identify the differences in dentition of carnivores, herbivores and omnivores.
Relationship between Dentition and Type of Diet
(i) Dentition in Carnivore
Carnivores are animals that feed predominantly on flesh e.g. lions. Their dentition is
specialised in the following ways:
• Canines are very long and pointed to enable them to tear flesh and suffocate
their prey.
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 • Presence of carnassial teeth (the last upper premolar and first lower molar)
which work like the blades of a scissors to slice meat and shear flesh away from
bones.

(ii) Dentition in a Herbivore

Herbivores are animals that feed predominantly on vegetation e.g. sheep. Their
dentition is specialised in the following ways:
i. Upper incisors are absent and replaced by a horny pad which works in
conjunction with lower incisors to grip vegetation and wrench it.
ii. There is a space between the incisors and premolars called the diastema. It
is used to manipulate food by separating the freshly eaten food from the
one that is already being chewed.
(iii) Dentition in an Omnivore
Omnivores are animals that feed on both flesh and vegetation e.g. human beings. Their
dentition is not specialised for any kind of diet.

5. Describe causes, signs and symptoms of gum disease and tooth decay
Tooth Decay
Also called dental decay or dental caries, this is a condition where the enamel of teeth is
dissolved (corroded) by organic acids produced by fermentation of sugars by bacteria in
the mouth forming cavities in the teeth. When cavity reaches the dentine, the tooth starts
getting painful. The pain increases further when the cavity reaches the pulp cavity. At this
stage, the tooth pains each time the patient takes very hot or very cold foods, becomes
infected and may even start having a bad smell due to accumulation of abscess (pus). The
condition may be treated by filling the tooth in with cement or having a tooth extraction.
Prevention of Tooth Decay
- Brushing teeth with fluoride toothpaste after every meal
- Avoiding intake of sugary foods
- Regular visits to the dentist i.e. at least twice every year (once every six months)
- Taking foods that are rich in calcium, phosphorus and vitamins C and D
- Using dental floss to remove food particles from teeth
- Using teeth properly by avoiding using them for opening bottle tops and the like as
this may crack the enamel.

HOLOZOIC NUTRITION

Animals carry out holozoic nutrition. This is a type of nutrition which occurs in animals in a
specialized tube called the alimentary canal or digestive system

1. State the main processes in holozoic nutrition.

The main processes of holozoic nutrition include ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion.

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 (i) Ingestion is the intake of food into the mouth.
(ii) Digestion is the breaking down of food. There are two types of digestion, namely
physical digestion and chemical digestion.
- Physical digestion is the breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller ones. In
humans, this process is carried out by teeth in the mouth. It increases the surface
area of the food for more efficient enzyme activity and makes food easy to swallow.
- Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large molecules of food into smaller ones
by enzymes. It makes absorption of food more efficient
(iii)Absorption is the uptake of soluble food into the blood stream.
(iv) Assimilation is the usage and incorporation of absorbed food in living cells.
(v) Egestion is the removal of undigested food from the body through the anus

2. Identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs.

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 3. Describe the processes of digestion, absorption and assimilation of nutrients.
Digestion of Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins
Digestion of food substances occurs in the mouth, stomach, duodenum and jejunum.

(i) Digestion in the Mouth

The following events occur after food has been ingested into the mouth:
- Chewing: Also called mastication, this is the breakdown of large pieces of food into
smaller ones by teeth. It increases the surface area of the food for more efficient enzyme
activity and makes food easy to swallow.
- Secretion of Saliva: This is carried out by salivary glands. Saliva is a mixture of water,
mucus, the enzymes salivary amylase and lysozyme in a slightly alkaline medium. The
water helps in cooling food that is too hot and warming up food that is too cold so that
its temperature is favourable for enzyme action. It also softens food for easy chewing
e.g. it is easier to chew biscuits after they have been moistened by saliva. The mucus
lubricates food for easier swallowing. The slightly alkaline PH is favourable or
optimum for the activity of salivary amylase. Salivary amylase starts the digestion of
cooked starch to produce maltose. However, only small amounts of starch are
converted to maltose in the mouth because food stays for a short time in the mouth.
Amylase does not work in the stomach because the PH there is acidic.

- Mixing Food with Saliva and formation of Bolus: While food is being chewed, the
tongue mixes it with saliva. Later, the tongue works with the palate (top of the mouth)
to roll the chewed food up into a round semi solid mass called a bolus, in readiness for
swallowing.

- Swallowing and Peristalsis. Swallowing is the passage of food or liquids from the
mouth to the stomach through the oesophagus. During swallowing, the food bolus
moves by a process known as peristalsis. Peristalsis is the alternate contraction and
relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles in a wave-like manner in order to move
food along the alimentary canal. Peristalsis is illustrated in the following diagram:

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 Behind the bolus, circular muscles contract while longitudinal muscles relax. Ahead
of the bolus, circular muscles relax while longitudinal muscles contract.
(ii) Digestion in the Stomach
The stomach is an elastic bag with a muscular wall and a glandular lining. The entrance
of the stomach is guarded by the cardiac sphincter. The exit is guarded by the pyloric
sphincter. The following events take place in the stomach;
Secretion of gastric juice: Gastric juice is a mixture of pepsin, rennin, hydrochloric
acid and mucus. Pepsin breaks down proteins to form peptides. Rennin coagulates
milk by converting the soluble protein caesinogen into an insoluble form called casein.
This delays the passage of milk to the duodenum giving chance for pepsin to digest
milk protein. Both pepsin and rennin are secreted in inactive forms called pepsinogen
and prorennin, respectively. Hydrochloric acid activates them into active enzymes and
sets an acidic pH which is optimum. It also kills some bacteria and hydrolyses sucrose
to glucose and fructose. Mucus protects the lining of the stomach against the acid and
pepsin.
Churning: This is the mixing of food by rhythmic contraction of the muscles in the
wall of the stomach to form a paste called chyme.
Temporal Storage of Food: Liquids can stay in the stomach for up to 30 minutes;
carbohydrates are kept for about one hour; proteins and lipids stay up to 2 hours.

(iii) Digestion in the Duodenum

The duodenum receives digestive juices from the liver and the pancreas.
- The liver secretes bile which is temporarily stored in the gall bladder and
carried to the duodenum by the bile duct. Bile contains sodium hydrogen
carbonate, bile salts and bile pigments. Sodium hydrogen carbonate
neutralizes the acidic chyme and then sets an optimum alkaline pH for the
enzymes of the duodenum. The bile salts emulsify fats thereby increasing
the surface area for the action of lipase. Emulsification is the breakdown

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 of large drops of fats into small droplets. Bile pigments have no digestive
function but add colour to the faeces.
- The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains sodium hydrogen
carbonate, trypsin, lipase and pancreatic amylase. Sodium hydrogen
carbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme and then sets an optimum alkaline
pH for the enzymes of the duodenum. Trypsin breaks down proteins to
form peptides. Lipase breaks down fat molecules to fatty acid and glycerol.
Pancreatic amylase breaks down starch to form maltose.

(iv) Digestion in the Jejunum

This secretes Intestinal Juice (succusentericus) which contains Lactase, maltase,
sucrase and peptidase. Lactase breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose.
Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. Sucrase breaks down sucrose to glucose
and fructose. Peptidase breaks down peptides to amino acids. Digestion is
completed in the jejunum.

The ileum and Absorption

The ileum carries out absorption of digestive end products and is adapted for this function in
the following ways:
- The ileum is very long thereby providing a large surface area for absorption.
- It has a thin epithelium for more efficient diffusion of food.
- It has finger like projections called villi (singular: villus) and microvilli which further
increase the surface area for absorption.
- Each villus has a network of capillaries for absorption and transportation of
monosaccharides and amino acids
- Each villus has a lacteal which absorbs and transports fatty acids and glycerol.

Diagram of a Villus

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 Assimilation of Digestive end Products
After absorption, the digestive end products are transported in the blood to the liver by the
hepatic portal vein. The food is then assimilated as follows:
a) Assimilation of Monosaccharides (Glucose, Fructose and Galactose)
Glucose is mainly used as a substrate for tissue (cellular) respiration. If it is in excess,
the excess is converted to glycogen which is stored in the muscles and the liver.
However the human body stores limited amounts of glycogen i.e. about 400g (300g in
the muscles and 100g in the liver). If there is still some excess glucose, it is converted
to fat and stored in the adipose tissue under the skin and around delicate body organs
such as the brain, heart, liver, kidneys and intestine. These processes are influenced by
a hormone called insulin which is secreted by the pancreas. Fructose and galactose are
assimilated in the same way as glucose.
b) Assimilation of Amino Acids
Amino acids are assembled to make the proteins required by the body. Excess amino
acids are deaminated by the liver. Deamination is the process by which the amino group
of an amino acid is removed and eventually converted to urea by the liver. Ammonia
is an intermediate during deamination and is highly toxic. It is quickly converted to
urea which less toxic. The remaining part of the amino acid known as the carbon-
skeleton may be converted to glucose by a process called gluconeogenesis. Urea is
toxic if allowed to accumulate in the body. It is carried from the liver by blood and is
removed from the body by the kidneys by the process of excretion.
c) Assimilation of Glycerol and Fatty Acids
Glycerol and fatty acids are chemically combined to make fats which have the
following uses in the body:
- Insulation- animals have a layer of fat under their skins which prevents heat
loss from the body
- Formation of cell membrane- the cell membrane is made of lipids called
phospholipids which can be synthesized from fats and oils
- Energy source-lipids store a lot of energy which is made available when the
supply of carbohydrates in the body is low. In fact lipids store twice as much
energy as an equal amount of carbohydrates.
Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissue under the skin and around delicate body
organs such as the brain, heart, liver, kidneys and intestine. The fat under the skin
is responsible for insulation while the fat around delicate organs cushion the organs
against shocks.
Large Intestines
These are made of the caecum, the colon and the rectum. The caecum is the point where the
ileum is linked to the large intestines. It has a projection at the base known as the appendix,
which has no known use in the human body and is considered a vestigial organ. The colon
carries out absorption of water from the faeces while the rectum stores faeces temporarily
before they are egested and continues the absorption of water.
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 4. Investigate the common ailments of the alimentary canal.
- Diarrhoea: The passage of watery stool, resulting in dehydration and loss of
mineral ions from the body. It is caused by intake of food or drinks that are
contaminated with pathogens. The pathogens cause inflammation of the intestinal
lining leading to diarrhoea.
- Constipation: Difficult defaecation due to hardness and dryness of faeces,
resulting from insufficient roughage and water in diet. It may also result from
keeping the faeces in the rectum for too long which causes the rectum to absorb
too much water, making the faeces hard and dry.
- Stomach Ulcers: An ulcer is defined as an open sore that produces toxic matter.
Stomach ulcers may result from over-production of pepsin and hydrochloric acid
or when the mucus layer in the stomach is not sufficiently thin. This causes the
lining of the stomach to be destroyed by the action of pepsin or hydrochloric acid.
- Piles (haemorrhoids): This is a condition where the veins in the rectum become
swollen and eventually burst causing pain and blood-stained stool. It may be caused
by frequent constipation.

5. Describe the metabolic functions of the liver.

The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body and performs a wide range of
functions including the following:
a. Destruction of old red blood cells resulting in formation of bile which is important
in emulsification of fats.
b. Deamination of excess amino acids resulting in formation of urea.
c. Detoxification of poisons and alcohol by converting them to less toxic substances
e.g. hydrogen peroxide is broken down to water and oxygen by the enzyme catalase
in the liver. Excess intake of alcohol frequently can lead to a condition called
cirrhosis (hardening liver tissue, leading to loss of function)

d. Conversion of excess glucose to glycogen and storage of glycogen, thereby

regulating the levels of blood sugar.

e. Manufacture of red blood cells in babies

f. Transamination (the conversion some amino acids to others)
g. Synthesis of plasma proteins such as prothrombin, fibrinogen, globulins and
albumin.
h. Storage of some vitamins (e.g. vitamin A) and some mineral ions (e.g. iron)
i. Production of heat through a wide range of exothermic/exergonic reactions.

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 6. Describe the effects of common ailments of the liver.

a. Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver which may result from infection hepatitis
viruses. It is a serious illness that can become a chronic inflammation causing liver
failure and high toxic levels in the blood.
b. Jaundice. Blockage of the bile duct can prevent bile from entering the small
intestines. Bile and bile pigments collecting the liver and enter the blood. Large
amounts of bile pigments that circulate in the blood and tissues causes a condition
called jaundice. The bile collects in the skin and the white parts of the eyes, giving
it a yellow colour.
c. Hepatomegaly: Enlargement of the liver.
d. Cirrhosis: Hardening of liver tissue resulting from poisoning or excessive intake
of alcohol.
TOPIC 8: RESPIRATION/RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. Describe the respiratory organs of animals.
a) Respiratory organs of an insect
Insects carry out gaseous exchange through a network of air tubes called tracheal system
which penetrate all over the body. The system consists of a pair of spiracles on the surface
of each abdominal segment and in between the thoracic segments and a network of tubes
all over the body .Each spiracle has muscular control valve to regulate its opening. The
spiracles lead to a large network of air tubes called trachea. The tubes are kept open by
spiral folds of chitin. The trachea finally divide into very fine branches called tracheoles
which are closely connected with respiring tissues .The tracheoles contain a fluid to
dissolve the gases.

Tracheal system of an insect

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 b) Respiratory organ of a fish
Fish carry out gaseous exchange through specialized structures called gills. The gills
consist of a long curved bone called the gill bar and a double row of filaments attached
to the bar. Each filament has numerous vertical plates called lamellae which contain a
network of capillaries. The gills also have structures called gill rakers. Gill rakers trap
solid particles and prevent them from reaching the delicate gill filaments .On the
outside, the gill is protected by a bony plate called operculum .The operculum also
controls in and out movement of water.

Structure of gills

c) Respiratory organs of man

The organ for gaseous exchange in man is the lung located in the chest cavity, hence
the need for a breathing system in man. It is made up of the nostrils which lead to a
mucus and cilia lined nasal cavity. The nasal cavity in turn leads to the larynx and then
to the trachea. The epiglottis located at the junction of the trachea and the larynx closes
the tracheal opening when swallowing .Incomplete rings of cartilage keep the trachea
open .Inside the chest cavity, the trachea divide into two branches referred to as
bronchi. Inside the lungs the bronchi divide into fine air bags called air sacs. Each air
sac is folded like pockets called alveolus. The lungs are enclosed by a double
membrane called the pleural membrane. Enclosed between the membranes is a fluid
called pleural fluid whose function is to cushion the lungs against friction and shock.

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 The chest cavity is supported by the ribs which articulate with the thoracic vertebrae
at the back and the sternum at the front .At the floor of the cavity is a dome shaped
muscular sheet called the diaphragm. The inside of the ribs are covered by internal
intercostal muscles while the outside is covered by external intercostal muscles. The
muscles contract antagonistically to cause movement of the ribs.

Breathing system in man

2. Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in animals

a) Mechanism of gaseous exchange in an insect
Insects breathe in using the tracheal system. The tracheal begins with spiracles which
are located in the thorax and abdomen. The spiracles are joined to tubes known as
tracheae (singular= trachea). The tracheae are divided into smaller tubes called
tracheoles. Gaseous exchange occurs across the walls of the tracheoles. Small insects
normally do not make any breathing movements. However, large and active insects
such as grasshoppers and bees make breathing movements by pushing their abdomens
in and out. Note that insects do not use blood to transport gases since gases diffuse
from the atmosphere to the tissue cells and vice versa through the tracheal system. The
following diagram illustrates the tracheal system of an insect.

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 b) Mechanism of gaseous exchange in the fish
Gaseous exchange in bony fish occurs across the surfaces of the gills. The gills of bony
fish are attached to structures known as gill bars (gill arches). There are four gill bars
on each side of the gill chamber of a bony fish. There is a series of gill filaments
attached to each gill bar. Each gill filament has structures known as gill lamellae
(singular=gill lamella) where gaseous exchange takes place. The other side of the gill
bars has structures known as gill rakers whose function is to remove solid particles
from the water before it passes across the gills. Water enters the gill chamber of a fish
through the mouth (buccal cavity) and comes out through the operculum when it opens
(note that there is an operculum on each side of the head). The following table
summarises the events associated with inspiration and expiration in fish.

Inspiration Expiration

1 Floor of mouth Lowered Raised

2 Mouth Open Closed

3 Operculum Closed Open

4 Volume of mouth and Increases Decreases

gill chamber
5 Pressure in mouth and Decreases Increases
gill chamber
6 Water movement Enters the gill chamber Leaves the gill chamber

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 c) Mechanism of respiration (breathing) in mammals
Breathing
Breathing in terrestrial animals (such as human beings) is defined as the movement of
air into and out of the lungs. In aquatic animals such as fish, breathing is the movement
of water into and out of the gill chamber. Another term used to refer to breathing is
ventilation. Breathing involves two stages known as inspiration (inhalation) and
expiration (exhalation).
The events associated with breathing in human beings are summarised in the following
table:

Inspiration Expiration

Diaphragm Contracts and moves Relaxes and moves

downwards (flattens) upwards
(becomes dome-shaped)

External intercostal Contract Relax

muscles
Internal intercostals Relax Contract
muscles
Ribcage Moves upwards and Moves downwards and
outwards inwards

Volume of lungs Increases Decreases

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 Pressure in lungs Decreases lower than Increases higher than
atmospheric pressure atmospheric
pressure

Air flow Into the lungs Out of the lungs

d) Gaseous exchange in the alveolus of man

In humans, gaseous exchange is the diffusion of oxygen from the lungs into the blood
and carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs across the walls of the alveoli. In
humans the gaseous exchange surfaces are the alveoli found in the lungs while the
gaseous exchange surfaces in fish are the gills. Gaseous exchange surfaces have the
following characteristics:
- Large surface area to maximise the exchange of gases
- Moist surface because gases need to dissolve before they can diffuse across a
surface.
- Thin surface to minimise the distance of diffusion so that there is faster diffusion
- Close association with a transport system to transport the gases to and from the
gaseous exchange surface, thereby maintaining a constant diffusion gradient for
the gases
- Well-ventilated to maintain a constant diffusion gradient.
The following diagram illustrates gaseous exchange in humans.

3. Describe the terms associated with breathing in Humans

Breathing Rate: This refers to the number of breaths taken by an individual per minute.
The normal breathing rate of an adult human being at rest is about 18. However, this can

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 be altered by factors such as 76 sleeping, illness (e.g., fever), emotional excitement and
physical exercise. Sleeping lowers, the breathing rate, while the other factors mentioned
increase it.
Tidal Volume/Tidal Air: This is the volume of air breathed in or out in one breath when
resting. The tidal volume in humans is about 0.5 dm3 (500 cm3).
Vital Capacity: This is the maximum volume of air breathed out after forced inspiration.
The vital capacity in humans is about 3.5 dm3 (3500 cm3). The vital capacity can be
measured using an instrument called the spirometer. When using a spirometer, a person
must first completely fill the lungs with air and then breathe out through a tube connected
to a spirometer as shown in the following diagram until no more air can be exhaled. The
vital capacity is equal to the volume of water displaced
Residual Volume: This is the volume of air that never comes out of the lungs after forced
expiration. It keeps the lungs from collapsing. It has a value of about 1.5 dm3.

Exercise
The following diagram shows the pattern of breathing in an animal over a period of nine
(9) seconds.

(a) What do the letters A, B, C and D stand for?

(b) What was the animal’s breathing rate between 0 and 3 seconds?
(c) What would happen to distance EF if the animal undergoes a period of physical
exercise?

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 4. Describe the composition of inspired and expired air.
Gases Inspired air Expired air
Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.003% 4%
Nitrogen 78% 78%
Water vapour variable Saturated
Other gases Traces Saturated

5. Describe the effects of air pollutants on health of human beings

Cigarette smoke contains three major toxic substances, namely nicotine, tar and carbon
monoxide. Tar is responsible for causing respiratory diseases such as bronchitis,
emphysema and lung cancer.

a) Bronchitis: This is the inflammation of the air passages. Tar immobilizes (stops
movement of) the cilia, causing mucus to accumulate in the air passages. This gives
chance to the germs in the mucus to infect the lining of the air passages, causing
coughing. The overall effect of bronchitis is that it reduces the amount of oxygen
reaching the lungs.
b) Emphysema: This is the weakening and bursting of the alveoli. When tar reaches the
alveoli it weakens them and irritates them. The irritation causes coughing which makes
the alveoli burst. Emphysema reduces the surface area available for gaseous exchange.
c) Lung Cancer: This is the uncontrolled or abnormal division of cells in the lungs.
Smoking increases the risk of lung cancer because tar which is present in cigarette
smoke is a carcinogen (a cancer-causing agent)

➢ Sulphur dioxide: Sulphur increases respiratory infection rates and irritates

eyes and respiratory tract.
➢ Carbon monoxide: Oxygen combines with hemoglobin to form
oxyhemoglobin in red blood cells. Carbon monoxide (CO) reduces the
oxyhemoglobin formation because it binds very tightly to haemoglobin and the
effect is permanent since carboxyhemoglobin is very stable. This reduces
aerobic respiration and transportation of oxygen.
6. Explain gaseous exchange in green plants
Gaseous exchange in plants takes place in the leaves. Gas enters and exits the plant through
openings in the leaves called stomata. Some plants exchange gases in the stem through
openings called lenticels and in the root by diffusion. Plant cells have air spaces. Oxygen
and carbon dioxide diffuse from the atmosphere into these spaces. These gases pass

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 through the cell walls and cell membranes. The leaf is adapted to allow for maximum
gaseous exchange in the following ways:
- Leaves are held outwards by the stem
- The leaves of most plants are large and thin. This exposes a large surface area to
the air.
- Stomata (openings), mainly on the lower surface of the leaf, allow gases to diffuse
rapidly in and out of the leaf.
- The spongy mesophyll tissue has intercellular spaces to allow carbon dioxide and
oxygen to diffuse to diffuse in and out of the cells. The walls of these spaces are
moist and the gases dissolve in the moisture.
- The cells in the leaf are all thin. This allows for rapid diffusion.

7. Describe types of respiration

Internal respiration occurs inside living cells in organelles called mitochondria (singular:
mitochondrion). The main substrate for internal respiration in most organisms is glucose.
There are two types of internal respiration, namely aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
This is the release of energy from food in living cells in the presence of oxygen. This
process releases a relatively high amount of energy (about 2880 KJ from one mole of
glucose) and the by products produced are carbon dioxide and water. This type of
respiration occurs in tissue cells of animals and plants when there is a sufficient supply of
oxygen. The word and chemical equations for aerobic respiration are given below:

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 Anaerobic Respiration
This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the absence of oxygen.
Types of anaerobic respiration include alcoholic fermentation and lactic fermentation.
Alcoholic Fermentation
This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the absence of oxygen,
producing alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide as by products. This process releases a
relatively low amount of energy (about 210 KJ from one mole of glucose). The reaction is
catalysed by an enzyme called zymase which is naturally found in yeast. The word and
chemical equations for alcoholic fermentation are given below:

Alcoholic fermentation takes place in yeast.

Alcoholic fermentation is important in brewing and baking. In both cases yeast is the
organism that is used to carry out the alcoholic fermentation.

When brewing, germinating seeds are used because they contain the sugar maltose. The
seeds are dried and ground to form a powder. This powder is then boiled in water to form
a paste. The paste is cooled and yeast is added. Yeast contains an enzyme called zymase
which converts glucose to carbon dioxide and alcohol, releasing energy in the process. The
glucose is formed from the action of maltase on maltose. The alcohol is removed from the
mixture by simple distillation.

When baking, flour is mixed with water, salt, sugar and yeast to form a paste called dough.
When there is insufficient oxygen, zymase from yeasts acts on sugars to form carbon
dioxide and alcohol. But if oxygen is sufficient, yeast carries out aerobic respiration. The

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 carbon dioxide begins to form bubbles in the dough causing it to rise. The dough is often
placed in a warm place to provide an optimum temperature for enzyme activity. After this
the dough can be baked.

Lactic Fermentation
This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the absence of oxygen,
producing lactic acid as the only by product. The amount of energy released is very little
(about 150 KJ from one mole of glucose).

This process takes place in the muscles of animals during exercise. This is because the
extra energy required by the animal during exercise cannot all be generated by aerobic
respiration since there is a limited supply of oxygen. This energy is therefore generated by
lactic fermentation. However the lactic acid formed has harmful effects on the body such
as causing fatigue, muscle cramp and fainting. Blood flowing through the muscles carries
some lactic acid with it to the brain and the brain detects its presence. It then sends impulses
to the ribcage (to increase the breathing rate and depth) and to the heart (to increase the
heart rate). This increases oxygen supply to the muscles. This oxygen is needed to break d
own lactic acid to water and carbon dioxide. The total amount of oxygen needed to break
down the lactic acid produced during exercise is called the oxygen debt.

Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

More energy is produced per glucose Little glucose produced per glucose
molecule

Glucose is completely oxidized to all Glucose is only partially broken down and
energy most of the energy remains locked up in
ethanol or lactic acid.

Oxygen is used Oxygen is not used

Water is produced Water is not produced

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 Is carried out in the mitochondria Is carried out in the cytoplasm

In animals, lactic acid and ATP are In plants, CO2 ethanol and energy is
produced. CO2 is not produced. produced

Glucose and Oxygen are used as raw Only Glucose is used as a raw material
materials

8. Describe the production of adenosine triphosphate

Energy from respiration is not used directly by organisms but is used to produce ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) by combining adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic
phosphate (Pi). Energy from ATP is then used by living organisms. When the energy is
needed, ATP breaks down to ADP and inorganic phosphate, releasing energy in the
process. The formation and breakdown of ATP can be illustrated as follows:
Chemical equation
ADP + P Energy → ATP
Word equation
Adenosine diphosphate + inorganic phosphate →Adenosine triphosphate
Importance of ATP
ATP is important in the following ways:
- It makes it possible for energy to be stored and transported
- It makes energy available when and where it is needed.
- It is used for growth and repair of tissue
9. Investigate the production of carbon dioxide during respiration
Experiment to investigate if carbon dioxide is produced during respiration
Method: Set up the experiment as shown below. Place the test tubes in a test tube holder
so that they stay upright. Pour 20ml of clear lime water in each test tube. Place two
germinating seeds into the piece of cloth. Fold it into a bag and use the string to tie the
ends together. Place the bag into the test tube. Ensure that it does not touch the lime water.
The control has no bag with seeds. Leave the apparatus overnight. Record your
observations.

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 Discussion and conclusions
Carbon dioxide is released during respiration. Germinating seeds respire but no
photosynthesis takes place until the plant has green leaves.
The gas can be tested using lime water. In test tube A clear lime water becomes milky
when it reacts with carbon dioxide while in test tube B clear lime water remained the same.
10. State ways in which respiration is important
Respiration is important in the following ways:
• Production of biological energy: all organisms need energy to perform life
processes
• Maintenance of levels of CO2 and O2 in atmosphere: respiration helps
maintaining levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere. It is part of the
carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere is used by plants during
the process of photosynthesis.
• Maintenance of a constant body temperature,
• Reproduction
• Cell division
• Active transport
• Growth /synthesis of macromolecules
11. Explain the industrial application of respiration
Anaerobic respiration is used in processes such as baking, brewing, processing dairy
products and sewage treatment.
i Brewing industry- for example in the production of alcohol where glucose is
broken down anaerobically by yeast to produce ethanol. The resulting ethanol can

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 further be processed into beer by addition of hops which acts as stabilisers. Spirits
are produced by distillation of the ethanol water mixture.
ii Bread baking industry-The glucose in wheat flour is broken down by yeast is
broken into ethanol, a little energy and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide gas makes
the dough to rise as it leaves the mixture, making the bread to become spongy.
iii Processing dairy products- fermentation of milk leads to formation of products
like yoghurt, cheese and butter.
iv Sewage treatment- Sewage is water that has been used by households and
industry. Sewage from commercial and domestic use is piped to sewage treatment
plant. When sewage reaches the treatment plant it is rich in organic matter. During
the secondary stage of treatment, sewage is treated by aerobic and anaerobic micro-
organisms. This removes organic wastes and harmful substances.
v Production of sour milk through fermentation of fresh milk under anaerobic
respiration.

TOPIC 9: HEALTH

1. Describe what good health is?

Good health is defined as a state of physical and mental well-being. It is dependent on
receiving a balanced diet and an appropriate physical and mental activity.
2. Define disease.
A disease is any physical or mental disorder that interferes with normal functioning of the
body and has a characteristic set of signs and symptoms.
A sign is any indication of a disease which can be observed or measured e.g., a rash, a high
temperature and loss of weight.
A symptom is any indication of a disease that can only be felt and described by a patient
e.g., headache and other kinds of pain, nausea and dizziness.

3. Describe the various types of diseases.

i Nutritional Deficiency Diseases: Diseases caused poor diets lacking one of or
more of essential nutrients. Examples of such diseases are marasmus, kwashiorkor
and rickets.
ii Genetic (inherited) Diseases: Diseases that are passed through genes from parents
to their offspring e.g., sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia and down’s syndrome
iii Degenerative Diseases: Diseases characterized by a gradual decline in the function
of an organ as a result of ageing or too much stress on the organ e.g., arthritis and
coronary heart disease.

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 iv Environmental Diseases: Diseases resulting from the presence of pollutants in the
environment e.g., bronchitis, emphysema and lung cancer resulting from the
presence of tar in the air.
v Mental illness: Disorders of the mind characterised by emotions and behaviour that
is not considered normal in the person’s culture. Examples include:
- Anorexia (a patient restricts food intake due to irrational fear of gaining
weight, because of a distorted perception of the body
- Bipolar disorder (a patient experiences episodes of extreme mood swings
from feelings of depression to intense enthusiasm known as mania)
- Depressive disorder (consistent low mood and self-esteem)
vi Self-inflicted and Social Diseases: These include conditions like drug addiction.
vii Pathogenic Diseases: these are diseases that can be transmitted from person to
person e.g. Cholera, Malaria and Bilharzia (Schistosomiasis).
4. Describe causative agents, signs and symptoms, methods of transmission and control.
The following is a summary of the causative agents, signs, symptoms, methods of
transmission and methods of control for selected pathogenic diseases.
a) Cholera
Causative agent:
- Bacterium of the strain vibrio cholerae

Signs and symptoms:

- Severe diarrhoea
- Abdominal pain
- Vomiting
- Dehydration
- Intestinal rupture hence irritations of the intestines
Method of transmission
- Through ingestion of contaminated food and water.
- Through vectors such as houseflies.
- Handling of contaminated material.
Control
- Use of clean drinking water.
- proper sewage disposal.
- Washing hands after using toilets.
- Covering foods so that flies do not contaminate it.
- Isolation of infected people
b) Malaria
Causative agent
- Protozoa plasmodium
Signs and symptoms

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 - High fever and shaking chills due to rupture of red blood cells.
- Sweating
- Headache aches and pains in joints
- Anaemia
- Enlarged liver and spleen
Method of transmission
- Bite by an infected female Anopheles mosquito
Control
- Vector control by draining stagnant waters
- Spraying breeding sites using insecticides
- Sleeping under insecticide treated mosquito nets
- Cut down vegetation around homes to destroy
- Breeding places of mosquito.
- Spraying exposed Water surfaces with oil to destroy mosquito larvae
- Use of mosquito coils and repellents
- Using fish to eat mosquito larvae
- Fumigation of rooms
- Fixing of wire mesh screens on windows and ventilators
c) Bilharzia (schistosomiasis)
Causative agent
- Flat worm (schistosoma mansoni)

Signs and symptoms

- Blood in urine
- pain in lower abdomen
- Coughing,
- Fever
- Enlargement of spleen and liver
- Skin itching
Method of transmission
- Exposure to cercaria larvae in water. Schistosoma eggs pass from patient into
water and hatch into larvae. Larvae bore into snail and produce other larvae.
These bore into the skin of humans and become adults
Control
- Avoid contact with infected water
- Destroying snail habitat
- Drain stagnant water
- Using latrines
- Drinking boiled water
- Avoid urinating in or near water bodies.

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 HIV/AIDS
AIDS is an acronym and it is a disease caused by a virus called HIV. Each letter represents a
characteristic of the disease.
➢ A stands for Acquired. This means that the virus enters the body.
➢ I stands for Immune. This means that the virus attacks the body’s immune system
➢ D stands for Deficiency. This means that the immune system becomes weaker and less
able to fight infections.
➢ S stands for Syndrome. This means that its not one specific disease, but it’s a collection
of many different signs and symptoms.
HIV is an acronym and it is a virus that causes a disease called AIDS. Each letter represents a
characteristic of a virus.
➢ H stands for Human as HIV is found in humans.
➢ I stands for Immunodeficiency. This means that the virus attacks the immune system and
weakens it. The immune system is less able to fight infections.
➢ V stands for Virus. HIV is an infectious agent that lives inside the cells of a person.

5. Describe ways of HIV transmission.

- Transmission can occur through sexual intercourse in semen or vaginal secretions.
- Sharing needles during intravenous drug use
- In hospitals when carrying out blood transfusion, in some cases the blood is infected
with the virus or blood products that contained HIV, though this is much reduced now
because of knowledge of transmission.
- The HIV virus can be transmitted from the blood of an infected female to foetus during
pregnancy or delivery (mother to child transmission).
- Organ transplants from an infected donor.
- Sharing toothbrushes, shaving blades or nail cutters with infected person.
6. Explain the dangers of having multiple sexual partners.
- Risk of contracting STI’S such as HIV
- Disintegration of families due to the death of parents.
- Unplanned pregnancies
7. Describe ways of safe sexual practices.
- Abstinence. Not having sex prevents the transmission of HIV
- Consistent and correct use of condoms
- VCT services
- Be faithful to one partner. Avoid multiple sexual partners.
8. Identify the causes of stigma to people living with HIV and AIDS.

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 -fear, myth, lack of support groups, lack of information on the available services.
9. Describe ways of reducing discrimination to people living with HIV and AIDS.
- Giving them a well-balanced diet.
- giving medical treatment as soon as they develop signs and symptoms of illness
- providing them with ARVs which help to slow down the advancement of the
condition.
- loving them and responding to their needs
- counselling them to stop behaviour that could worsen their conditions
- not discriminating them. Avoid branding them as walking corpses, denying them
education and health services, chasing them away from home, hiding them from
public and refusing to share rooms or utensils with them.
10. Explain the term of immunity to disease.
This refers to resistance of the body to infection due to the presence of antibodies in the
blood. Antibodies are proteins produced by lymphocytes are responsible for destroying
antigens produced by infectious or foreign bodies. Each type of antibody is only effective
against one particular type of antigen. The body can only produce antibodies against an
antigen that it has been exposed to.
Types of Immunity
Immunity is said to be active if the body is involved in the production of antibodies and
passive if the body receives readymade antibodies from an external source. Both active and
passive immunity can be natural (if acquired through natural means such as getting
infected, breast feeding or across the placenta from a mother to an unborn baby) or artificial
(if acquired through man-made means such as vaccination or immunization). The
following table gives examples of different types of immunity:
Type of immunity Definition or Description Examples
Natural Active The body gets naturally A person becomes
Immunity infected and gets permanently immune to
stimulated measles if they have
to produce antibodies suffered from it before
against the infection
Artificial Introducing dead or BCG vaccination against
Active weakened (attenuated) tuberculosis; polio vaccine;
Immunity germs or antigens into the cowpox vaccine e.t.c
blood stream of a person so
as to stimulate production
of antibodies by the body.
This process is called
vaccination
Natural Passive Ready-made antibodies are
Immunity introduced into the blood

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 stream of a person through
natural means such as
breast feeding or across the
placenta from a mother to
an unborn baby to give
immediate but temporal
protection against
particular antigens

Artificial Immune serum containing Anti-venom or anti-tetanus

Passive ready-made antibodies is injections
Immunity injected into the blood
stream of a person to give
immediate but temporal
protection against a
particular antigen.

11. Investigate the importance of the immune system.

It builds the body’s defence against infections and diseases making the body to remain
healthy. It recognizes foreign substances (antigens) that enter the body. The immune
system of the body, in response to the antigens produce antibodies. Antibodies fight and
destroy the antigens. Antigens are chemicals produced by pathogens. It plays an important
role in controlling diseases. If your immune system is low, you will be more prone to
illness, both from infections and cancers.
12. Describe the factors that reduce immunity to pathogenic diseases
The immune system is reduced by
- Poor diet. A diet that lacks vitamins and minerals reduces the effectiveness of the
immune system. A diet that lacks proteins and starch can cause deficiency diseases.
A lack of sunlight, resulting in D deficiency, can also affect the immune system.
- Repeated invasions by pathogens. This reduces the effectiveness of the immune
system. Repeated infections of, for example cholera or malaria, leads to poor health
and even death.
- The development of resistant strains of the pathogens. Some pathogens can no
longer be treated by medicine. Some pathogens, for example plasmodium develop
resistance.
13. Explain the importance of immunization.
- Immunization protects children (and adults) against harmful infections before they
come into contact with them in the community.

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 - Immunization uses the body’s natural defence mechanism the immune response to
build resistance to specific infections. Disease like measles, mumps, tetanus, polio,
hepatitis B etc can be prevented by routine childhood immunization.
- Immunizations help children to stay healthy by preventing serious infections.
- Immunization is the safest and most effective way of giving protection against the
disease. After immunization, your child is far less likely to catch the disease if there
are cases in the community, the benefit of protection against the disease far outweighs
the very small risks of immunizations.
- If enough people in the community are immunized, the infections can no longer be
spread from person to person and the disease dies out altogether.
14. Describe the life cycle of a housefly.
Like the mosquito, the housefly also undergoes complete metamorphosis during its life
cycle. Its life cycle is summarised in the following diagram:

The female housefly lays eggs in rotting material after mating. The eggs normally hatch
into larvae (commonly called maggots) 8-24 hours after being laid. The larvae feed on
rotting material by sucking the nutrients and move using pads on the lower side of their
bodies. After 4-5 days, the larvae develop into pupae which are immobile and do not feed.
Although the pupae are immobile, a lot of metabolism occurs inside of them and the imago
takes shape within the pupa case known as the puparium. 3 to 4 days later, the imago
breaks out of the puparium. It takes an imago 14 days to reach sexual maturity and the
cycle starts all over again
15. Explain the role of the housefly in the spreading of diseases.
Houseflies are vectors for pathogens that cause cholera, dysentery and typhoid among
others. The adult stage is able to fly. This makes it a very efficient vector. A housefly is a
mechanical vector. A mechanical vector is a vector that carries pathogens on the external
surface of its body. Houseflies spread disease because pathogens cling to their hairy legs.
Their saliva also contains pathogens. Houseflies feed themselves by spreading saliva over
food to dissolve it then sucking it up.
16. Relate the control of water borne diseases to the life cycle of the house fly.

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 To control house flies, two methods can be used and these are chemical methods and
biological methods.
- Chemical control methods include using insecticides, traps, baits and sticky tapes
can reduce the number of house flies
- Biological control methods include introducing wasps that eat flies.
- Other important control methods are improving hygiene by providing sanitation
such as toilets, washing and bathing facilities. Disinfecting water to ensure that
supply of drinking water is safe. Hygienic food preparation and delivery.
17. Describe the life cycle of a mosquito.
The mosquito undergoes complete metamorphosis. This is a type of life cycle where the
different stages of the cycle have different body forms (morphologies) from each other and
different behaviours and nutritional requirements. The stages of a mosquito life cycle are
egg, larva, pupa and adult (imago) as summarised in the following diagram.

Eggs are laid in water by female mosquitoes after mating and they hatch into larvae
(singular: larva). Larvae can swim and they feed on phytoplankton and zooplankton. They
eventually develop into pupae (singular: pupa) which are a less active stage that continually
undergoing internal changes. After some time, the adult insect emerges out of the pupa
case (puparium). The adult flies and feeds mainly on plant juices. However, when female
mosquitoes are carrying fertilized eggs, they develop a desire for animal blood which they
need for egg development.
Because of blood sucking, the female Anopheles mosquito is a vector for malaria in
humans. A vector is any organism that transmits parasites from one host to another.
Mosquitoes are said to be biological vectors. A biological vector is one that carries
parasites inside its body systems and the parasite undergoes part of its life cycle inside the
vector.
18. Explain the role of mosquitoes in the spreading of diseases.
Malaria is transmitted by the female anopheles mosquito. During a mosquito bite, the
mosquito releases the anticoagulant into the victim’s blood system to prevent the sucked
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 blood from clotting. In the process, it injects the plasmodium parasite present within its
salivary glands into the victim’s body. The person therefore becomes infected.
19. Relate the control of malaria to the life cycle of the mosquito
Control of mosquitoes (in order to control malaria) can be targeted against the different
stages of the life cycle in the following ways:
i Draining all stagnant pools of water to eliminate eggs, larvae and pupae
ii Spraying stagnant water with insecticides and/or oil. Insecticides such as DDT kill
the eggs, larvae and pupae directly. Oil blocks the oxygen supply from the eggs,
larvae and pupae, thereby killing them.
iii Biological control (the use of one type of organism called the control agent to get
rid of another – called the target organism – which is a nuisance). The control agent
must be a natural enemy (predator or parasite) of the target organism. Biological
control may also involve interfering with reproduction by use of radiation or
chemicals and the artificial synthesis of chemical substances normally produced by
the target organism to be used in traps. Examples of biological control against
mosquitoes include:
- Use of a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis which infects and kills mosquito
larvae.
- Use of insectivorous fish from the Genus Gambusia that feeds on mosquito pupae
and larvae.
iv Use of insecticide – treated mosquito nets to trap and kill adult mosquitoes
v Clearance of bushes and tall grass where adults normally live before entering
houses.

END OF GRADE 10 WORK

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 GRADE 11 WORK
TOPIC 1: TRANSPORT AND STORAGE IN PLANTS
Plants need a transport system for the following reasons:
- To carry water and mineral salts from the roots to other parts of the plant
- To transport manufactured foods from the leaves to other parts of the plant
- To transport hormones from sites of synthesis to sites of usage
The transport system in flowering plants is called the vascular system. This consists of
xylem and phloem which are closely associated with a meristematic tissue called
cambium. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts from the roots to other parts of the
plant and supports the plant mechanically. Phloem transports manufactured foods from the
leaves to other parts of the plant. Cambium carries out cell division to produce new cells,
including xylem and phloem cells.
1. Describe the external and internal structure of roots and stems.

External structure of the root

There are two types of root systems that are found in flowering plants and these are the tap
root system in dicot plants and the fibrous root system in monocot plants.
- The tap root system is made up of a main root called the taproot from which small
lateral roots grow. This root system is found in dicotyledonous plants such as bean
plants and many trees.
- The fibrous root system is made up of many roots of approximately equal size and
length, which branch out from the base of the stem. This root system is found in
monocotyledonous plants such as maize. Roots that grow from parts of a plant such
as stems and leaves are called adventitious roots. In maize plants, adventitious

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 roots are usually seen on the stems just above the ground. These roots help the plant
survive by enabling the plant to take up more oxygen and spread more easily.

External structure of a stem

The stem of a plant is the part above the root, which normally grows above the surface of
the soil. Its main function is to bear the leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds above the soil.
Above the soil, the leaves receive sunlight for photosynthesis. Flowers get pollinated. The
fruits are held on the stem in such a way that the ripe fruit and seeds can be scattered easily.
The stems also store food, transports water from the roots to the leaves and transports
carbohydrates to the roots and some stems.
Internal structure of root
The internal structure of the root consists of the epidermis, root hairs, cortex, endodermis,
pericycle and vascular bundles. The epidermis protects the stem. Root hairs absorb water
and mineral salts. The cortex is made up of vascular bundles and cells that give the plant
mechanical strength. The endodermis contains water Casparian strips that control water
flow into the vascular tissue. The vascular bundles consist of the xylem and phloem. The
xylem transports water and mineral salts. The phloem transports manufactured food. The
cambium is an actively dividing layer of cells.
Arrangement of Vascular Tissues in Dicots and Monocots roots
Cross-section of a Dicot Root

• Xylem is located in the centre and is star-shaped

• Phloem is located between the “arms” of the xylem
Cross-section of a Monocot Root

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 • The xylem and phloem vessels are found in the central part of the root.

Internal structure of the dicot and monocot stem

The epidermis is the outer layer of cells that covers the stem. The cortex is made up of
collenchymas cells that provide support. The parenchyma cells in the cortex store food.
The vascular tissue forms the ring around the pith. The vascular bundles consist of phloem
and xylem tissue, separated by the vascular cambium. The xylem is inside while phloem
is outside.
Cross-section of a Dicot Stem

• The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring form. The xylem is inside of the
bundle and the phloem is on the outside.
Cross-section of a Monocot Stem

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 • The vascular bundles are scattered. Each vascular bundle is oval in shape.
Phloem tissue is located on one end of the oval, with xylem tissue making up
the rest.
2. Describe the absorption of water and the uptake of mineral salts by roots.
Water and mineral salts are absorbed by root hairs which are found near the tips of roots.
Root hairs are elongated outgrowths of epidermal cells of the roots. A root hair cell absorbs
water by osmosis and mineral salts by active transport and is adapted for absorption in the
following ways:
- Has an elongated outgrowth which increases the surface area for faster diffusion
during absorption.
- Absence of chloroplast to create more room for absorption.
- High concentration of mitochondria to provide energy for active
absorption/transport of mineral salts. In addition, root hair cells are numerous which
further increase their surface area.
3. Describe the movement of water and transport of mineral salts from the roots to the
leaves.
Water moves up the plant through xylem vessels in a continuous stream known as the
transpiration stream. The forces responsible for movement of water in the transpiration
stream are transpiration, capillarity, root pressure and guttation.
Transpiration (the diffusion of water vapour from plant leaves to the atmosphere through
stomata). This creates a suction force that pulls water up the xylem vessels.
Capillarity: This is the movement of water into narrow tubes or openings as a result of
cohesion (attractive forces between molecules of the same kind) and adhesion (attractive
forces between molecules of different substances).
Root Pressure: This is the pressure created in xylem vessels due to osmotic gain of water
by the roots. This pushes water up the xylem vessels.
Guttation: the loss of water drops from the tips and margins of leaves through openings
called hydathodes. This creates a suction force that pulls water up the xylem vessels.

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 The following diagram summarises the transpiration stream.

4. Describe the movement of organic solutes in phloem.

In plants, the carbohydrates (sugars) made during photosynthesis are transported by the
phloem tissue. This process is called Translocation. Translocation is the movement of
manufactured food from the source (point of origin/ manufacture) to the sink sites (the sites
of usage or storage) through phloem. The organic solutes mainly include sucrose and
amino acids dissolved in water. In most cases the leaves are the sources. In some cases,
storage sites may also act as sources e.g. when food from a tuber is being translocated to
points of growth. In leaves, sugars are made in the mesophyll cells. sugras are then pumped
into the phloem using energy from metabolic processes. When a solute concentrates inside
the cell, the water potential of the cell is lowered and water enters the cell through osmosis.
The inflow of water buids up pressure. this causes sap to move out through the pores of
sieve tube elements in the phloem tissue and down the tube. Sucrose is soluble in water
and once it has reached the sink, it can be changed into glucose and fructose. These can
be stored or used as building blocks. The amino acids are assembled into proteins.
Evidence for Translocation
Using feeding aphids
When a feeding aphid is anesthetised, a chopped off leaving the mouth part attached to the
plant, a drop of liquid is seen oozing out of the mouth part. Tests on the liquid reveal that
it contains sucrose and amino acids. When a section of the plant is cut, the mouth part is
found to be inserted in the phloem.
Ringing experiment

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 When a ring of bark is removed from a tree, phloem is removed together with the bark. If
the tree is left to grow for several weeks, the bark above the ring swells because it continues
receiving food coming from leaves through the phloem while the part below the ring stays
the same. This shows that food is translocated through phloem.
The table below compares Xylem and Phloem
Xylem Phloem
Function Transports water and mineral salts Transports manufactured food
from the roots to other parts of a from the leaves to storage organs or
plant) other growing parts of a plant.
Location Whole plant (roots, stems and Whole plant (roots, stems and
leaves) leaves)
Cells Cells are dead Living cells
Physical Tubular with rigid cell walls Tubular with soft cell walls
structure
Movement Unidirectional: water and minerals Bidirectional: nutrients move up
move in one direction upwards from and down the plant’s stem to where
the plant’s stem it is needed.
Transport Transpiration: (adhesion, Translocation: active movement
cohesion, capillarity, root pressure) through sieve tube elements to
where needed.

5. Demonstrate the process of transpiration.

Transpiration is the diffusion of water vapour from leaves to the atmosphere through
stomata. In leaves of most plants, there are more stomata on the under-side than on the
upper-side. The water moves from the xylem vessels to the mesophyll cells by osmosis
then it evaporates from the surfaces of the mesophyll cells into the air spaces and finally
diffuses out of the air spaces to the atmosphere through the stomata.
Excessive transpiration can lead to plasmolysis of plant cells causing wilting of the plant.
Wilting is the sagging of delicate plant parts such as leaves, flowers and young stems due
loss of water. Temporary wilting is wilting that can be reversed by supplying a plant with
water. Permanent wilting cannot be reversed even if a plant is supplied with water but leads
to death of the plant. A plant undergoes wilting when the rate of transpiration is higher than
the rate of water uptake.

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 Measuring the Rate of Transpiration
This can be measured using an instrument called the potometer.
Diagram of photometer

When using the Potometer it is assumed that water uptake is equal to water loss through
transpiration. The distance moved by the air bubble/meniscus, the cross sectional area of
the capillary tube and the time taken need to be known in order to calculate the transpiration
rate using the following formula:
Rate of transpiration = Distance moved by meniscus X Cross sectional area of tube
Time taken
Example:
Mr. Bubala used a potometer to measure the transpiration rate of a leafy shoot of a plant.
The water meniscus moved 30 cm in 30 minutes. If the cross-sectional area of the capillary
tube was 0.25 cm2, what was the transpiration rate of the shoot?

Solution
Rate of transpiration= Distance moved by meniscus X Cross-sectional area of tube
Time taken
= 30 cm X 0.25 cm2
= 0.25 cm3/ minute
6. Investigate the factors that affect the rate of transpiration.
Humidity: This is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. The higher the humidity,
the lower the transpiration rate because high humidity lowers the concentration gradient
between the leaf and the atmosphere. High humidity causes the air in the leaves and the
outside to contain about the same amount of water vapor. The rate of transpiration is thus
decreased.

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 Light intensity: This is the brightness or dimness of light. The higher the light intensity,
the higher the transpiration because high light -intensity causes opening of the stomata.
Wind: Wind is moving air. The higher the wind speed, the greater the rate of transpiration.
When the air is still, a layer of water vapor forms over leaf and reduces transpiration rate.
But when there is wind, a layer of vapor is blown away thereby increasing diffusion rate.
Temperature: This is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. An increase in
environment temperature results into increased rate of transpiration. This is because
increased temperature leads to increased kinetic energy of water vapor molecules which
therefore escape faster from the leaves hence increasing transpiration rate.
7. Describe the adaptive features of a leaf to reduce excess loss of water.
• Shedding of leaves in severe conditions (summer) reducing the number stomata so
that no water loss can occur.
• Reduced size of leaves (needle- shaped leaves) - minimizes surface area over which
transpiration takes place in the leaf.
• Reduced number of stomata- most terrestrial plants have very few or no stomata
on the upper surfaces of leaves to reduce the rate of transpiration. Some plants have
sunken stomata and some have hairs on the lower side of the leaf.
• Leaves can roll up when water is scarce. This reduces the amount of water lost
through transpiration.
• Presence of a thick waxy cuticle
8. Explain the significance of transpiration in plants.
It creates transpiration pull that facilitates absorption of water by the plant. Evaporation of
water from a leaf has a cooling effect which helps prevent hot direct sunlight from
damaging the cells in plants, provides water one of the main raw materials of
photosynthesis and facilitates absorption of mineral ions from the soil. When water
evaporates from the leaf it condenses and forms clouds in the water cycle.

TOPIC 2: TRANSPORT IN HUMANS

Animals need transport systems for the following reasons:
• To transport dissolved food substances from the intestines to the tissue cells.
• To transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissue cells.
• To transport hormones from endocrine (ductless) glands to target organs.
• To carry metabolic wastes from tissue cells to excretory organs.
The transport systems of mammals are:
• The blood circulatory system (cardio-vascular system).
• The lymphatic system.
The Blood Circulatory System is made of the heart, blood vessels and the blood.
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 1. Identify the composition of blood.
Blood is a tissue made of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets (solid part) and
plasma (liquid part).
a) Red blood cell (Erythrocytes): These are biconcave discs responsible for
transportation of oxygen and small amounts of carbon dioxide. They are made in
the bone marrow in adults but can also be made by the liver in babies. One milliliter
of blood contains 5 to 6 million red blood cells. They have a lifespan of about 120
days and are destroyed by the liver.

They are adapted for transportation of oxygen in the following ways:

• Biconcave disc shape to increase the surface area for diffusion of oxygen.
• Presence of a red pigment called haemoglobin which has a high affinity (attraction)
for oxygen. Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin when
oxygen concentrations are high (e.g. in the lungs). When oxygen concentrations are
low e.g. in the muscles, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates forming haemoglobin and
oxygen.
• Absence of nucleus makes more room for haemoglobin
b) White Blood Cells (Leucocytes): These are cells that defend the body against
infection (diseases) and are made in the bone marrow, lymphoid tissue, lymph
nodes, tonsils, thymus and spleen. Two examples of white blood cells are
phagocytes and lymphocytes.
Phagocytes: These defend the body against infection by engulfing and digesting
germs (foreign bodies).

Adaptations
• Lobed nucleus which makes engulfing of germs easy.
• Amoeboid movement which makes it possible for them to move towards germs.
• They have no fixed shape but can change their shapes, making engulfing of foreign
bodies possible
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 Lymphocytes: These defend the body against infection by producing antibodies
and antitoxins. Antibodies are proteins that destroy germs/foreign bodies while
antitoxins are proteins that neutralize poisons from germs.

Adaptations:
• Presence of a large nucleus and thin cytoplasm.
c) Platelets (Thrombocytes): These are fragments formed during the manufacture of
red blood cells. They are important for blood clotting.
d) Blood Plasma: This is the liquid part of blood. It is made of water and dissolved
substances. The dissolved substances include the following:
• Dissolved food (monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins and
mineral salts)
• Dissolved metabolic wastes (urea and carbon dioxide in form of hydrogen
carbonate ions)
• Dissolved chemical substances such as hormones, antibodies, antitoxins and
plasma proteins. Plasma proteins include prothrombin, fibrinogen and albumin.
The roles of plasma proteins include maintaining blood viscosity, causing blood
clotting, maintaining a constant blood PH, maintaining osmotic balance.
2. Explain the functions of blood.
The main functions of blood include; transport, defense, and blood clotting.
Transport functions: Soluble products of digestion and absorption such as glucose, amino
acids, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals are transported from the gut to the liver and then
to the general circulation.
Waste products of metabolism such as urea are transported from sites of production to sites
of removal, such as the liver and kidneys.
Respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported from sites of uptake or
production to their site of use or removal.
Hormones such as insulin are transported from their sites of production in the glands to the
target organs where they have their effects.
Regulatory function: Blood plays a part in distribution of heat between heat producing
areas such as the liver and areas of heat loss such as the skin
Protective functions: Platelets, plasma proteins like fibrinogen and many other plasma
factors such as calcium ions protect against loss of blood and entry of pathogens by clotting

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 mechanisms. White blood cells protect against disease- causing micro-organisms.
Phagocytes engulf the bacteria while lymphocytes produce and secrete specific antibodies
against them.
3. Distinguish between red and white blood cells.
- Red blood cells are biconcave in shape while white blood cells have no definite
shape.
- Red blood cells contain hemoglobin while white blood cells do not contain
hemoglobin.
- Red blood cells are light red in colour because of the presence of the pigment
haemoglobin. They are brighter brighter red in colour in the presence of oxygen
while white blood cells are grey-blue when viewed under a microscope.
- Red blood cells lack the nucleus while white blood cells have the nucleus.
- Red blood cells transport oxygen and small amounts of carbon dioxide while white
blood cells defend the body against disease- causing micro-organisms.
4. Identify the sites where the blood cells are produced.
White blood cells are made in the bone marrow, lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus and spleen.
Red blood cells are in the bone marrow, particularly at the ends of the long arm and leg
bones, in the ribs, and in vertebrae in adults but can also be made by the liver in babies
5. Explain the process of blood clotting.
When platelets are exposed to injured body tissue, they release an enzyme called
Thromboplastin. Thromboplastin acts on a plasma protein called Prothrombin changing it
to an active form called thrombin. Thrombin acts on another plasma protein called
fibrinogen changing it into an insoluble form called fibrin. This reaction occurs in the
presence of calcium ions. The fibrin forms a mesh over the wound. This mesh traps red
and white blood cells, leading to the formation of a clot over the wound. The following
diagram summarizes the mechanism of blood clotting.

Blood clotting is important in the following ways:

• It prevents excessive loss of blood
• It prevents entry of germs into the body

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 •It is the first step in the healing of wounds. The clot eventually hardens, forming a
scab.The scab eventually falls off, leaving behind a scar.
6. Describe the ABO blood groups
The type of blood group in a human being is determined by the type of antigen present in
the cell membrane of the red blood cell. There are two antigens, namely IA and IB, while
the absence of either antigen is represented as IO. This is called the ABO blood group
system. There are four possible blood groups, namely group A, group B, group AB and
group O. The lymphocytes in each type of blood produce antibodies against non-self
antigens (antigens that are not present in the cell membranes of their red blood cells). These
antibodies are released into the blood plasma. The following table shows the antigens and
antibodies present in each of the four blood groups:
Blood Type of antigen(s) present in the cell Type of antibody present in
Groups membranes of red blood cells the blood plasm
A Have antigen A (IA) Anti B
B Have antigen B (IB) Anti A
AB Have both antigen A (IA) and antigen B (IB) None
O Lack both antigen A (IA) and antigen B(IB) Anti A and anti B

7. Explain the importance of determining the blood groups and Rhesus factors.
Safe blood transfusion is only important if blood groups and Rhesus factor are determined.
This reduces the chances of agglutination in the event of blood transfusion. Transplant of
tissues and organs require determination of blood groups and Rhesus factor. Some tissues
may be rejected by the recipient because they would act like antigen causing antibody-
antigen reaction. Determination of Rhesus factor prevents disorders, such as hemolytic
disease of the fetus.
Rhesus factor
This is a blood antigen first discovered in monkeys of the genus called Rhesus. A person
whose blood has this antigen is said to be rhesus positive (Rh+ or Rh positive), while a
person whose blood does not have this antigen is said to be rhesus negative (Rh- or Rh
negative). The rhesus status of a child depends on the status of its two parents as described
below:
• If both parents are Rh+, all their children will be Rh+.
• If one parent is Rh+ and the other is Rh- all children will be Rh+.
• If both parents are Rh-, all their children will be Rh-.
Having a rhesus negative mother and a rhesus positive father can cause serious
complications in a foetus or baby. If some of the blood of the foetus enters the mother‟s

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 blood stream during pregnancy or birth, the mother‟s blood begins making the anti-rhesus
antigens. If the woman conceives another rhesus positive foetus, these antibodies will cross
the placenta and attack the blood of the foetus. At the time of birth, the baby will suffer
from haemolytic disease (erythroblastosis foetalis), which leads to death if the baby does
not receive a comprehensive blood transfusion soon after birth. Any subsequent
pregnancies are miscarried and fail to thrive up to the time of birth.
8. Explain the donor-recipient compatibility of blood groups.
Blood Transfusion refers to the transfer of blood from one individual called the donor to
another one called the recipient. For a blood transfusion to be successful the blood of the
donor has to be compatible with the blood of the recipient. Blood compatibility refers to
the capacity of a blood recipient to receive the donor’s blood without leading to
agglutination or clumping of the blood received. Agglutination occurs when antibodies in
the recipient’s blood attack nonself antigens present in the donor’s blood causing the red
blood cells from the donor to stick together. This may cause blockage of blood vessels,
kidney failure and stroke. Therefore, any blood groups that have different antigens are
incompatible.
The following points must be noted when carrying out a blood transfusion:
• Blood group O can be given to any blood group because it has no antigens that can
be attacked by antibodies in the recipient’s blood. For this reason, blood group O
is called the universal donor. However, blood group O can not receive blood from
any other blood group.
• Blood group AB can receive blood from all other blood groups because it has no
antibodies to attack the antigens in the donor’s blood. For this reason, it is called
the universal recipient. However, blood group AB can not give blood to any other
blood group.
• A person can receive blood from another person of the same blood group without
complications arising.
9. Explain the importance of screening the blood for the purpose of transfusion.
Before a donor’s blood is given to a recipient, it has to be screened. Blood screening is the
testing of blood in order to determine the following: the blood group, the rhesus status and
to check for infections such as hepatitis and HIV. Screening is important to ensure blood
is safe and no disease causing micro- organisms are present that could cause disease in the
recipient. Screening would minimize transmission of diseases such as HIV and AIDS,
syphilis and hepatitis B.
10. Investigate common blood disorders.
Sickle cell anaemia: This is an inherited disease where a person has abnormal
haemoglobin. As a result, the red blood cells become sickle-shaped, especially when

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 oxygen levels are low in the body. The disease reduces the capacity of the body to transport
oxygen.

Haemophilia: This is an inherited disease where a person bleeds for longer periods than
normal due to poor clotting of blood. It is caused by absence of blood clotting proteins
known as factor VIII and factor IX.
Leukemia: This is defined as cancer of the white blood cells. The patient makes an
abnormally high number of immature white blood cells.

11. Describe the structure of the human heart

Th heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood around the body through blood vessels.
The type of muscle found in the wall of the heart is known as cardiac muscle.
The heart is divided into left and right side by a middle wall called the septum. Each side
has an upper chamber known as an atrium (plural: atria) and a lower chamber known as a
ventricle. The atria receive blood form the veins which they pump to the ventricles. The
ventricles receive blood from the atria and pump it out of the heart through the arteries.
The heart receives blood from blood vessels called veins. These include the venacava
(which carries blood from the rest of the body to the right atrium) and the pulmonary vein
(which carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium). The heart pumps blood out through
blood vessels called arteries. These include the aorta (which carries blood from the left
ventricle to the rest of the body) and the pulmonary artery (which carries blood from the
right ventricle to the lungs). The wall of the heart receives from the coronary artery which
branches from the aorta.
The heart also contains valves which are responsible for keeping blood flowing in one
direction by preventing back flow. The valves found between the atria and ventricles are
called atrio-ventricular valves. The one on the right side is called the tricuspid valve while
the one on the left is called the bicuspid (mitral) valve. Those found between the ventricles
and arteries are called semi lunar valves. The semi-lunar valve found at the beginning of
the aorta is called the aortic semi lunar valve while the one found at the beginning of the
pulmonary artery is known as the pulmonary semi lunar valve.

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 12. Describe how the heart functions.
The wall of the heart is made of a type of muscle called cardiac muscle which has the
following characteristics, among others:
• It is myogenic (it is self-stimulating, meaning that the stimulus for its contraction
comes from the muscle itself). The stimulus for contraction originates from a
special patch of cardiac muscle called the pacemaker or sinoatrial node (SAN)
found in the right atrium.
• It does not develop fatigue
• Its cells are branched and have a single nucleus each. Contraction of cardiac muscle
is called systole while relaxation of cardiac muscle is called diastole. The sequence
of events that occur during a single heart beat are called the cardiac cycle. The
events of the cardiac cycle are summarised as follows:
1) Atrial Systole (contraction of the walls of the atria)
2) Pause
3) Ventricular Systole (contraction of the walls of the ventricles)
4) Diastole (relaxation of the walls of the entire heart) Note that there is a pause
between atrial systole and ventricular systole.
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 The following table gives the details of each event of the cardiac cycle:
Event Atria Ventricles Bicuspid and Semi lunar Blood flow
Valves
Tricuspid
Valve
Atrial Contract Relax Open Close From the atria
Systole to the ventricles
Ventricular Relax Contact Close Open From the
Systole ventricles to the
arteries
Diastole Relax Relax Open Close From the veins
into the atria

13. Explain the causes of the coronary heart diseases.

Excessive intake of fatty foods causes coronary heart diseases. Fatty foods are easily
converted to cholesterol which in turn blocks the coronary arteries. Cigarette smoke
contains a stimulant called nicotine which tends to promote the accumulation of cholesterol
in the blood. When you are emotionally stressed, the body secretes high levels of
adrenaline which tends to promote accumulation of cholesterol in the blood stream.
Inhalation of harmful gaseous compounds, for example carbon monoxide when the
environment is polluted increases the chances of suffering from a coronary disease.
14. Describe the ways of preventing coronary heart diseases.
Avoid excessive intake of fatty foods. Regular exercise improves blood circulation and
reduces chances of accumulation of cholesterol in arteries.
15. Describe the structure of the lymphatic system in relation to blood circulatory system.
Lymphatic system is a transport and defence system made of the following components:
• Lymphatic vessels (a network of vessels that have blind ends in the tissue cells)
• A fluid called lymph (derived from tissue fluid but having more glycerol, fatty
acids, white blood cells, antibodies and antitoxins than tissue fluid)
• Glands and organs such as the spleen, adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph nodes and
appendix. The largest organ of the lymphatic organ is the spleen. The thymus is a
gland located on top of the heart and is large in infants but keeps getting smaller
and eventually degenerates during early childhood.

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 The functions of the lymphatic system may be summarised as follows:
• It drains excess tissue fluid and takes it back to the blood
• It adds lymphocytes to the blood
• It absorbs and transports cholesterol, fatty acids and glycerol to the blood.

16. Compare tissue fluid and lymph to blood.

Blood contains blood cells while tissue fluid and lymph lack blood cells. Blood contains
plasma proteins such as fibrinogen while tissue fluid and lymph lack plasma proteins.
17. Describe the flow of lymph.
Lymph drains into the lymphatic vessels. The lymph vessels bring the lymph back to the
heart through the vena cava. Lymphatic vessels have valves to prevent back flow of lymph.
Because the fluid in the lymphatic vessels is at very low pressure, the contraction and
relaxation of muscles help to squeeze the lymph back to the heart. In addition, inhalation
causes the negative pressure in the chest cavity which helps the lymph to drain towards the
heart.
18. Describe the structure of lymph vessels.
The smallest vessels of the lymphatic system are called lymphatic capillaries and lacteals
(in the villi of the small intestines). These small vessels join up to form bigger vessels
called the lymphatics or lymphatic vessels. The lymphatics join up repeatedly to make
bigger lymphatic vessels. The biggest lymphatic vessels are called thoracic ducts. Each
thoracic duct drains lymph into a subclavian vein near the junction of the neck and the arm.

19. Describe the functions of lymph nodes in disease prevention.

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 Two prominent features found along lymph vessels are valves and lymph nodes. Valves
keep the lymph flowing in one direction by preventing backflow. The flow of lymph is
assisted by contraction of muscles and breathing movements of the thorax and abdomen.
Lymph nodes are important in the following ways:
• They produce and store lymphocytes which are added to the lymph as it passes
through on its way to the subclavian vein.
• They filter foreign bodies, bacteria and dead tissue from the lymph before it joins
the blood.
• They become very active when the body is invaded by foreign bodies, becoming
swollen and tender in the process.
20. Describe types of blood circulatory systems.
The two types of circulatory systems are closed and open circulatory systems. Open
circulatory systems are found in invertebrates, such as molluscs and arthropods. Closed
circulatory systems are found in all vertebrates and a few invertebrates. In closed
circulatory system, the circulating fluid or blood is always enclosed within tubes called
blood vessels which transports towards and away from the heart. This can be single or
double circulation. In open circulatory system, blood is pumped by the heart into the body
cavity which is a series of body spaces collectively known as haemocoel.
21. Describe double circulation.
Double Circulation (Dual Circulation) is a type of circulation where blood passes
through the heart twice during one circulation around the body. It involves two types of
circulation, namely the pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.
(i) Pulmonary Circulation. This is the flow of blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
through the pulmonary artery and from the lungs to the left atrium through the pulmonary
vein. In this circulation, blood is pumped over a short distance and at a low pressure. As a
result, the walls of the right ventricle are relatively thin compared to those of the left
ventricles. The purpose of this circulation is to oxygenate the blood and to remove carbon
dioxide from the blood in the lungs.
(ii) Systemic Circulation. This is the flow of blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the
body through the aorta and from the rest of the body to the right atrium through the
venacava. In this circulation, blood is pumped over a long distance and at a high pressure.
As a result, the walls of the left ventricle are relatively thick compared to those of the right
ventricles. The purpose of this circulation is to distribute oxygen around the body and to
collect carbon dioxide from the body tissues.
The following diagram summarises double circulation.

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 22. Distinguish between the single and double circulation.
In single circulation, blood flows through the heart once to make a complete circulation
while in double circulation, blood flows through the heart twice to make a complete
circulation.

23. Identify the main blood vessels in the double circulation.

The main arteries take oxygenated blood to different organs – the heart, lungs, brain,
intestines, liver and kidneys. Main veins from these organs take the deoxygenated blood
back to the heart. The diagram below shows these main blood vessels in the double
circulatory system.

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 Pulmonary Circulation
- In the heart, deoxygenated blood flows through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle
- The right ventricle pumps the blood through the pulmonary artery. This artery
divides into two branches, one to each lung.
- In the lungs, carbon dioxide diffuses from a high concentration in the blood to a
lower concentration in the lungs. Oxygen difuses from a higher concentration in
the lungs to a lower concentration in the blood. During this gaseous exchange, the
blood becomes oxygenated.
- Four pulmonary veins transport the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
Systematic Circulation
- In the heart, the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the four
pulmonary veins.
- The left atrium pumps blood through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle.
- The left ventricle pumps blood through the aorta and its numerous branches to the rest
of the body
- The upper part of the body receives blood through the subclavian artery.
- The carotid artery takes oxygenated blood to the brain.
- The hepatic artery takes oxygenated blood to the liver, while the mesenteric arteries
suppy the stomach and the intestines with oxygen.
- Blood containing nutrients absorbed from the intestines is carried by the hepatic portal
vein to the liver. The hepatic portal vein is different to other blood vessels. It is found
between two organs, and not between an artery and a vein.
- The renal artery that branches off the aorta supplies the kidneys with oxygen .
- After the oxygen has been used by the cells during cellualar respiration, the blood in
the veins returns to the heart rich in carbon dioxide
- All the veins open into the superior vena cava (from the head and shoulders) and the
inferior vena cava (from the lower body). The deoxygenated blood flows into the right
atrium.
24. Compare the structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries.
Blood vessels are tubes through which blood moves around the body. There are three types
of bloodvessels. These are Arteries, veins and capillaries and they are shown in the
following diagram:

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 (i) Arteries
These are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to other parts of the body.
They have the following characteristics:
- They carry blood away from the heart
- They carry blood at high pressure
- They have thick walls and narrow lumens. The thick walls help them withstand the
pressure from the heart.
- They have no valves since the pressure from the heart is enough to keep blood moving
in one direction.
- They all carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery.
- They appear round in cross-section
- They are located deeper under the skin than the veins.
(ii) Veins
These are blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart from other parts of the body.
The have the following characteristics:
- They carry blood towards the heart.
- They carry blood at low pressure
- They have thin walls and wide lumens.
- They have valves to keep blood moving in one direction by preventing back flow.
- They all carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein.
- They appear irregular in cross-section
- They are located nearer to the skin surface than the arteries.
(iii) Capillaries
These are the smallest blood vessels. They form a link between arteries and veins. As
arteries approach the organs of the body, they branch into smaller arteries called arterioles.
The arterioles keep on subdividing until they form the capillaries. The capillaries have
direct contact with the tissue cells. This makes it possible for substances to be exchanged
between the blood and tissue cells. In addition, the walls of the capillaries are very thin
(just one cell thick) for easy diffusion of materials between the blood and the tissue cells.

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 The network of capillaries in the tissue cells is called the capillary bed. The following
diagram illustrates the structure of a capillary bed.

TOPIC 3: EXCRETION
1. Describe the process of excretion.
This is the removal of toxic metabolic waste products from the bodies of living organisms.
The products of excretion are called excretory products while the organs used to remove
them are called excretory organs.
The sources of the major excretory products in the human body and the organs used to
removethem are summarised in the following table.
Excretory Organ Excretory Product Source of Excretory Product
Kidneys and skin Urea Deamination in the liver
Lungs Carbon dioxide Cellular respiration
Liver Bile pigments Destruction of old red blood cells

2. Explain the significance of excretion in animals.

Unwanted toxic substances of metabolism and by-products are removed from the body of
an animal. If left to accumulate, these waste products become poisonous and harm the
organism`s normal body functions. Removal of waste products from the body of the animal
results in maintenance of a constant internal environment that is required for normal
physiological processes to occur. These include regulation of osmotic potential of body
fluids, regulation of pH and blood sugar levels.
3. Identify the internal structure of the kidneys.
The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped organs found in the lower abdomen. They are part
of a system called the excretory system or urinary system or renal system.
The kidney is made up of two distinct regions: an outer cortex and the inner medulla.The
cortex is covered by a protective fibrous capsule called the renal capsule. The medulla

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 consists of 8 to 18 conical pyramids. Across the cortex and medulla are numerous excretory
tubules called nephrons, as well as collecting ducts and their associated blood
vessels.Nephrons are the urine-producing units of the kidney. The tips of the pyramids
empty urine into an area called the renal pelvis. The renal pelvis functions as a funnel
collecting urine from all the pyramids to deliver to the ureter. Blood enters each kidney
from the renal artery and leaves via the renal vein.

Structure of the Urinary System

Functions of parts of Renal System

Aorta: Carries oxygenated blood from the heart to other parts of the body.
Venacava: Carries deoxygenated blood from different body organs towards the heart.
Renal Vein: Carries deoxygenated blood away from the kidneys towards the venacava.
Renal Artery: Carries oxygenated blood from the aorta to the kidneys.
Ureter: This transports urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder: Temporal storage of urine.
Urethral Sphincter: This is a ring of muscle found at the exit of the urinary bladder. It
controls the flow of urine out of the urinary bladder. When closed, it prevents urine from
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 coming out; when open, it allows urine to flow out of the bladder.
Urethra: It is a passage through which urine leaves the body. In males, it is also the outlet
for semen.
Kidney: Removes urea, excess salts and excess water from the blood and forms urine.
The basic functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. The following is the structure of a
Nephron:

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 4. Explain the mechanism of excretion in the kidneys.
Excretion in the kidney nephron occurs in four stages, namely, ultrafiltration (pressure
filtration) selective reabsorption, osmoregulation and secretion.
Ultrafiltration: This is the filtration of small molecules such as water, mineral salts,
glucose and urea from the glomerulus into the Bowman‟s capsule of a nephron. It is caused
by a build up of pressure in the glomerulus. The pressure builds up due to the following
reasons:
- The afferent end of the glomerulus is wider than the efferent end.
- Blood from arteries is under high pressure.
During ultrafiltration, the red blood cells and large molecules such as plasma proteins
remain inside the glomerulus. The liquid that collects in the Bowman‟s capsule is called
the glomerular filtrate. The glomerular filtrate is drained from the Bowman‟s capsule by
the renal tubule.
Selective Reabsorption: This is the reabsorption of useful substances from the glomerular
filtrate in the renal tubule into the blood stream. It occurs mainly in the folded regions
(convolutions) of the tubule where the tubule is entangled with blood vessels to facilitate
reabsorption. The first (proximal) convolution reabsorbs all glucose, some water and some
salts. The second convolution reabsorbs salts and water. Water is reabsorbed by osmosis;
glucose by diffusion and mineral salts by active transport.
Osmoregulation: This is the regulation of water levels in body fluids. Osmoregulation
takes place in the loop of Henle. If the body has little water in it, a hormone called
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) also called vasopressin is secreted by the pituitary gland in
the brain. It causes water to be absorbed from the glomerular filtrate into the surrounding
cells. This results in the production of small volumes of concentrated urine. But if the body
has enough water, ADH is not secreted and huge volumes of dilute urine are produced.
Secretion: The removal of urine from the kidney through the collecting duct and ureter.
Urine is a mixture of urea, excess salts and excess water. The urine is passed on to the
urinary bladder where it is temporarily stored before being passed out.
5. Identify the common disorders and diseases associated with the kidney.
Kidney failure may be caused by poisoning, accidents (injuries to the kidneys), infection
and drug abuse.
Kidney failure may be treated in two ways:
Kidney transplant: This is a surgical operation during which a normal kidney from
another person called a donor is added to an individual experiencing kidney failure. The
transplanted kidney must be compatible with the recipient; otherwise there will be
tissue rejection.

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 Using the dialysis machine (kidney machine): The following is the Diagram of a Dialysis
Machine

A kidney machine is made of a thin coiled tubule called the dialysis tubule through which
a patient’s blood passes. The tubule is long and coiled in order to increase the surface area
for diffusion. The tubule is also thin and selectively permeable. Thus it allows small
molecules such as glucose, urea, salts and water to pass through but prevents large ones
from doing so. The dialysis machine also contains dialysis fluid which is a solution of salts
and glucose in water and its concentration is equal to the normal concentration of blood.
The patient’s blood is drawn from a vein on the patient’s arm and taken into the dialysis
machine through a tube with the help of a pump. After passing through the machine, blood
is returned to a different point on the same patient’s vein. The dialysis fluid is introduced
into the machine using an inlet and removed using an outlet at a different location. The
flow of the dialysis fluid through the machine is opposite to the flow of the patient’s blood
through the dialysis tubing. This is called counter-current flow and helps make diffusion
faster by maintaining a constant diffusion gradient.
Normally, only urea, excess salts and excess water diffuse from the patient’s blood into the
dialysis fluid. A patient needs to be on the machine at least twice a week and each session
lasts about 8 hours.
The following table compares the advantages and disadvantages of a dialysis to a kidney
transplant.
Advantages Disadvantages
Dialysis • No major surgery needed • Diet need to be controlled carefully
• No waiting lists – prevents • restricts normal life – it takes about
people dying 8 hours, several times a week.
Kidney • No need for dialysis • major surgery has many risks
transplant • the recipient can lead a • possibility of rejection
relatively normal life • Dugs to suppress the immune
• Diet does not need to be system need to be taken for life
strictly controlled. • some religious groups do not agree
with organ donation

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 6. Investigate the role of the lungs in excretion.
Lungs excrete carbon dioxide. During cellular respiration, cabon dioxide is formed as a
wasdte product. Carbon dioxide is excreted during the process of gaseous exchange in the
alveoli. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli across the alveolar walls.
7. Identify the structure of the human skin.

8. Describe the role of the human skin in excretion.

The skin plays a role in excretion of excess water, mineral salts and traces of urea through
sweat.

TOPIC 4: HOMEOSTASIS AND OSMOREGULATION

1. Describe what homeostasis is.
This is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment. It involves the
regulation of body temperature (thermoregulation), regulation of the amount of water in
body fluids (osmoregulation), regulation of blood sugar and removal of toxic metabolic
wastes (excretion).
2. Identify important organs in homeostasis.
Important organs in homeostasis include the kidney, the skin and the liver.
3. Describe the role of the kidney in maintaining the balance of water and salt ions.
When the osmotic pressure of the body rises due to low amount of water caused by
dehydration and reduced water intake the pituitary gland is stimulated by the hypothalamus
to secrete ant diuretic hormone. Anti diuretic hormone causes kidney tubules in the
nephron to be more permeable to water, more water is reabsorbed into the bloodstream,
restoring osmotic pressure of body fluids.
When the amount of sodium ions in the blood is low, the adrenal glands secrete aldosterone
hormone which causes the distal convoluted tubule to reabsorb more sodium ions into the
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 blood stream. When the concentration of sodium ions in the blood is adequate, adrenal
glands are less stimulated; hence less sodium ions are reabsorbed.
4. Describe the mechanism of thermoregulation by the skin.
Thermoregulation is the maintenance of a constant body temperature. The temperature of
the human body must be kept around 37oC because that is the optimum temperature for its
enzymes. If the temperature goes lower than 37oC, the enzymes become less active and if
the temperature is too high, the enzymes become denatured.
Body heat is normally generated by metabolic reactions in the liver and through shivering
in the muscles. Body heat may be lost through the following processes: expiration (heat is
lost from the surfaces of the lungs), sweating, conduction, radiation, excretion and egestion.
The regulation of body temperature is mainly carried out by the skin under the control of
the hypothalamus, which is found in the fore brain.
Structure of the Skin

In cold temperatures the skin reduces loss of heat in the following ways:
• Erector muscles contract, pulling the hairs upright. The erect hair traps a layer of
air which insulates the skin against heat loss. The contraction of hair erector
muscles leads to development of goose bumps on the skin in cold weather.
• Vasoconstriction (narrowing of skin arterioles) occurs to reduce the amount of
blood passing through the skin. This reduces heat lost.
• Shunt vessels open, reducing the amount of blood passing through superficial
vessels near the skin surface. This reduces heat loss.
• Sweat glands become less active or inactive to minimise loss of heat which might
occur through sweating.

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 In Hot Temperatures, the skin promotes loss of heat in the following ways:
• Erector muscles relax, causing the hair to lie on the skin. This increases heat loss from
the body by conduction since no layer of still air forms
• Vasodilation (widening of skin arterioles) occurs, increasing the amount of blood
passing through the skin. This allows more heat to be lost from the blood by
conduction.
• Shunt vessels close, allowing more blood to pass through superficial vessels near the
skin surface. This increases heat loss from the body.
• Sweat glands become more active and produce more sweat. The water in sweat
absorbs heat from the body in order to evaporate, thereby cooling the body.

5. Describe the role of the liver in the regulation of blood sugar and body
temperature.
Blood Sugar Regulation: The term ‘blood sugar’ refers to glucose. The maintenance of
constant glucose levels in blood is carried out by the pancreas. It has cells known as the Islets
of Langerhans which produce hormones involved in blood sugar regulation. These cells are of
two types, namely alpha cells (α-cells) and beta cells (β-cells). Alpha cells secrete a hormone
called glucagon. Beta cells secrete a hormone called insulin.
When glucose levels are too high in blood, the pancreas secretes insulin which lowers the
levels of glucose in the following ways.
• It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to glycogen which
is stored in the liver and muscles. The body can only store about 400g of glycogen
(about100g in the liver and 300g in the muscles).
• It causes the cells of the adipose tissue to convert excess glucose to fats. The fats are
stored under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the heart, liver, kidneys,
intestines and brain.
• It enables body cells to absorb and use glucose from the blood.
Lack or insufficient production of insulin leads to the disease called diabetes mellitus whose
signs and symptoms include the following:
- High levels of glucose in blood (hyperglycaemia)
- Glucose in urine (glucosuria)
- Persistent thirst leading to excessive intake of water
- Drastic loss of weight
- Loss of sensation in some body parts.
When glucose levels are too low in blood, the pancreas secretes glucagon which increases
glucose levels in blood in the following ways:
• It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert glycogen to glucose.
• It causes fat to be changed into glucose and may cause proteins to be modified so that
they are utilised for energy production.

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 The liver produces and distributes heat because of many metabolic reactions that take place in
it and the network of blood vessels.

TOPIC 5: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

This is a system of coordination that is made of ductless glands that produce hormones.
1. Describe what a hormone is.
A hormone is a chemical secreted by a ductless gland, transported by blood and has effects
on one or more target organs before being destroyed by the liver. A target organ is any organ
that carries out an appropriate response to a stimulus under the influence of hormones. Any
hormone can only have effects on an organ that has receptor sites for it.
2. Identify the endocrine glands in a human being.

3. Identify the hormones produced by the pancreas, adrenal, thyroid and pituitary
glands.
The pituitary gland is also called the master gland of the endocrine system. This is because
it secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to function. These hormones
include the following:
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): This stimulates the thyroid gland to
function
• Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH): This stimulates the adrenal cortex to
secrete hormones
• Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) : This stimulates the tests to
function

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 • Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): This stimulates formation of follicles in the
ovaries.
• Luteinising Hormone (LH): This causes ovulation and formation of the corpus
luteum.
There are other hormones produced by the pituitary gland which are not involved in
stimulating other endocrine glands. These include:
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Also called vasopressin, this hormone stimulates
reabsorption of water from the renal tubule and loop of Henle in the kidneys when
the body has little water. Insufficient or lack of ADH leads to diabetes insipidus (a
condition where an individual passes out large volumes of dilute urine)
• Growth Hormone: This stimulates growth by stimulating synthesis of
macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Too much secretion of
growth hormone leads to giantism/gigantism and acromegaly. Gigantism or
giantism is a condition where an individual is abnormally tall and huge.
Acromegaly is enlargement of bones often accompanied by protrusion of the lower
jaw. Little secretion of growth hormone leads to dwarfism, a condition where an
individual has physically stunted growth and appears too small for their age.
• Oxytocin: This causes rhythmic contractions of the uterus wall during child birth
and also stimulates release of milk from mammary glands in the breasts.
• Prolactin: This stimulates milk production by the mammary glands in the breasts.
4. Describe the functions of thyroxine, insulin, glucagon and adrenaline.
The Thyroid Gland: This is an H-shaped gland located in the neck near the larynx. It
produces a hormone called thyroxine. Thyroxine controls the basal metabolic rate (BMR)
of the body, stimulates respiration of glucose and fats as well as cotrolling the growth and
differentiation of cells. The formation of thyroxine by the thyroid gland requires iodine.
Over production of thyroxine causes hyperactivity which is characterised by an increased
metabolic and heart rate, loss of body mass and extreme irritability. Under production of
thyroxine causes myxoedema and cretinism. Myxoedema is a condition where the basal
metabolic rate and mental development are slow. Cretinism is a condition where the
physical, mental and sexual developments of a child are retarded. A person who suffers
from cretinism is called a cretin. Iodine deficiency causes swelling of the thyroid gland, a
condition known as goitre.
The Adrenal Gland: This is a pair of glands, each located just above each kidney. The
medulla of the adrenal glands produces a hormone called adrenaline. This hormone is
called the “fight or flight hormone” and is produced when an individual is angry, scared,
emotionally excited or under stress. It prepares he body for action in the following ways:
• It boosts the changing of glycogen to glucose, thereby increasing glucose levels in
the blood to be used for respiration
• It increases the breathing rate so that more oxygen is taken in to be used for energy
production

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 • It increase the heart rate so that more blood containing glucose and oxygen can be
carried to the muscles
• It diverts blood from the gut to the muscles by constricting the blood vessels of the
gut and dilating the blood vessels of the muscles.
• It dilates the pupils in the eyes for increased alertness
• It dilates the bronchi and increases the volume of the thorax so that more air
containing oxygen may be taken in
• It increases the sensitivity of the nervous system for faster response to stimuli
• It raises hair in furry animals and causes the appearance of „goose bumps‟.
• It causes shivering.
Effects of over secretion of adrenaline
Muscles become tense and painful, headaches or even migraines, high blood pressure
leading to hypertension which can cause stroke or heart failure, pain in the stomach and
intestines, diarrhoea, excessive sweating and exhaustion.
Effects of under secretion of adrenaline
Improved muscular performance, mental alertness, extra blood flows to muscles and
brain carrying more oxygen and glucose, decreased rate of digestion waste products
egested faster and more energy available for body activity. Reduction in blood sugar
level and rapid weight loss.
Pancreas: The pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine gland. It is considered as an
exocrine gland in the digestive system where it secretes pancreatic juice through a duct
called the pancreatic duct. In the endocrine system it plays a major role in maintaining
normal glucose levels in blood. It has cells known as the Islets of Langerhans which
produce hormones involved in blood sugar regulation. These cells are of two types, namely
alpha cells (α-cells) and beta cells (β-cells). Alpha cells secrete a hormone called
glucagon. Beta cells secrete a hormone called insulin.
When glucose levels are too high in blood, the pancreas detects the change and secretes
insulin which lowers the levels of glucose in the following ways.
• It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to glycogen
which is stored in the liver and muscles. The body can only store about 400g of
glycogen (about100g in the liver and 300g in the muscles).
• It causes the cells of the adipose tissue to convert excess glucose to fats. The fats
are stored under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the heart, liver,
kidneys, intestines and brain.
• It enables body cells to absorb glucose from the blood and use it.
Lack or insufficient production of insulin leads to the disease called diabetes mellitus
whose signs and symptoms are:
• Abnormally high levels of glucose in blood
• Presence of glucose in urine
• Persistent thirst leading to excessive intake of water
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 • Drastic loss of weight
• Loss of sensation in some body parts.
When glucose levels are too low in blood, the pancreas detects secretes glucagon which
increases glucose levels in blood in the following ways:
• It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert glycogen to glucose.
• It causes fat to be changed into glucose and may cause proteins to be modified so
that they are utilised for energy production.
Negative Feedback Mechanism: A negative feedback mechanism is a mechanism whereby
levels of substances in the body are brought back to normal. When there are changes in the
internal environment, they are detected by a monitor (detector) which produces a hormone to
return the condition to normal. The following diagram illustrates negative feedback
mechanism in the production of insulin and glucagon by the pancreas.

TOPIC 6: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSE ORGANS

1. Identify main parts of the nervous system in a human being.
The Nervous System is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The brain and the
spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS) while the nerves make up the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). Nerves that are joined to the brain are called cranial nerves
while those that are joined to the spinal cord are called spinal nerves. In the nervous system
messages are transmitted in the form of electric impulses also called nerve
impulses.
The Figure below shows the main parts of the nervous system in a human being

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2. Describe what neurones are.

Neurones or nerve cells are specialised cells which are basic functional units of the nervous
system.Types of neurones include sensory, relay (connector, intermediate, multipolar, pyramidal)
and motor neurones.

a) Sensory neurones: These are neurones that carry impulses from sense organs (receptors) to
the central nervous system. A receptor is any organ that detects a stimulus and converts
information about it to electrical impulses. Characteristics of sensory neurones include the
following:
• They carry impulses from sense organs to the central nervous system.
• They have long dendrons and short axons.
• Their cell bodies are not terminally located but are axillary.

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 b) Motor neurones: These are neurones that carry impulses from the central nervous system to
effectors. An effector is any part of the body that carries out a response to a nervous impulse.
Most effectors are glands or body organs such as muscles. Motor neurones have the following
characteristics:
• They carry impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors.
• They have long axons and short dendrites.
• Their cell bodies are terminally located (located at the end).

Motor neuron
c) Relay neurones: These are neurones that form a link between sensory neurones and motor
neurones. They are located in the central nervous system and are multipolar so as to provide
many alternative paths for impulses.

Relay Neuron
Synapses: A synapse is a junction between two neurones. The neurones at the synapse are not joined
to each other but have gaps between them called synaptic gaps (synaptic clefts). The following
passage describes how a nerve impulse moves across a synaptic gap:
1. An impulse arrives at the synapse
2. At the end plates, there are vesicles (tiny sacs) containing a chemical (neurotransmitter).
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 3. The vesicles fuse with the cell membrane (presynaptic membrane) and the chemical is
released into the synaptic gap.
4. The chemical diffuses across the gap and the impulse restarts at the other side.
3. Explain the path taken by an impulse through a spinal reflex arc
The path travelled by a nerve impulse during a reflex action is called a reflex arc. A receptor
detects a change in a condition (stimulus).A message is carried in form of an electrical impulse
from the receptor to the central nervous system by a sensory neurone.A relay neurone will then
carry the electrical impulse from the sensory neurone to the motor neurone which will in turn
carry the impulse to the effector. The relay neurone acts as the link between the sensory and the
motor neurone.
Receptor → Sensory Neuron → Relay Neuron → Motor Neuron → Effector
The figure below illustrates the path taken by an impulse through a spinal reflex arc.

4. Describe what the spinal, cranial and the conditioned reflex actions are
Reflex Actions: A reflex action is an automatic and stereotyped response to a
stimulus. Reflex actions are often quick, but some of them are slow. Examples of
quick reflex actions include:
• Withdrawing of a hand from a hot object
• Jumping up after sitting on a pin
• Blinking when an object approaches the eye
• Knee-jerk reflex
• Shedding of tears when an object enters the eye.

Spinal reflex actions: are inherited or inborn responses which produce the same response for a
given stimulus e.g. Withdrawing of a hand from a hot object, knee jerking and bulging of the
biceps of the hand when struck. During a spinal reflex, impulses pass through the spinal cord.
Cranial reflex action: Cranial reflexes are mediated by the brain and pass along the cranial
nerves. Example is salivation in response to sight or thought of food.

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 Conditioned reflex action: conditioned reflex is a response that results from learning or training.
The response given during a conditioned reflex is not related to the stimulus but the animal
associates it with a related stimulus after being trained to do so. This may be illustrated by Pavlo’s
experiment.
Pavlov’s Experiment: Pavlov observed that dogs always salivated when they saw, smelled or
tasted food. For some days, Pavlov would ring a bell each time before giving the dogs food.
Eventually, the dogs started salivating at the sound of the bell alone. In this case, the salivation of
the dogs is an example of a conditioned reflex and the sound of the bell may be referred to as a
conditioned stimulus.
Conditioning is used in training of animals for different tasks. In humans, activities such as
walking, responding to a name, cycling and driving are examples of conditioned reflexes.
5. Identify the main parts of the brain of a human being.
The brain is the enlarged anterior end of the spinal cord. It is made of three regions which are:
(i) Fore brain (cerebrum, hypothalamus, pituitary gland)
(ii)Hind brain (medulla oblongata and cerebellum)

6. Explain the functions of the forebrain and the hindbrain.

The fore brain (cerebrum, pituitary gland and hypothalamus).
• Cerebrum: This is the largest part of the brain and is the centre of intelligence, memory,
language and consciousness. It has both motor and sensory areas. The motor areas control
voluntary movement. The sensory areas interpret sensations and are linked by association
areas. Injury to the cerebrum lowers intelligence. It occupies three quarters of the brain.
Human beings have got the largest cerebrum of all animals.
• Hypothalamus: Sometimes regarded as the centre of homeostasis, this contains centres
which control thirst, hunger and thermoregulation. It Controls temperature and water,
Controls feeding, talking and eating. It stimulates the pituitary to secrete hormone.
• Pituitary Gland: This links the central nervous system and the endocrine system. (Refer
to notes on the endocrine system for the hormones it secretes and their functions)
The hindbrain (cerebellum and medulla oblongata).

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 • Cerebellum: It helps to maintain a balance or equilibrium through coordinated muscle
movements as well as maintenance of normal body posture. It also controls the sequence
of activities involved in dancing, acrobatics and playing of musical instruments.
• Medulla oblongata: This links the spinal cord and the brain and conducts nerve impulses
between these two parts. It controls the unconscious (automatic) processes such as
swallowing, salivation, vomiting, sneezing, coughing, heart rate, respiration, breathing
rate, contraction and dilation of blood vessels.

Differences between Endocrine and Nervous System

Nervous System Endocrine System
Messages are electrical (nerve impulse) Messages are chemical (hormones)
Responses are localised Responses are widespread and affect more
than one target organ
Responses are short-lived (temporary) Responses are either temporary or permanent
Responses are often quick Responses are either quick (e.g. for
adrenaline or slow (e.g. for sex hormones)

7. Describe the effects of abuse of drugs on the nervous system

A drug is any externally administered substance which modifies/alters the rate of
metabolic reactions in the body. Drugs may be administered in several ways including
• Ingestion (taking through the mouth).
• Injection (use of needles and syringes to introduce drugs into blood).
• Sniffing (taking a powdery drug in through the nostrils) e.g. snuff
• Inhalation (taking a vaporised drug in through the respiratory)
The term drug refers to useful substances such as medicine as well as harmful substances.
Harmful drugs are also called drugs of abuse and are classified into the following groups,
among others: stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, narcotics and inhalants/solvents.
Some terms associated with drug abuse include:
• Dependency (addiction): A condition where an individual‟s body fails to function
normally in the absence of a particular drug. A person who dependent on a drug is also
said to be addicted. Dependency can be psychological or physiological. Psychological
dependency is where a person believes that they need a particular drug to function
normally.
• Tolerance: This is a condition where an individual needs a higher dosage of a drug to
produce an effect that was initially being produced by a smaller dosage of the drug.
• Withdrawal symptoms: These are the symptoms or signs an individual experiences
when they discontinue using a drug which they are addicted to.
Classes of Abused Drugs

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 (i) Stimulants: These are drugs that accelerate/increase the rate of impulse transmission in the
nervous system. Examples of stimulants are cocaine, caffeine, nicotine and amphetamines.
Their effects include:
• Increasing alertness
• Increasing heart rate and breathing rate
• Reducing the desire to sleep
• Reducing the desire for food (lack of appetite)
• Making someone feel energetic
• Euphoria (feeling of well being)
However, stimulants increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and
coronary heart disease. Prolonged use can lead to dependency and liver damage. Overdoses can
cause death.
(ii) Depressants: These are drugs that slow down the rate of impulse transmission in the
nervous system. Examples of depressants are alcohol and heroin. Their effects include:
• Reduced anxiety and tension
• Increased desire for sleep and drowsiness
• In small amounts, some cause an increased desire for food
• Euphoria
• Numbing of pain by inhibiting pain and emotion centres.
The dangers associated with abuse of depressants include the following:
• Overdoses can lead to instant death
• Injectable drugs such as heroin increase the risk of HIV infection resulting from sharing
of needles.
• Addiction/dependency is quickly established
• They have severe withdrawal symptoms e.g. vomiting, diarrhoea and dizziness
• They slow down the time taken to respond to stimuli, leading to accidents
• Damage to vital body organs such as the liver, kidneys and brain
• Social problems such as crime and prostitution committed by addicts who need money
for the drugs.
Harmful Effects of Alcohol
The harmful effects of alcohol can be classified as either short term or long term. Short term
effects are those that are experienced immediately after taking the drug and do not last for a
long time. These include:
• Staggering (loss of coordination)
• Slurred speech
• Anti-social behaviour e.g. shouting
• Slowing down the transmission of nerve impulses, thereby slowing down reactions to
stimuli
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 • Poor judgment
• Hangover

Long term effects are the effects someone experiences after using a drug for a long time. For
alcohol, the long term effects are:
• Permanent damage to internal organs such as the liver, brain and kidneys. The hardening
of liver tissue resulting from alcohol abuse is called liver cirrhosis.
• Social problems such as poverty, lack of food in homes, failure to sponsor children to
school e.t.c.
• Stomach ulcers
• Uncontrolled shaking (delirium tremens) and hallucinations in some cases.
• Expectant mothers who take alcohol have a risk of giving birth to underweight babies
• having foetal alcoholic syndrome (FAS). This is a condition where a child is deformed
and mentally retarded.
Note: Some effects of depressants are closely associated with those of sedatives and
tranquillisers.
(iii) Hallucinogens: These are drugs that distort the perception of an individual e.g. marijuana
and LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide).
8. Explain the effects of tetanus infection
This is an infection caused by a bacterium called Clostridium tetanus. It is characterised by
sustained contractions of muscles which leads to stiffening of the body and death. Individuals
who have deep cuts with dirty objects on their bodies (e.g. accident victims) are at high risk of
tetanus infection. As a result they are given anti-tetanus injections which contain antibodies
that counter the effects of tetanus toxins.

SENSE ORGANS
A sense organ is any body organ responsible for detecting one or more stimuli. Examples of
human sense organs and the stimuli they detect are summarised in the following table:

Sense Organ Stimulus/stimuli detected

The eye Light/light energy
The skin Touch, temperature, pressure and pain
The nose chemoreceptors Chemicals in air
The tongue chemoreceptors Chemicals in food

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 The ear Sound energy, balance/posture and pressure

1. Identify the external and internal structures of the human eye.

The Eye: This is a sense organ responsible for detecting light energy

2. Explain the functions of the parts of eye.

Pupil: It allows light to enter the eye
Iris: It expands and contracts to control the amount of light entering the eye
Sclera: This is the tough fibrous outer coat which maintains the spherical shape of the
eyeball protects the eye against damage and provides attachment for external eye muscles
(rectus and oblique muscles) which move the eye in its sockets. This layer is white and
opaque
Cornea: This is the transparent section of the sclera found in front of the eye. It does most
of the refraction of light rays from an object. This leads to the formation of an inverted and
diminished image on the retina.
Choroid: This is a dark layer that also contains blood vessels. The dark colour limits
internal reflections so that clear images are formed. The blood vessels provide food and
oxygen to the cells of the retina.
Retina: This is a layer containing light-sensitive cells where images form and light energy
is converted to nerve impulses. There are two types of light sensitive cells found on the
retina, namely cones and rods. The cones form clear (detailed) colour images when there
is high light intensity (bright light). The portion of the retina having the higher
concentration of cones is called fovea (yellow spot) and forms the most detailed colour
images. The rods form blurred, black and white images at low light intensity (dim light).

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 Blind spot: A portion corresponding to the exit point for the optic nerve, where there are
no light-sensitive cells. Hence, light falling there cannot be detected.
Optic nerve: A nerve having sensory neurones that transmit nerve impulses from the retina
to the visual centre of the brain.
Vitreous humour: It s a jelly-like fluid which keeps the eyeball in shape, refracts light
rays, supports the lens and keeps the retina in place at the rear of the eye.
Aqueous humour: It is a watery fluid which supports the cornea and keeps it in shape.
3. Describe the accommodation of the eye.
Accommodation is the process by which the eye forms a focused (clear) image on the
retina by adjusting the thickness and length of the lens using suspensory ligaments and
ciliary muscles in response to the distance of the object away from the eye.
Accommodation of near objects: Rays from close objects are divergent. To focus the
images on the retina the following events take place:

• Ciliary muscles contract

• Suspensory ligaments become slacken
• The lens becomes short and thick
• The light rays are more refracted, thereby focusing the image on the retina
Accommodation of distant objects: Rays from distant objects are more or less parallel to
each other and do not require much refraction to be focused on the retina. The following
events occur to focus the image on the retina:

• Ciliary muscles relax

• Suspensory ligaments become taut, making the lens long and thin
• Light rays are less refracted, thereby focusing the image on the retina

Pupil/Iris Reflex: This is the adjustment of the diameter of the pupil by circular and radial
muscles of the iris in response to changes in light intensity.

In Bright Light (High Light Intensity): Excess light may damage the retina by bleaching
it. To prevent this, the following events take place:

• Circular muscles contract

• Radial relax
• Pupil constricts (becomes smaller) to prevent bleaching of the retina by excess light.

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 In Dim Light (Low Light Intensity): The light reaching the retina is not enough for
image formation. To correct this situation, the following events take place:
• Radial muscles contract
• Circular muscles relax
• Pupil dilates (becomes wider) to allow as much light as possible to enter the eye for
image formation

4. Describe the causes of short and long sightedness.

Short Sight (Myopia): This is an eye defect where an individual can clearly see close
objects but distant objects appear blurred. This is because rays from distant objects are
brought into focus before (in front of) the retina. It is caused by an abnormally long eyeball
or a permanently thick lens.

Long Sight (Hypermetropia): This is an eye defect where an individual can clearly see
distant objects but close objects appear blurred. It is caused by an abnormally short eyeball
or a permanently thin lens. In this case, rays from close objects are focused beyond the
retina. Stiffening of the lens in its thin position can be caused by old age

5. Explain the correction of short and long sight.

Short Sight (Myopia): It can be corrected by using concave lenses, as illustrated in the
following diagrams:

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 Long Sight (Hypermetropia): Long sight is corrected by using convex lenses, as
illustrated in the following diagrams:

6. Investigate the common causes and methods of preventing blindness.

Blindness: This is defined as lack or loss of visual perception. Blindness has several causes
but the most common causes in Zambia are discussed below:
Vitamin A deficiency: Vitamin A deficiency is the leading cause of preventative blindness
in children and pregnant women. It affects the rods (which are sensitive to low light
intensity) leading to less synthesis of retinal; a photo chemical substance. The rods
eventually get damaged. Vitamin A deficiency can be prevented by eating foods rich in
Vitamin A such as carrots and pumpkins. Breast-feeding infants also prevents Vitamin A
deficiency as breast milk contains Vitamin A.
Filarial worm infection: The adult filarial worm migrates through the subconjunctival
tissues in the eyes of humans and may eventually find their way to the retina. This could
result in a damaged retina. When rods are affected, it could result in night blindness.
Treatment involves killing the adult filarial worms with anti-worm medication supplied by
the local clinics as well as conducting surgery to remove adult worms from the eye.
Diabetes mellitus: Diabetes mellitus can result in night blindness due to excess levels of
sugar in the blood and high blood pressure that damages blood vessels in the eye.
Treatment with insulin and a healthy, low sugar diet can prevent blindness in a diabetic
person.

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 Physical injury: This can cause blindness in babies, children and adults. Eye infection,
objects in the eye, burn wounds and looking at very sharp objects can cause permanent
blindness. Immediate treatment at a clinic or hospital can save a person’s eyesight.
Cataracts: Cataracts can cause blindness. A cataract is the clouding over and hardening of
the lens of the eye due to old age, diabetes, strong sunlight and heavy smoking. Cataracts
lead to hazy vision and eventually cause blindness. Normal cataracts are cured by surgically
removing the lens and replacing it with an artificial lens. Normal vision is then restored.
7. Describe the structure of the human ears.
The Ear is a sense organ that is responsible for detection of sound. The ear is divided into the
following regions:
• Outer Ear or External Ear (an air-filled cavity made of the pinna/ear lobe and external
auditory meatus)
• Middle Ear (an air-filled cavity made of the tympanum/ear drum, ossicles and
eustachian tube)
• Inner Ear or Internal Ear (a fluid-filled cavity made of the cochlea, semicircularcanals
and vestibules or vestibular apparatus)

8. Explain the functions of the parts of the ear.

Pinna: This collects sound waves and passes them on to the external auditory canal.
External Auditory Canal (Ear Canal)
• Carries sound waves from the pinna to the tympanum.
• Produces wax to keep the ear drum supple and trap particles that enter the ear
• Contains hair to trap particles entering the ear
Ear Drum (Tympanum): This is a membrane that vibrates when hit by sound waves in
order to transmit sounds to the ossicles that are found in the middle ear.
Ossicles: This are a set of three small bones found in the middle ear and are responsible
for:

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 • Transmitting sounds from the ear drum to the oval window.
• Amplifying sounds by about 20 times.
The names of the three bones are related to their shapes. The first one after the ear drum is
the malleus (hammer); the next one is the incus (anvil) and the last one is stapes (stirrup).
Eustachian Tube: This is a tube that connects the middle ear to the back of the pharynx.
It opens during swallowing and yawning in order to equalize pressure between the middle
ear and the atmosphere. This prevents the ear drum from bursting when atmospheric
pressure changes drastically e.g. during an aeroplane flight or deep-sea diving.
Oval Window (Fenestra ovalis): This picks up vibrations from the stapes and transmits
them to the perilymph in the inner ear.
Round Window: This relieves the pressure that builds up in the perilymph during
vibrations of the oval window. It moves outwards as the oval window moves inwards and
moves inwards when the round window moves outwards.
Vestibules (Vestibular Apparatus): This is made of the sacculus (saccule), utriculus
(utricle), ampullae (singular=ampulla) and three semi-circular canals. they contains hairs
which detect changes in the position of the head relative to gravity, they are specialized in
maintaining balance and posture.
Cochlea: This is a coiled structure that detects sound intensity and frequency and
transduces sounds to generate nerve impulses. Nerve impulses from the ear are carried to
the brain by the auditory nerve.

9. Describe causes and methods of preventing deafness.

Deafness is an ear disorder where hearing is impaired or diminished. Causes of deafness

include the following:

• Over-production of wax which leads to blockage of the external auditory canal.

• Exposure to loud sounds which might damage the ear ossicles.
• Inserting hard and sharp objects into the ears, causing damage to the ear drum.
• Infections of the inner ear or the throat. Some throat infections are able to affect the
middle ear by getting transmitted through the eustachian tube.

Methods of preventing deafness.

• Clean the ears regularly with soft materials to remove excess wax
• Avoid exposure to loud sounds. This can be done by covering the ears when exposed to
loud sounds.
• Treat all infections of the inner ear and throat.
10. Describe the role of the skin as a sense organ
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 The skin contains sensory cells which can be stimulated by changes in temperature and
pressure. Some are sensitive to touch and pain. When stimulated the sensory cells send
nerve impulses to the brain. The brain then gives the response either in the form of the reflex
action or record an impression by which an animal is aware of the stimulus.

TOPIC 7: THE SKELETON AND LOCOMOTION

Locomotion refers to movement of an entire organism from one place to another. Only
animals can carry out locomotion. Other types of organisms such as trees can only move
parts of their bodies while remaining fixed. Locomotion in animals is done with the help of
skeletons and muscles.
1. Identify various types of skeleton.
A skeleton is any firm structure that gives mechanical support to the body and provides
protection to the softer parts of the body. There are three types of skeletons in multicellular
organisms. These are hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons and endoskeletons.

Hydrostatic Skeleton: This is a type of skeleton made of watery fluids found inside the
body. These watery fluids offer mechanical support and help in movement. This type of
skeleton occurs in soft-bodied invertebrates such as earthworms, hydra, snails, slugs and sea
anemones. Water has three important characteristics that make it suitable to act as a skeleton.
• It is relatively incompressible (cannot be easily compressed)
• It can transmit pressure changes equally in all directions
• It takes up the shape of its container.

During locomotion in an earthworm, the circular and longitudinal muscles contract in

turns to produce peristaltic waves along the body, beginning at the front end and working
backwards.

Exoskeleton: This is a type of skeleton located outside the muscles of the body and
occurs in all arthropods (crustaceans, insects, myriapods and arachnids). In insects, this
skeleton is also known as the cuticle and is largely made of a polysaccharide called chitin
covered with small amounts of wax outside. The cuticle is made of a waxy thin outer
layer called the epicuticle and an inner layer of chitin called the procuticle. The
procuticle is made of two layers called exocuticle and endocuticle.

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 Endoskeleton: An endoskeleton is located inside the body and is made of bones and
cartilage. This type of skeleton is found in all vertebrates i.e. fish, amphibians, reptiles,
birds and mammals. The endoskeleton of a vertebrate foetus is largely made up of
cartilage while that of an adult is made of bones with small amounts of cartilage in areas
that need flexibility. However, some adult vertebrates have entire skeletons made of
cartilage e.g. cartilaginous fish such as sharks. Cartilage is a firm and flexible rubber-
like tissue which is made of living cells and collagen fibres embedded in a matrix of
chondrin. The structure of cartilage is illustrated in th following diagram.

2. Describe the functions of the skeleton.

• Supporting the body and providing the frame work of the body
• Movement and locomotion
• Protection of delicate body parts e.g. the brain is protected by the skull (cranium)
while the heart and lungs are protected by the ribcage
• Production of blood cells i.e. some white blood cells are produced in the yellow bone
marrow while red blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow.
• Transmission of sound from the ear drum to the oval window by ear ossicles
• The ribcage contributes to breathing by moving upwards and outwards (during
inspiration) or downwards and inwards (during expiration)

1. Investigate the structure and composition of an exoskeleton.

The skeleton of an insect: The exoskeleton of an insect is completely external to the body.
Covering the body surface is a layer called a cuticle. This is a non-living structure secreted
by the layers of the epidermis .The cuticle is divided into two main layers, the epicuticle
(outer layer) and procuticle (inner layer).The epicuticle is a very thin layer and is covered

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 with wax. The procuticle is further divided into two sub-layers, called the exocuticle and
endocuticle. Both contain chitin, which strengthens the exoskeleton. Beneath the
procuticle is a single layer of cells called the epidermis. The epidermis produces cells for
the upper layers of the cuticle. The epidermis enables the insect to form a new exoskeleton
when it has shed the old one.

2. Identify joints and muscles in the limbs of a grasshopper.

All insects have three main body parts: the head, thorax and abdomen. The grasshopper
uses its limbs to walk, to find food, to find a mate to reproduce and to escape from
predators. The limbs are attached to the body by joints. The hard epicuticle and rigid
exocuticle are absent in the joints, leaving only the flexible endocuticle. This allows the
joints to bend easily. Athough each joint can move in only one direction, the joints bend in
different directions, giving a grasshopper a wide range of movement.
The muscles in the limbs of a grasshopper are just inside the exoskeleton. Antagonistic
muscles are attached to special parts on the inside of the cuticle of the exoskeleton. Each
joint in the limb is moved by a pair of muscles. The muscle responsible for flexing
(bending) the joint is called the flexer muscle. The muscle responsible for extending
(straightening) the joint is called the extenser muscle. To end the joint, the flexer muscle
contracts while the extenser muscle relaxes. To extend the joint, the extenser muscle
contracts while the flexer muscle relaxes.

The mammalian skeleton

3. Identify the bones of the axial and the appendicular skeletons.

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 The human skeleton is divided into two regions, namely axial skeleton and appendicular
skeleton. The axial skeleton is made of the skull, vertebral column (spine), ribs and
sternum while the appendicular skeleton is made of the limbs and girdles. There are two
sets of limbs i.e. two fore limbs (arms) and two hind limbs (legs). The girdles form a link
between the axial skeleton and the limbs. There are two girdles, namely, the pectoral girdle
and the pelvic girdle. The pectoral girdle links the fore limbs to the axial skeleton. It is made
of the shoulder blades (scapulas) and collar bones (clavicles). The pelvic girdle links the
hind limbs to the axial skeleton. It is also called the pelvis and is made of the pubis, ilium
and ischium, among other bones.

Bones of the Spine: The bones that make up the vertebral column (spine) are called vertebrae
(singular=vertebra). Their names, structures and numbers vary depending on the region of the
spine in which they occur. The following table gives the names, locations and numbers of different
vertebrae in the human being.
Name Region where located Number

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 Cervical vertebrae Neck region 7
Thoracic vertebrae Chest region 12
Lumbar vertebrae Abdominal region 5
Sacral vertebrae Hip region 5
Caudal vertebrae or Coccyx Tail region 4

The functions of the different parts of a vertebra are discussed below:

Neural spine: This is a projection on top of the neural arch that provides a surface for
attachment of muscles and ligaments.
Neural arch: This is a curved bony structure arising from the centrum and has an opening in
the centre called the neural canal. The neural arch protects the spinal cord while the neural canal is
the passage for the spinal cord.
Transverse process: These are projections on the sides of the centrum that provide surfaces for
attachment of muscles and ligaments.
Centrum: This is the solid central part of the vertebra whose function is to bind to the
intervertebral disc and form a cartilaginous joint with the next vertebra.

4. Explain a bone as a living tissue

A bone is considered a living tissue because it consists of living cells and fibres and
penetrated by blood vessels which keep the cells alive and allows growth and repair. The
spongy bone is filled with red bone marrow that forms red blood cells. The central cavity is

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 filled with yellow bone marrow which makes white blood cells. Abnormal division of cells
in the bone marrow leads to cancer or leukemia. The tuberculosis bacteria can enter an
infected person’s bone marrow and stay dormant even after they have been treated with
antibiotics for the disease. TB bacteria are particularly likely to attack the vertebrae of the
spine and the ends of long bones. If not treated, the vertebrae may collapse and cause
paralysis in the limbs.

Muscles and joints

5. Describe the structure of a skeletal muscle.
A muscle is a tissue which contracts to produce movements in parts of the body or the entire
body. There are three types of muscles, namely, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle (visceral
muscle) and skeletal muscle (striated muscle).

a) Cardiac muscle is found in the heart and has the following characteristics:
• It is myogenic (self-stimulating), meaning that the stimulus for contraction originates
from the muscle itself
• It does not get fatigued
• The muscle cells (muscle fibres) are branched and interconnected forming a net-
likestructure
• The muscle cells die easily when deprived of oxygen and food or exposed to toxins.
b) Smooth muscles (visceral muscles) are made of long, spindle-shaped cells and are
found in the walls of several body tubes and organs. Rings of smooth muscles are
called sphincters.

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 c) Skeletal muscles are muscles which are attached to the skeleton and play a major
role in locomotion. When viewed under the microscope they look striped (striated)
and are therefore called striated muscles. They are multinucleated (each muscle cell
has several nuclei). Each muscle fibre contains many and larger mitochondria that
supply energy to the muscle through cellular respiration. Skeletal muscles are
voluntary while cardiac and smooth muscles are involuntary. A voluntary muscle is
a muscle whose contraction is consciously controlled by the brain. Skeletal muscles
occur in pairs known as antagonistic muscles.

3. Demonstrate the action of antagonistic muscles.

Antagonistic muscles are pairs of muscles which produce movement in opposite directions
at the same joint. The muscle that causes bending of the joint when it contracts is called a
flexor muscle while the one that causes extending of the joint when it contracts is called
the extensor muscle. Skeletal muscles occur in antagonistic pairs because each muscle can
only contract but requires the contraction of another muscle to relax or lengthen it.
Examples of antagonistic muscles are the biceps and triceps which act on the elbow joint.
The biceps are the flexor muscles while the triceps are the extensor muscles.

The events involved in bending and straightening the elbow joint are summarised
below:

a) To bend the elbow joint

• The brain sends impulses to stimulate contraction of the biceps and inhibit
contraction of the triceps.
• Biceps contract, thereby pulling the radius upwards and towards the humerus.
• Triceps relax and are stretched by the action of the biceps.
• The lower arm moves upwards thereby bending the elbow joint

b) To straighten the elbow joint

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 • The brain sends impulses to stimulate contraction of the triceps and inhibit
contraction of the biceps.
• Triceps contract and pull the ulna.
• The biceps are stretched by the contraction of the triceps
• The lower arm moves downwards, thereby extending the elbow joint.

The iris of the eye consists of circular and radial involuntary muscles that are antagonistic.
When light intensity is high the circular muscles of the iris contract causing the radial
muscles to relax. The pupil constricts (becomes smaller) and less light enters the eye. When
light intensity is low, the radial muscles of the iris contract causing the circular muscles to
relax. The pupil dilates (becomes wider) and more light enters the eye to enable you to see
in less light. (Refer to the notes on Pupil/Iris Reflex)

4. Compare the ball and socket joint and the hinge joint.

A joint is defined as a point where two or more bones meet. There are three main types of

joints, namely fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints. The names of these types of joints
are based on their structures and the type of movement they permit

a) Fibrous Joints: These are joints where the bones are tightly held together by short
and tough fibres. They permit no movement and are therefore called immovable
joints e.g. the sutures between the bones of the skull (cranium).
b) Cartilaginous Joints: These are joints in which bones are held together by
cartilage. They only permit slight movements and are therefore said to be slightly
movable joints e.g. the intervertebral discs that hold the vertebrae together in the
spine.
c) Synovial Joints: These are joints made of cavities containing a fluid called synovial
fluid and they allow movement in one or more planes. They are said to be movable
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 joints. There are several types of synovial joints. Two examples are ball-and-socket
joints and hinge joints.
Ball-and-socket joints: These are synovial joints where one bone has a round head
(ball) and another has a depression (socket). These joints allow movement in three
planes e.g. hip joint and shoulder joint.
Hinge joints: These are synovial joints which allow movement in only one plane,
usually through an angle of 180o e.g. the elbow joint, knee joint, knuckle joints and
joints of the phalanges.

Joint Disorders

(a) Gout: This is a condition characterised by formation of uric acid crystals at the joints. It
leads to swelling and paining of joints. It can be controlled by reducing the intake of meat and
meat products whose amino acids are easily converted to uric acid.

(b) Arthritis: This is inflammation of joints characterised by painful and swollen joints. The
inflammation initially affects the synovial membranes but eventually causes damage to
cartilage and bone, making movement difficult.

(c) Dislocation: This is a condition where one or more bones move out of place at a joint.

(d) Tuberculosis of the Bones: Formation of tubercles in the bones due to infection by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

(e) Bone marrow cancer: the uncontrolled division of cells in the bone marrow.

5. Identify the parts and functions of the synovial joint

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 Functions of the parts of a synovial joint:

• Cartilage: Prevents friction and the grinding of bone against bone. It acts as a shock
absorber.
• Ligament: Joins bone to bone and keeps the joint stable by preventing dislocation.
• Synovial fluid: Supplies nutrients and acts as a lubricant that reduces friction
• Synovial membrane: Secretes the synovial fluid.
• Joint capsule: Encloses the joint membrane.
• Tendons: Joins muscles to bone and translate muscle contraction into movement of
bone.

6. Compare the joints, muscle attachment and movement in endoskeletons with those of
exoskeletons

In endoskeletons synovial joints allow free movement in all directions. Antagonistic

muscles are attached by tendons to the living bones. The relatively light, hollow bones
allow efficient movement. Movement takes place in several directions and in different
environments, such as water, land and the air.

In exoskeletons joints allow movement in one direction only. Antagonistic muscles are
attached to special parts on the inside of the cuticle of the exoskeleton. Small insects with
exoskeleton can move fast on land, in water and in the air. Large animals with exoskeletons
will move slowly because a bigger exoskeleton is heavy.

TOPIC 8: TROPIC AND TAXIC RESPONSES

A response is an action or process that occurs in an organism due to the presence of a

stimulus (plural – stimuli). A stimulus is any substance or factor that causes a response
from an organism. Examples of responses in living organisms are tropic responses
(tropisms) and taxic responses (taxism). The following table compares tropic and taxic
responses:

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 Tropic response Taxic response
Occurs in plants Occurs in invertebrates
Involves growing either towards or away Involves moving either towards or away
from the stimulus from the stimulus
Only part of the plant responds The entire organism responds
Slower Faster

1. Describe what tropic response is.

A tropic response or tropism is the response of a plant part to a stimulus by either growing
towards or away from the stimulus. When a plant part grows towards a stimulus, the response
is called a positive tropic response, but when a plant part grows away from a stimulus, the
response is called a negative tropic response. The name of a tropic response depends on the
type of stimulus causing it. Examples of tropisms, corresponding stimuli and the plant parts
involved are given in the following table:

Tropism Stimulus Positively Tropic Part Negatively Tropic Part

Geotropism Gravity Roots Shoots

Phototropism Light Shoots Roots

Hydrotropism Water Roots -

Chemotropism Chemicals Roots, pollen tube. -

2. Demonstrate growth responses exhibited by plants.

Phototropism: This is the response of a plant part to light by growing either towards or away
from the light. Growth towards light is called positive phototropism while growth away from
light is called negative phototropism. Generally, plant shoots are positively phototropic while
roots are negatively phototropic.
Experiment to Investigate the Effect of Light on Growth of Maize Coleoptiles
Materials: Maize seedlings, cardboard box with a hole on one side and two tins.
Method:
- Select seedlings with straight coleoptiles and place them in two separate tins.
- Place one tin of seedlings in the box with a hole on one side and put the box in the
sunlight.
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 - Leave the other tin of seedlings in sunlight to act as a control.
- Observe and record what happens after four days.
Observations:
The coleoptiles placed in the box with a hole on one side grow towards the source/direction
of light; those placed in sunlight continue growing straight upward as illustrated by the
following diagram:

Conclusion: Plant shoots are positively phototropic

Significance of Phototropism: Positive phototropism in plant shoots ensures that the leaves
are exposed to sunlight in order for photosynthesis to take place.
Geotropism: This is the response of a plant part to gravity by growing either towards or
away from the gravity. Growth towards gravity is called positive geotropism while growth
away from gravity is called negative geotropism. Generally, plant roots are positively
geotropic while shoots are negatively geotropic.
Experiment to Investigate the Effect of Gravity on Growth of Roots and Shoots
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 Materials: Germinating bean seeds, petri dish, moist cotton wool and clinostat
Method:
- Place three or more germinating bean seeds on moist cotton wool in a still petri dish,
making sure that their radicles and plumules are horizontal.
- Place another set of germinating bean seeds on a petri dish and mount it on a rotating
clinostat
- Observe what happens to each set of bean seeds after one week.
Observation: For the seedlings placed on a still petri dish, the radicles grow towards gravity
and the plumules grow away from gravity. For those where the petri dish is placed on a
rotating clinostat, both the plumules and radicles continue growing straight.
The Role of Auxins in Tropisms: Tropisms in plants are controlled by growth substances
called auxins that are produced by the tips of shoots and roots. Auxins promote growth in
shoots while they inhibit growth in roots.
Experimental Evidence to Show that Auxins Promote Growth of Shoots
In one experiment, the tips of maize coleoptiles were cut off. After a few days, the shoots
stopped growing because of the absence of auxins. In another experiment, a piece of mica
was placed between the cut tip and the rest of the coleoptile and growth stopped after a few
days because mica is impermeable to auxins. In yet another experiment, an agar block was
placed between a cut tip and the rest of the coleoptile and the tip continued growing because
auxins are able to diffuse from the cut tip to the rest of the coleoptile through the agar block.
The results of these experiments are illustrated in the following diagrams:

3. Explain the effects of light energy and gravity on the growth of plants.
When a plant shoot is exposed to diffuse light (light from all directions), the auxins are
evenly/uniformly distributed all-round the shoot tip. As a result, growth is uniform all-round
the shoot tip, causing the shoot to grow straight. But when a plant shoot is exposed to
unilateral light (light from one direction), the auxins are more concentrated on the darker

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 side than the illuminated side. Since auxins promote growth of in shoots, growth is faster on
the darker side than the illuminated side, causing the shoot to grow towards the light. This is
illustrated in the following diagrams:

When germinating bean seeds are placed on moist cotton wool in a dark place, with their
plumules and radicles horizontal, the following observations are made after several days:
- The plumules grow away from gravity
- The radicles grow towards gravity

Taxic Responses
1. Describe what taxic response is.
A taxic response is a response of an invertebrate animal to a stimulus by moving either
towards or away from the stimulus. Movement towards the stimulus is called positive
taxism (positive taxic response) while movement away from the stimulus is called negative
taxism (negative taxic response).
2. Explain responses exhibited by invertebrates.

Examples of taxic responses in invertebrates are:

- Woodlice are positively hydrotaxic and negatively phototaxic

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 - Earthworms are positively hydrotaxic and positively geotaxic

- Cockroaches are negatively phototaxic

Woodlice and cockroaches move away from light to avoid exposure and desiccation.
Cockroaches and wood lice show negative phototaxis by moving away from light.

TOPIC 9: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth in Plants

1. Explain the meaning of growth.

Growth is defined as a permanent increase in size, mass, number of cells and complexity
of a living organism. Growth of multicellular organisms involves life cycles. A life cycle
is a sequence of stages that an organism passes through during its development from the
embryonic stages to maturity.

2. Identify the regions of growth in stems and roots.

Plants undergo two types of growth, namely, primary growth and secondary growth.
Primary growth is the increase in the length of the shoots and roots while secondary growth
is the increase in the width or girth of shoots and roots. Primary growth enables the roots
to penetrate the ground and the shoots to grow towards sunlight. Plant growth involves
three stages. These are cell division, cell vacuolation (cell elongation) and cell
specialisation (cell differentiation) which may be described as follows:

a) Cell division: The process by which new cells (daughter cells) are formed from
cells that are already existing (parent cells). The type of cell division involved in
growth is called mitosis. This is a type of cell division where one parent cell
produces two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell.
Immediately after cell division, all cells look alike. Regions of active cell division
are known as meristems, or meristematic tissues. There are two types of
meristematic tissues in plants, namely apical meristems and cambial meristems
(or simply cambium). Apical meristems occur at the tips of shoots and roots and
are responsible for primary growth. There are two types of cambium, namely,
vascular cambium and cork cambium; both are responsible for secondary growth.
a) Cell Elongation: This is a process by which cells grow bigger and develop their
vacuoles by absorbing a lot of water. The greatest increase in length occurs in the
region of cell elongation during growth. After being vacuolated all cells still look
identical.

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 b) Cell Differentiation: This is a process by which cells become suited for specific
functions by developing specific shapes and undergoing specific chemical changes
in their cytoplasms. After specialisation, plant cells may develop into any of the
following cell types: collenchyma, parenchyma, sclerenchyma, cambium,
phloem or xylem.

Growth at the Apices (Tips) of Roots and Shoots

There are three regions of growth at the apices of shoots and roots in plants. These
are:
- Region of cell division
- Region of cell elongation or vacuolation
- Region of cell differentiation or specialisation.

Diagram Illustrating Regions of Growth at the Shoot Apex

Diagram Illustrating Regions of Growth at the Root Apex

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 3. Identify differentiated cells in plants.

After cell Differentiation (specialisation), plant cells may develop into any of the
following cell types: collenchyma, parenchyma, sclerenchyma, cambium, phloem or
xylem as shown in the table below:

Tissue Differentiation Function in the Identification of cells

plant

Collenchym Cell walls are Provides strength

a unevenly and flexibility for
thickened with stems and leaves.
cellulose and cells
are tightly packed
together.

Parenchyma Cells have thin Used for storage of

walls and large sugars, water and
vacuoles starches; some
contain chloroplsts
for photosynthesis.

Cambium Vascular Responsible for the

cambium is found growth of the
between the xylem ( secondary
xylem and growth) and can be
phloem in a seen as annual
vascular bundle rings in older
and contains stems.
meristemic cells.

Sclerenchym Cells are usually Provides the stems

a dead and hollow; of plants with
the cell walls strength and
contain lignin to support.
make the cells
strong.

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 Phloem Consists of long Transport of sugars
columns of sieve
tube cells (with no
nuclei) and
companion cells
(other living cells)

Xylem Develop into long Transport of water

hollow tubes and strengthening
(dead cells with of the organs.
no nuclei or
cytoplasm) and
strengthened with
lignin.

4. Explain the differentiation of primary and secondary tissues in plants.

Plants undergo two types of growth, namely, primary growth and secondary growth.
Primary growth is the increase in the length of the shoots and roots while secondary
growth is the increase in the width or girth of shoots and roots. Primary growth enables
the roots to penetrate the ground and the shoots to grow towards sunlight. Regions of active
cell division are known as meristems, or meristematic tissues. There are two types of
meristematic tissues in plants, namely apical meristems and cambial meristems (or
simply cambium). Apical meristems occur at the tips of shoots and roots and are
responsible for primary growth. There are two types of cambium, namely, vascular
cambium and cork cambium; both are responsible for secondary growth.

Germination and development

1. Distinguish the structure of a dicotyledonous and a monocotyledonous seed.

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 Structure of a Monocot Seed e.g. Maize Seed.

Structure of a Dicot Seed e.g. Bean Seed

Functions of Seed Parts

Testa (seed coat): This is the outer-most layer of seed and is responsible for protecting the
seed against physical damage and infection. It is also responsible for dormancy in certain
seeds where it prevents imbibition (entry of water into the seeds)
Plumule: This is the embryonic shoot. It develops into a shoot after germination
Radicle: This is the embryonic root. It develops into roots after germination
The plumule and radicle together make up the embryo of the seed. The region of the
embryo next to the plumule is called the epicotyl while the region next to the radicle is
called the hypocotyl.
Cotyledons: These store food and enzymes in non-endospermic seeds, mainly dicot seeds.
In most monocot seeds, food is stored in another tissue known as the endosperm. However,
the function of the cotyledon/scutellum in endospermic seeds is to
a) Synthesise Gibberellic Acid
b) Absorb the digested products of the endosperm and pass them on (via vascular tissue)
to the embryo.

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 Seeds, which have the endosperm, are called endospermic seeds while those without the
endosperm are called non-endospermic seeds. The main forms of foods stored in seeds
include starch, oils and proteins.
In some monocot seeds such as maize, the plumule is protected by a sheath called the
coleoptile while the radicle is protected by a sheath called the coleorrhiza. These prevent
damage during germination.

2. Investigate conditions necessary for germination.

Germination is the process by which seedlings develop from seed embryos.
The conditions necessary for the germination of seeds include oxygen, water (moisture)
and a favourable (suitable) temperature.
Experiment to Show that Oxygen is Necessary for Germination of Seeds
Suggested materials: Soaked maize seeds, cotton wool, two conical flasks, alkaline
pyrogallol, two strings and two stoppers.
Method:
• Label two conical flasks, A and B
• Put 10 cm3 of water in flask A and 10 cm3 of alkaline pyrogallol in flask B
• Wrap two sets of maize seeds in moist cotton wool
• Hang one set of seeds in flask A and the other in flask B as shown below
• Leave the seeds for about seven days.
The set up of the experiment is shown in the following diagram:

Observations: The seeds in flask A germinate. However, the seeds in flask B fail to
germinate because the alkaline pyrogallol absorbs oxygen from the air inside the flask. As
such, the seeds lacked oxygen for respiration.
Conclusion: Oxygen is necessary for germination of seeds. It is required for respiration
which provides energy for germination.
Experiment to Show that Water is Necessary for Germination
Suggested Materials: Soaked maize seeds, dry maize seeds, cotton wool, three petri dishes

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 Method:
• Label the petri dishes A, B, and C
• Put five soaked seeds in petri dish A
• Put another five soaked seeds on top of moist cotton wool in petri dish B
• Put five dry seeds in petri dish C
• Cover the seeds in dish A completely with water
• Keep the cotton wool in petri dish B moist all the time by sprinkling it with water.
• Leave the seeds for at least seven days.
Observation: Seeds in petri dish A do not germinate; seeds in petri dish B germinate while
those in petri dish C do not germinate.
Conclusion: Seeds require suitable amounts of water (moisture) in order to germinate. The
water is imbibed (absorbed) by the seed and is important in the following ways:
• It softens the testa so that it can split to release the plumule and radicle.
• It activates enzymes and provides an aqueous medium for metabolic reactions to
take place.
• It is involved in hydrolysis of complex nutrients in a seed e.g. hydrolysis of starch
to maltose.
Too much water makes the seeds rot. For this reason the seeds in dish A do not germinate.
Seeds in dish C do not germinate because no water is provided for them to soften the testa
and activate enzymes.
Experiment to Show that a Suitable/Favourable Temperature is Necessary for
Germination of Seeds
Suggested Materials: Soaked seeds, cotton wool, 3 pyrex beakers, a fridge and an oven.
Method:
• Label the beakers A, B, and C
• Wrap three sets of five seeds in moist cotton wool.
• Place one set in beaker A, one in B and the other in beaker C
• Put beaker A in a refrigerator at a temperature of 0oC, beaker B at room temperature
(about 25oC) and beaker C in an oven at a temperature of 50oC
• Leave the set up for at least seven days ensuring that the cotton wool remains moist.
Observation: The seeds put in the refrigerator at 0oC (in beaker A) and those put in the
oven at 50oC (in beaker C) fail to germinate while those left at room temperature (in beaker
B) germinate.
Conclusion: Very low and very high temperatures are not favourable for seed germination.
Seeds at very low temperature fail to germinate because the enzymes in the embryo become
inactive or less active and as such they do not catalyse the metabolic reactions necessary

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 for germination. High temperatures (temperatures above optimum) denature the enzymes
and as such no metabolic reactions take place. Hence seeds require a favourable
temperature in order to germinate.
3. Demonstrate hypogeal and Epigeal germination.

There are two types of germination, namely epigeal and hypogeal germination.

Epigeal Germination: This is a type of germination where the cotyledons are pushed
above the ground by elongation of the hypocotyl. The plumule is covered by cotyledons
and comes out of the ground with a hooked shape in order to protect the delicate shoot. The
cotyledons also carry out photosynthesis during the first few days before the leaves develop
fully. Examples of seeds that carry out this type of germination are beans (Phaseolus
vulgaris), sunflower, castor oil and groundnut seeds. This type of germination is commonly
associated with dicotyledonous seeds but there are exceptions such as the broad bean.

Hypogeal Germination: This is a type of germination where the cotyledons remain

underground, due to elongation of the epicotyl. The plumule is covered with a sheath called
the coleoptile to protect it from abrasion as it pushes out of the soil. Examples of seeds
which undergo this type of germination are monocotyledonous seeds such as maize,
sorghum and millet seeds.

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 Seed Dormancy
Seed dormancy is the state/condition during which a seed carries out minimum metabolism
and does not germinate. Seed dormancy is important in the following ways:
• It gives time for seeds to reach full maturity.
• It prevents the seed from germinating when conditions are harsh. Hence it is a
survival mechanism
Causes of Seed Dormancy
• Hard Testas: In some seeds, the testas are hard and impermeable to water and oxygen,
thereby preventing germination of the seeds.
• Chemical Substances: Some seed embryos have hormones, such as abscicic acid
(ABA) which keep them from germinating
• Physiological Conditions: Some plant seeds can only germinate if first exposed to
certain conditions of the environment such as cold temperatures, light or darkness.
Dormancy may be broken in the following ways:
• Scarification: This is the physical destruction of hard testa so that a seed becomes
permeable to water and oxygen. It can be done manually or by the action of digestive
juices or gizzards of some animals.
• Soaking Seeds in Water: This softens hard testas in some seeds
• Fire: The resistant testas of some seeds are only made permeable to water and oxygen
through burning them.
• Exposure to appropriate environmental conditions such as light, darkness and cold
temperatures.
• Exposure to appropriate chemical substances which reverse the effects of chemical
inhibitors of germination e.g. gibberellic acid is thought to reverse the effects of ABA
in some cereals.
Seed Viability
Seed viability is the ability of a seed to germinate into a seedling. It may be reduced by
prolonged periods of storage, high temperatures, physical damage, parasites and pests.

END OF GRADE 11 WORK

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 GRADE 12 WORK

TOPIC 1: REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce offspring (young ones of the
same kind) there are two types of reproduction, namely sexual and asexual reproduction.

1. Describe the different types of reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction: This is a type of reproduction where one parent produces
one or more genetically identical offspring by mitosis without involving the fusion
of gametes.
Advantages of asexual reproduction include:
• A mate is not required for offspring to be produced
• Large numbers of offspring can be produced in a short time
• Desirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged.
• It makes it possible to grow new plants of certain species even when seeds fail.
• It can take place even in harsh environmental conditions e.g. fungi such as
Mucor switch to asexual reproduction when environmental conditions are harsh.
• No pollination and dispersal agents required for plants
Examples of plants produced using asexual reproduction are sugar cane (using
stem cuttings), bananas (using suckers) and pineapples.
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction include:
• Undesirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged
• Lack of genetic variation makes it difficult to adapt to a variety of habitats.
• It often leads to overcrowding and competition for resources
Examples of asexual reproduction include binary fission, multiple fission,
budding, fragmentation, spore formation and vegetative propagation.

2. Describe asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms

Asexual reproductions in unicellular organisms include binary fission, multiple
fission, budding, fragmentation, spore formation and vegetative propagation.
1) Binary Fission: This is a type of asexual reproduction where one parent
cell divides into two daughter cells.
The stages involved in binary fission are:
• The parent cell first grows bigger by increasing the amount of cytoplasm
• The DNA replicates and the nucleus undergoes mitosis, resulting in the
formation of two daughter nuclei
• The cell membrane constricts thereby dividing the cytoplasm in two so that
each nucleus is surrounded by its own cytoplasm
• The two daughter cells separate.
This type of reproduction occurs in bacteria and Amoeba.

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 2) Budding: This is a type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell or body
of an organism develops an outgrowth called a bud which increases in size
and eventually detaches from the parent to become an independent
organism. Examples of organisms that carry out budding are yeast and
hydra. A group of undetached buds is called a colony.

3) Fragmentation: This is a type of asexual reproduction where pieces cut from an

organism develop into independent organisms e.g., in Spyrogyra, some flat worms and
sponges.
3. Describe the sexual and asexual reproduction in fungus.
1) Spore formation: This is a type of asexual reproduction where an organism forms
spores. Spores are microscopic round structures produced asexually in very large
numbers and are capable of germinating when conditions are favourable. They are
normally produced when conditions are not favourable for sexual reproduction and are
dispersed by wind. Examples of organisms that produce spores are the fungi Mucor and
Rhizopus.

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 2) Zygospore formation: Mucor and Rhizopus can also reproduce sexually by
conjugation which results in formation of zygospores. They only carry out asexual
reproduction when environmental conditions are harsh e.g., when the temperature is
extremely low or high and when there is insufficient moisture.
The mycelium of most of the species of mucor is unisexual and hence unable to produce
male and female gametangia therefore sexual reproduction takes place when two
separate hyphae growing alongside each other produce short branches. The branches of
two hyphae come into contact with each other, their tips then swell as shown below:

The walls at the point of contact dissolve and the cytoplasm and the nucleus in the
swollen part is mixed. This results in fertilization. The two swollen parts fuse to form
one part called a zygospore.

The zygospore develops a tough outer wall; it then breaks off from the two hyphae. This
is followed by germination to produce new hyphae that continues to grow into a Mucor.

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 Vegetative Propagation: This term refers to asexual reproduction in flowering plants where
new plants are grown from vegetative parts of a plant such as roots, stems and leaves, without
involving seeds. Vegetative propagation can be either natural or artificial
1. Describe different methods of natural propagation.
A lot of flowering plants can naturally propagate themselves vegetatively using underground
structures called perennating organs which enable plants to survive from year to year. The
features possessed by perennating organs include buds, adventitious roots and stored food.
Each bud can grow to form a single shoot. Buds that are located at the end of the stem are
called apical buds while those located on the sides of the stems are called lateral or axillary
buds. The buds are protected by structures called scale leaves. Adventitious roots are either
present on the perennating organ or they quickly develop when conditions are favourable.
Examples of perennating organs are root tubers, stem tubers, corms, suckers, bulbs and
rhizomes.
1) Root tuber: This is a root that has become swollen because of stored food and is able to
grow into a new plant e.g. sweet potatoes and carrots.

2) Stem tuber: This is an underground stem that has become swollen because of stored
food and contains eye buds that are able to grow into new plants e.g. Irish potatoes.

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 3) Corm: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem with apical and axillary
buds that can grow into new shoots e.g. Crocus sp

4) Bulb: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem e.g.
garlic and onion (Allium sp). The fleshy leaves contain food in them.

5) Rhizome: This is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger. A rhizome has
adventitious roots and buds that can develop into new shoots at the nodes.

6) Suckers: These are underground lateral branches of stems having terminal buds and
adventitious roots e.g. bananas and plantains.

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 7) Runners, stolons and vines: These are horizontal stems growing above the ground and
have adventitious roots and buds at the nodes e.g. lawn grass, sweet potato vines.

8) Leaves: Certain plants such as Bryophyllum have leaves that are swollen with stored
food and have buds and adventitious roots that can develop into new plants

2. Investigate different methods of artificial propagation.

Examples of artificial vegetative propagation are discussed below:
1) Stem Cuttings: These are stems cut just below the node and planted to produce new plants.
Adventitious roots develop from the node and the buds on the stem develop into
shoots, giving rise to new plants. This method is enhanced by applying rooting powder
to stimulate development of adventitious roots. Leaves are also removed from the stem
to reduce the rate of transpiration. If there is a cut end exposed to the air, it is coated with
paint or another substance to reduce water loss. Sugar cane and cassava can be propagated
this way.

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 2) Grafting: This involves bringing together a stock and a scion coming from two closely
related plants i.e. plants of the same species or genus. The stock is the part whose aerial
(upper) parts have been cut off and it provides an already established root system that is
responsible for absorbing water and mineral salts. The scion is the aerial part that bears
buds which later form the shoot. This is the part that has the desired stem, leaves, flowers
or fruits. The stock and scion are cut with complementary shapes that fit into each other
before being tied together. The method works well if the stock and scion have identical
diameters. Roses can be propagated using this method.

3) Budding: This a type of vegetative propagation where a bud is used as scion and the bark
of an entire plant used as a stock. The bud is cut in such a way that it has some cambium.
A T-shaped cut is made in the scion reaching up to the cambium. Then the bud (scion) is
inserted into the T-shaped part of the stock in such a way that the cambium from the two
parts is in contact. The two parts are tied together and sealed with wax, leaving the bud
exposed. The wax prevents excessive transpiration. Citrus fruits can be propagated using
this method.

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 4) Layering: The involved in layering are:
- Removing a ring of bark from a low-lying branch of plant to expose the cambium
- Covering the wounded part of the branch with moist soil to stimulate the
development of adventitious roots.
- Separating the branch from the parent plant once it has developed new roots and
shoots.
Bougainvillaea and strawberry plants can be propagated using this method.

3. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of vegetative propagation.

Advantages Disadvantages
It is the cheapest method of crop propagation Soil borne pests may destroy the seeds before
because seeds are easily available. rain falls.
Rapid rate of reproduction Overcrowding may occur which leads to
competition for water, space & light
Can retain desirable characters as offspring No genetic variation occurs which decreases
are genetically identical to parent the ability to adapt to changes in the
surroundings
Large food reserves are provided for Diseases of the parent plant are rapidly
daughter plants transmitted to the offspring
Does not involve external agents or another Plants do not colonise new areas because they
plant are not widely dispersed.

TOPIC 2: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

1. Identify the parts of a typical flower.
The sexual organs of plants are flowers. Although flowers come in different shapes, forms and
sizes, they have the same basic parts. The basic parts of a flower include: Stigma, filament,
style, petals, anther, ovary, sepal, receptacle and stalk. Flowers have male parts (stamens or
androecium) and female parts (carpels or pistil or gynoecium). The male parts of a flower
include the filament and anther while the female parts include the stigma, style and ovary.
The following diagram illustrates a typical (generalized) structure of a flower.

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 2. Describe the functions of various parts of a flower

Pedicel or Flower Stalk: This part links the flower to the stem and conducts water, nutrients
and hormones between these two parts.
Receptacle: This is the swollen end of the pedicel where other parts of the flower are attached.
Sepals: These are leaf-like structures that enclose the flower in the bud stage and protect it
from desiccation (drying up) and damage by pests and harsh weather conditions. A group of
sepals from the flower is called a calyx
Petals: These are structures that are brightly coloured and scented in insect-pollinated flowers
to attract insects. In some flowers, the petals have nectar guidelines that lead to the nectaries in
the flowers.
Stigma: This is the part that where pollen grains are deposited during pollination.
Style: This holds the stigma in position and links it to the ovary. It is also used as a passage for
the pollen grain on its way from the stigma to the ovary through the pollen tube.
Ovary: This is the part that makes and contains ovules. It becomes the fruit after fertilization.
Ovule: Ovules contain female gametes and they develop into seeds after fertilization. Each
ovule has an embryo sac containing eight haploid nuclei as illustrated in the following

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 diagram:

Anther: A structure made of pollen sacs where pollen grains are made and stored

Filament: This supports the anther and supplies it with water and nutrients.

3. Distinguish between two different types of pollination.

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma on the same plant or
different plants of the same species. There are two types of pollination, namely self-pollination
and cross pollination. Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma on the same plant while cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther
present on a given plant to a stigma on another plant of the same species.
4. Distinguish between wind and insect pollination.
Agents of pollination include mainly insects and wind. Insect-pollinated flowers are also
called entomophilous flowers while wind pollinated flowers are also called anemophilous
flowers. The following table compares the structures present in insect and wind pollinated
flowers:
Structure Insect pollinated flowers Wind pollinated flowers
Petals Brightly-coloured, scented, large Dull-coloured, non-
and have nectaries scented, small, and have no
nectaries

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 Anthers Small, firm and enclosed within Large, pendulous and exposed.
petals

Filaments Short and firm Long and dangling outside the

flower
Stigmas Short, firm, lobed and enclosed in Long, feathery and exposed
petals to ensure insects brush so as to easily trap pollen
against them grains from air

Pollen Large, few and sticky Small, numerous and smooth

grains

5. Describe the process of fertilization in flowers.

After pollination, the pollen grain absorbs water from the stigma and becomes swollen. Then
the pollen tube nucleus (tube nucleus) germinates to form a pollen tube which grows through
the stigma, style and ovary until it reaches the embryo sac inside the ovule. To form the pollen
tube, the pollen tube nucleus secretes enzymes that break down part of the stigma, style and
ovary. Growth of the tube nucleus towards the ovule is guided by chemicals secreted by the
synergids that are found in the ovule. This is an example of positive chemotropism. After
reaching the micropyle (an opening in the wall of the ovule), the tube nucleus disintegrates.
The generative nucleus follows the tube nucleus behind and divides into two haploid cells
called male nuclei (singular=male nucleus). The first male nucleus fuses with the egg cell to
form a diploid zygote which later develops into the embryo. The second male nucleus fuses
with two polar nuclei to form a triploid cell which later develops into the endosperm. The
function of the endosperm is to act as a food storage tissue. This type of fertilization where one
male nucleus fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid zygote and the other male nucleus fuses
with two polar nuclei to form a triploid cell is called double fertilization.

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 After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed while the ovary develops into a fruit. Refer
to notes on plant growth and development for seed structure.
Fruit Structure

6. Investigate ways in which seeds and fruits are dispersed.

Fruit and Seed Dispersal refers to the scattering of fruits or seeds from the parent plant to
others places. Seed and fruit- dispersal is mainly by water, wind, animals and self-mechanism.

7. Explain the adaptation of fruits and seeds to mode of dispersal.

The adaptations of fruits and seeds to their methods/agents of dispersal are discussed below:
1) Animal-dispersed Seeds: Animal-dispersed seeds have the following characteristics:
- Presence of hooks to cling to the fur of animals e.g. black jack (Bidens pilosa).
Thehooks irritate the animal causing it to shake the seeds off some distance away
from the parent plant.

-Succulent (juicy) mesocarps to attract and reward animals e.g. mangoes.

-Brightly coloured epicarps to attract animals to fruits, especially when ripe e.g.
oranges.
- Seeds have hard testas that are resistant to digestive enzymes found in the guts of
animals e.g. guavas.
- Scented fruits to attract animals e.g. oranges.
2) Wind-dispersed Fruits: Wind-dispersed seeds have the following characteristics:

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 - ‘Parachute’ of hairs (pappus) formed from sepals after fertilization causes the
fruit to float thereby delaying landing and encouraging dispersal. An example of a
seed that has a pappus is the dandelion seed.

- Wing-like Structures that cause the fruit to float thereby delaying landing and
encouraging dispersal. An example of a seed that has wing-like structures is the
sycamore seed as illustrated in the following diagram.

3) Water-dispersed fruits: Water-dispersed fruits have fibrous pericarps that enable them
to float in water e.g. coconut fruits.

4) Self-dispersed fruits (Explosive mechanism of Dispersal): Such fruits have fruit

walls that develop tension and split to scatter seeds when dry. Such pods (fruit walls)
are said to be dehiscent pods. This mechanism of dispersal is common in legume fruits
e.g. beans.

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 8. Explain the importance of fruit and seed dispersal.
The importance of seed dispersal includes:
- It reduces competition for light, space, gases and nutrients
- It allows plants to colonize new areas
- It reduces the chances of extinction in case the plants in one location are destroyed

TOPIC 3: REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

1. Describe the process of reproduction in a frog.
Frogs require water in order to reproduce. This is because their eggs and larval stages are
adapted to obtain their oxygen from water. Mature male frogs attract females for mating by
making croaking sounds. The male mounts the female in water to start the copulation
process.
During copulation, the female produces a large number of eggs which are then fertilized by
spermatozoa from the male outside of the female’s body. This is called external
fertilization.
Once the eggs have been laid, there is no parental care but they are left to develop on their
own. Each egg contains egg yolk which is rich in food needed for development of the embryo
until it hatches to produce a tadpole. The tadpole moves through water by propelling itself
using a tail and obtains oxygen from water using gills.

2. Identify male and female reproductive organs in human beings.

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 Human bodies are equipped with sexual organs (gonads) that are used for sexual
reproduction. The male gonads are called testes (singular=testis) while the female gonads
are called ovaries. The female and male gonads occur on separate bodies and are part of the
reproductive system. The figure below shows Male and Female Reproductive Systems:

3. Explain the functions of the different organs of the human reproductive system.
Functions of Parts of the Male Reproductive System
Testes (singular= testis): These are a pair of structures that produce spermatozoa (sperm)
and secrete the hormone called testosterone. They are found in a sac of skin called the
scrotum located outside the lower abdomen. The scrotum holds the testicles outside the body
to keep them at a temperature slightly lower than that of the body for more effective
production of spermatozoa.
Epididymis: This is made of coiled tubes where sperms are stored.
Sperm duct (vas deferens): This is the tube that carries spermatozoa from the epididymis
to the urethra.
Urethra: This is the tube that carries semen from the sperm duct and urine from the bladder.
Penis: This is an erectile organ that is used to deposit semen into the vagina during sexual
intercourse. The semen is deposited into the vagina by a process called ejaculation.
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 Prostate gland: The prostate gland is a large gland which secretes directly into the urethra
through several small ducts. The fluid contributes to semen. Semen is a composition of sperm
and fluids from the sex glands containing nutrients and enzymes which nourish and activate
the sperm, allowing them to swim actively.
Seminal vesicles: Ducts from the seminal vesicles join the vas deferens. The seminal
vesicles are a pair of glands that secrete a fluid that makes up a proportion of semen.
Cowper’s glands: The Cowper’s glands, also known as bulbourethral glands, are a pair of
pea-sized glands located beneath the prostate. The fluid produced by the gland contributes
to semen.

Functions of Parts of the Female Reproductive System

Ovaries: These are a pair of gonads responsible for formation of eggs and for secretion of
oestrogen and progesterone.
Oviduct: This is the tube through which the ovum travels from the ovary to the uterus. It is
also the sight where fertilization occurs.
Uterus: This is the site for implantation and development of the foetus.
Cervix: This connects the vagina to the uterus and forms part of the birth canal. It is the
point where semen is deposited during sexual intercourse. The cervix also secretes fluids that
lubricate the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Vagina: This is the part where an erect penis is inserted during sexual intercourse. It also
forms part of the birth canal.

4. Describe the biological changes associated with sexual development in human beings
During sexual development, the human being first develops the primary sexual
characteristics which include the sexual organs and the reproductive systems. To complete
its sexual development, the human body must develop secondary sexual characteristics.
These are characteristics that a human body develops after reaching puberty. They make the
body more adapted to carry out reproduction and are influenced by hormones. In males, their
development is influenced by the hormone called testosterone which is secreted by the
testicles. In females, their development is influenced by the hormone called oestrogen which
is secreted by the ovaries.
Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics Female Secondary Sexual
Characteristics
Sperm production Menstrual cycle commences
Enlargement of testicles and penis Enlargement of breasts
Development of pubic hair, beards, Widening of hips
hair on the chest and in the armpits
Deepening of voice Development of pubic hair and hair in
the armpits
The body becomes more muscular Enlargement of vagina

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 - Skin becomes more tender and supple

5. Describe the menstrual cycle.

The Menstrual Cycle is a cycle of about 28 days during which a woman experiences
ovulation and menstruation, one after the other. Ovulation is the release of an ovum from
the ovary. Menstruation is the shedding of the uterus lining together with some blood
through the vagina which occurs when an ovum does not get fertilized. It lasts three to five
days. Ovulation and menstruation occur approximately 14 days (two weeks) after each other.
The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and the
ovaries. The hormones from the pituitary gland (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinising
hormone) act on the ovaries while those from the ovaries (oestrogen and progesterone) act
on the lining of the uterus (endometrium). The roles of these hormones are summarized
below:

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is secreted by the pituitary gland and causes ripening
of the eggs in the ovaries by stimulating the development of Graafian follicles around them.

Oestrogen is secreted by the Graafian follicle in the ovary. It builds up the lining of the
uterus, inhibits further secretion of follicle stimulating hormone and stimulates secretion of
luteinising hormone.

Luteinising Hormone (LH) is secreted by the pituitary gland. It stimulates ovulation and
the development of the corpus luteum (yellow body) from the remains of the Graafian
follicle.

Progesterone is secreted by the corpus luteum in the ovaries. It maintains the growth of the
uterus lining and increases blood supply to it in readiness for implantation in case fertilization
occurs. It also inhibits secretion of FSH and LH by the pituitary gland. However, the corpus
luteum gets progressively smaller until it completely degenerates and there is no more
progesterone being secreted. When this happens, lining of the uterus breaks down and the
pituitary gland starts secreting FSH to begin the cycle all over again. On the other hand, if
the egg gets fertilized, the corpus luteum takes longer to degenerate until the placenta has
developed in the uterus.

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 6. Explain the processes of fertilisation and implantation in human beings.
Fertilization is the fusion of the nucleus of a male gamete with the nucleus of a female
gamete to form a single cell called a zygote. It normally occurs in the oviduct. After
fertilization, the zygote travels through the oviduct towards the uterus and divides repeatedly
by mitosis to form an embryo. Upon reaching the uterus, the embryo undergoes implantation.
Implantation is the process by an embryo gets attached to the wall of the uterus (about 11 or
12 days after fertilization).
7. Identify causes of infertility in human beings
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 Infertility is the inability of a person to reproduce through natural means. It applies to both
men and women
Common causes of infertility in women
- Blockage of fallopian tubes which prevent fertilisation from taking place
- Inability to ovulate, hence fertilisation does not take place
- Medical procedures that cause infections in a woman’s upper reproductive tract
- Sexually transmitted disease, for example syphilis and gonorrhoea
- Uterine problems, like presence of fibroids. Fibroids are outgrowths or tumours that grow
in the uterus. Fibroids can be as small as a pea or can also grow as large as a water melon
- Hormonal imbalance
- Alcoholism – alcoholism in women causes hormonal imbalance which directly interferes
with the processes of ovulation and menstruation.
Common causes of infertility in males
- Low sperm count
- Low semen quality (Weak sperms)
- Testicular malfunction
- Blockage of sperm duct
- Sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhoea or syphilis
- Alcoholism. Alcoholism refers to addiction to alcohol consumption or behaviour that
leads to dependency on alcohol. Too much alcohol depletes zinc ions in the body. Zinc
is important for maintaining male fertility. It is needed in high concentrations during
formation of sperms as it makes up the outer layer of the sperm and the tail. Zinc
deficiency is a common cause of low sperm count. Men who are alcoholics are also more
prone to erection problems. Long term alcoholism may cause permanent impotency.

8. Describe development of the embryo in the uterus.

As the embryo develops, it forms temporal organ known as the placenta. As soon as vital
organs begin developing, the embryo’s name changes to foetus. This occurs 6 to 8 weeks
after fertilization.

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 The Placenta: The placenta performs the roles normally performed by the intestines, kidneys
and lungs in adult human being. These include absorption of food, excretion and gaseous
exchange, respectively. The functions of the placenta are summarized as follows:
• Attaching the foetus to the uterus of the mother
• Protecting the foetus from the mother’s immune system, mother’s blood pressure and
pathogens. It does this by forming a barrier that prevents mixing of the blood of the
mother and the blood of the foetus.
• Exchange of materials between foetus and mother by the process of diffusion.
Dissolved food and oxygen diffuse from the mother’s blood to the blood of the foetus
while carbon dioxide and urea diffuse from the blood of the foetus to the mother’s
blood. The placenta has finger-like projections called villi that increase the surface
area for exchange of substances.
• Secretion of hormones. It secretes progesterone to maintain the thickness of the
uterus lining during pregnancy. It also secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin
(HCG) which prolongs the activity of the corpus luteum. The presence of HCG in
the urine of a woman is a sign that she is pregnant.
Besides the useful materials that cross the placenta from the mother’s blood to the blood of
the foetus, some harmful substances that are made of small molecules also manage to cross
the placenta and affect the baby negatively. These substances include carbon monoxide
from cigarette smoke, drugs such as alcohol and viruses. Carbon monoxide combines
with haemoglobin irreversibly, thereby reducing the amount of oxygen available to the cells
of the foetus. This leads to low birth weights. Alcohol makes a baby be born with a condition
called foetal alcoholic syndrome (FAS) which is characterized by mental retardation and
deformation of the baby.
Umbilical Cord: The umbilical cord contains blood vessels (umbilical artery and umbilical
vein) that transport blood between the foetus and the placenta. The umbilical artery carries
blood rich in metabolic wastes (mainly carbon dioxide and urea) from the foetus to the
placenta while the umbilical vein carries blood rich in dissolved food and oxygen from the
placenta to the foetus.
Amnion and Amniotic Fluid: The amnion is the membrane responsible for enclosing the
amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid protects the foetus from mechanical shocks, drying up and
also maintains a constant temperature around the environment of the foetus.
NB: The mucus plug blocks the cervical canal to keep away foreign substances from the
uterus during pregnancy.
9. Describe health risks associated with foetal development
Every pregnancy presents certain risks but good parental care and support can help minimize
those risks. Health risks include the following:
Poor Nutrition: when a pregnant woman does not consume enough food and becomes
undernourished, overall foetal growth slows down and the baby could be underweight.
Human babies with low birth weight are more likely to develop problems such as diabetes,
high blood pressure and neurological problems later in life. It is important for the mother to
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 get the right nutrients and enough vitamins and minerals for normal development of the
foetus.
Alcoholism: alcohol is a toxin which is rapidly absorbed by the stomach and reaches the
baby through the placenta, via the blood stream. Heavy and regular drinking can cause
miscarriage, damage the baby’s nervous system and premature birth.
Smoking: smoking while pregnant not only puts the mother’s health at risk but that of unborn
baby as well. Cigarettes contain dangerous chemicals such as nicotine, carbon monoxide and
tar. Smoking increases the risk of numerous pregnancy complications, some of which can be
fatal to the mother or baby.
Drugs: consumption of certain drugs during pregnancy can result in miscarriage, low
birthweight, premature birth, placental abruption, foetal death and even maternal death.
Drugs should only be taken on a doctor’s prescription.
Herbal Medicines: Although herbs are natural, not all herbs are safe to take during
pregnancy. Pregnant women should not take any herbal products without talking to their
health care provider first. Herbs may contain substances that can cause miscarriage,
premature birth, uterine contractions or injury to the foetus.

10. Describe healthy pregnancy and safe child birth

Health Pregnancy: For a baby to grow and develop and be born safely, the mother has to
take care of herself well during the period of pregnancy. The care given during gestation
period is called parental or antenatal care. Therefore, a pregnant woman should ensure that:
- She feeds on well-balanced diet and may include more iron and folic acid to prevent
anaemia. Poor nutrition affects development of the foetus.
- She does not take any drugs unless they are prescribed by a doctor and are necessary.
- She does light exercises but avoid doing heavy work and lifting heavy loads
- She avoids taking harmful substances that could harm the baby. She should not drink
alcohol or smoke cigarettes. Heavy alcohol drinking could damage the brain of the baby.
Smoking may cause miscarriage or reduce the baby’s birthweight.
- She wears comfortable flat heeled shoes to avoid injuries caused by falling.
- She attends antenatal clinics where she is given an anti-tetanus vaccine and vaccinated
against measles.
- She goes to a health facility to give birth (safe delivery).
11. Explain some methods of birth control.
Birth Control (Family Planning) involves limiting the number of children and spacing their
births so as to get the following benefits:
• Give the mother time to recover from the effects of giving birth before she can have
another child.
• Ensuring each child receives enough nutrition, shelter, clothing, education and
attention.

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 The methods of birth control are also called contraceptive methods because they are used
to prevent conception (fertilization and implantation). Contraceptive methods are divided
into two groups, namely natural methods and artificial methods.
Natural methods include the withdrawal method (coitus interruptus) and the rhythm (safe
period) method. The main advantage of natural methods is that they cost no money.
Otherwise, they are unreliable and require a lot of discipline.
Artificial methods include barrier methods (condom, diaphragm and intra-uterine device),
chemical methods (spermicides and hormones such as those found in the oral contraceptive
pill) and surgical methods (vasectomy and tubal ligation or laparatomy).

Withdrawal Method: This is the removal of the penis from the vagina just before
ejaculation. It is an unreliable method because the fluids that a man releases before
ejaculation contain traces of spermatozoa that may still fertilize an ovum.
Rhythm Method: This is a contraceptive method where a couple only copulates during the
safe period of the menstrual cycle when fertilization is less likely to occur. This method is
also unreliable because the length of the menstrual cycle is modified by factors such as type
of diet, stress and physical exercise.
Condoms: A condom is a thin latex sheath that is fitted around an erect penis or inserted
into the vagina before intercourse so as to keep semen from being deposited directly into the
vagina. It is the only contraceptive method that prevents the transmission of sexually
transmitted infections (STI’s) such as syphilis, gonorrhoea and AIDS. However, if expired
or not properly used, they can break or leak. Some people complain that they reduce
enjoyment of sex and cannot be used spontaneously.

Diaphragm (cap): This is a thin latex cap fitted over the cervix before intercourse so as to
block spermatozoa from entering the uterus. It is more reliable if used in conjunction with
spermicides. Initially, the diaphragm must be fitted by a doctor.

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 Intra-uterine Device (IUD): This is a device made of plastic and copper wire that is inserted
into the uterus to prevent implantation by irritating the lining of the uterus. The device can
only be fitted by experts and it may cause discomfort if wrongly placed.

Spermicides: These are chemical substances that are applied inside the vagina before sexual
intercourse in order to kill spermatozoa. They are normally used together with the
diaphragm.
Hormones: Hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone are administered in the form of
pills or injections to prevent ovulation and implantation. They are only reliable if taken
according to prescription and may have side effects such as interfering with the pattern of
the menstrual cycle, nausea and weight gain.
Vasectomy: This is the cutting and tying of sperm ducts to block passage of spermatozoa
from the testicles. The man is still able to engage in sexual intercourse but ejaculates seminal
fluids that have no spermatozoa. The method is highly reliable but may be irreversible.

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 Tubal Ligation (Laparatomy): Oviducts are cut and tied to prevent passage of eggs from
the ovaries to the uterus. This method is also highly reliable and usually irreversible.

12. Describe the benefits and possible risks of using contraceptives

Benefits
- Planned families using contraceptives allow couples o get children they can adequately
cater for.
- Pills also protect against some life-threatening cancers such as ovarian cancer.
- Using pills relieves painful period symptoms. This is because the uterine wall or
endometrium does not build up as much since the female does not ovulate.
- Prevents unwanted preganancies
- Controls population i.e. birth control method
- Gives mother time to regain her strength
Possible Risks
- Increased build-up of hardened fat and cholesterol in the arteries increasing likelihood of
developing heart disease and stroke.
- Contraceptives increases the risk of cancer. The pill has been shown to have carcinogens
for breasts, cervical and liver cancer.
- Taking contraceptives also results in abnormal menstrual cycle leading to irregular
bleeding or spotting
- Some women experience side effects such as weight gain, nausea and headaches.
- Long term use of contraceptives may also increase risk of uterine perforations, ovarian
cysts and pelvic inflammatory diseases.

TOPIC 4: GENETICS
Genetics is the study of the mechanisms involved in the control, transmission and expression of
inherited characteristics. Genetics was discovered by an Austrian Monk-Gregor Mendel.
1. Describe terms used in the study of genetics (The Language of Genetics).
Chromosome: A chromosome is a DNA thread wrapped in protein. Chromosomes carry
inherited information from one generation to the next.

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 Gene: This is a portion/segment of DNA controlling one particular characteristic e.g. the
portion of DNA controlling the inheritance and expression of eye colour is called the gene
for eye colour. Note that some characteristics are controlled by more than one gene. This is
called polygenic inheritance.
Allele: This is an alternative form of a given gene. Each sexually-reproducing organism has
two alleles for each of its characteristics. The alleles may be similar or different. One of the
alleles is inherited from the male parent while the other one is from the female parent. Alleles
which have more than two alternative forms are called multiple alleles e.g. the gene for blood
group in humans has three alleles, namely IA, IB and IO. Even in this case, each human being
can have only two of the alleles.
Genotype: This is the combination of alleles an organism has for a given characteristic. It is
also defined as the genetic composition of an organism for a particular characteristic. The
genotype is normally written using a pair of letters, each representing one allele e.g. AA, Aa
and aa.
Phenotype: This is the out-ward expression of the genotype in the form of physical
characteristics of an organism.
Dominant: A dominant allele is one that gets expressed in the phenotype to the exclusion of
another. It is always represented by a capital letter e.g. A, B, T and so on
Recessive: A recessive allele is one that is over-shadowed in the phenotype by the presence
of a dominant allele. It is always represented by a small/lowercase letter e.g. a, b, t and so
on.
Codominance: Codominant alleles are two different alleles which are equally expressed in
the phenotype when present together e.g. the alleles IA and IB for blood group
Homozygous: This a type of genotype where both alleles are the same i.e. both dominant or
both recessive e.g. AA, aa, BB, bb and so on. Organisms which are homozygous are called
homozygotes or pure breeds.
Heterozygous: This is a type of genotype where the two alleles are different, such as one
allele is dominant while the other is recessive e.g. Aa, Tt and Bb. Organisms which are
heterozygous are called heterozygotes or hybrids.
Pedigree: This is a historical or ancestral record of individuals shown in a chart, table or
diagram.

2. Describe the variations in human beings.

Variation refers to the differences in characteristics among organisms of the same species.
There are two types of variation, namely continuous variation and discontinuous
variation.
Continuous variation: This is a type of variation where a characteristic has many
intermediate forms between two extremes. Examples of characteristics that show continuous
variation in humans is height, complexion, shoe size and body mass/size. The causes of
continuous variation include:
• Control by many genes/control by many pairs of alleles/polygenic control
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 • Influence by environmental factors such as diet, climate e.t.c
When the number of individuals is plotted against a characteristic that shows continuous
variation, a normal distribution curve (bell-shaped curve) is produced, as illustrated in the
following diagram:

Discontinuous variation: This is a type of variation where a characteristic has clear-cut

different groups (distinct groups), with no intermediate forms. Examples of characteristics
which show discontinuous variation in humans are sex, blood groups, and finger prints,
rolling the tongue, albinism, Rhesus factor and colour of eyes. The causes of discontinuous
variation include:
• Control by one or few genes (control by one or few pairs of alleles)
• Lack of environmental influence.
Characteristics which show this kind of variation are normally plotted on histograms, bar-
charts or similar types of graphs, as illustrated in the following diagram:

3. Explain what a monohybrid inheritance is.

Monohybrid Inheritance: is the study of one characteristic controlled by only one gene.
Mendel’s Experiments: Mendel used garden peas because:
(i) They have a short life cycle
(ii) They show contrasting characteristics e.g. short plants are always below 1 meter
while tall plants always grow above 1 meter
Experiment 1: Mendel crossed homozygous tall plants with homozygous short plants. The
seeds produced all grew into tall plants. From this Mendel concluded that the allele for
tallness was dominant to the allele for shortness. This experiment can be explained using the
following genetic diagram:

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 Let T = allele for tallness and t = allele for shortness
Note: The parents used at the beginning of any genetic experiment are called the first
Parental generation (P1- generation). The offspring of the P1 generation are called the first
filial generation (F1-generation). The offspring of the F1 generation are called the second
filial generation (F2-generation) and so on.
Experiment 2: Mendel allowed the F1 plants to self-pollinate. ¾ of the offspring were tall
while ¼ were short. This is explained by the following genetic diagram:

NB The fractions of the offspring phenotypes (which also represent the chances of each
phenotype) may be converted into ratios or decimal numbers; in this case the ratio is 3:1
while the decimal numbers are 0.75 and 0.25. This information may also be converted into
actual numbers e.g. if the total number of offspring is 1000, the number of short plants will
be calculated as follows:
Number of short plants = ¼ X 1000 = 250
Exercise: In garden peas, the allele for smooth seeds (R) is dominant to the allele for
wrinkled seeds (r). Use a genetic diagram to show the result of crossing a heterozygous plant
with a homozygous recessive one.

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 4. Demonstrate the inheritance of human characteristics using the crossings
Back Cross (Test Cross) This is when an organism having a dominant phenotype is crossed
with a homozygous recessive one in order to determine its genotype. The phenotypes of the
offspring are used to conclude what the genotype of the tested organism is. If all the offspring
still show the dominant phenotype, it is concluded that the tested organism is homozygous
dominant. If some of the offspring show the dominant phenotype while others show the
recessive phenotype, it is concluded that the tested organism is heterozygous. This is
illustrated by the following genetic diagrams, using height in garden peas.
If the organism is homozygous dominant (TT)

If the organism is heterozygous (Tt)

Common Crosses and their expected phenotypic ratios of Offspring

When one of the parents is homozygous dominant all the offspring will have the dominant
phenotype, regardless of the genotype of the other parent.
- When both parents are heterozygous, the phenotypic ratio of the offspring is 3:1
- When one parent is heterozygous and the other homozygous recessive the phenotypic ratio of
the offspring is 1:1
- When both parents are homozygous recessive, all the offspring will have the recessive
phenotype.

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 Exercise: In maize plants, the allele M, for white seeds is dominant over the allele m for
yellow seeds.100 heterozygous plants were self-pollinated and 250 yellow seeds were
collected.
(a) What is the expected ratio of white seeds to yellow seeds [1]
(b) What is the expected total number of seeds [2]
(c) What is the expected number of white seeds [2]
5. Describe the mechanism of ABO blood groups inheritance
Blood group inheritance in humans is controlled by three alleles, namely IA, IB and IO.
Both IA and IB are dominant over IO but are codominant to each other. There are six possible
genotypes and four possible phenotypes, as shown in the following table:

Points to take note of

- When one parent is group AB, a couple can never have a group O child.
- When one parent is group O, a couple can never have a group AB child.
- When one parent is homozygous group A (IAIA) or homozygous group B (IBIB), a couple can
never have a group O child.
- Group A and group B parents can have a group O child as long as they are heterozygous (IAIO
or IBIO).
- A couple where one parent is heterozygous group A (IAIO) and the other heterozygous group B
(IBIO) can have a child of any blood group.
6. Explain the factors that determine the sex of a human being.
Sex inheritance in humans is controlled by two chromosomes, X and Y, which are called sex
chromosomes. The X chromosome is longer than the Y chromosome, as shown below:

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 A person with genotype XX is female while a person with genotype XY is male. At each
conception, the chances of having either a male or a female child are equal, as illustrated by
the following diagram.

7. Explain the inheritance of sex linked characteristics.

Sex Linkage is is the occurrence of a non sex gene on a sex chromosome. A non-sex gene
found on a sex chromosome is said to be sex-linked. If the gene is on the X chromosome, it
is said to be X-linked. Examples of X-linked conditions in humans are haemophilia and
red-green colour blindness. These X-linked conditions do not occur on the Y chromosome
because they are found on the extra (non-homologous) portion of the X chromosome.
a) Haemophilia is an inherited disease where a human being bleeds for longer periods than
normal due to poor clotting of blood. It is caused by lack of blood clotting factors known
as factor VIII and factor IX. The allele for haemophilia (h) is recessive while the allele
for normal blood clotting (H) is dominant. Their possible genotypes and phenotypes for
haemophilia are given below:
Genotype Phenotype
H H
X X Normal female
H h
X X Normal carrier female
h h
XX Haemophilic female
H
X Y Normal male
h
XY Haemophilic male

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 b) Red-green Colour Blindness is a genetic disorder where a person cannot distinguish
between the colours red and green. The allele for red-green colour blindness(r) is
recessive while the allele for normal vision (R) is dominant. The possible genotypes and
phenotypes for red-green colour blindness are given below:

Genotype Phenotype
XRXR Normal female
XRXr Carrier female
XrXr Color blind female
XRY Normal male
XrY Color blind male

Exercise: A red-green colour blind male is married to a woman who has normal vision but
carries the allele that causes red-green colour blindness. Use a genetic diagram to predict
their chances of having the following types of offspring:
(a) a colour blind male (b) a carrier female (c) a normal male (d) a normal female (not carrier)
8. Describe what mutation is.
A mutation is a sudden spontaneous change in the structure of a gene or number of
chromosomes. A gene, chromosome or an organism which has undergone a mutation is
called a mutant. There are two types of mutations, namely gene mutations and chromosome
mutations.
9. Identify the causes of mutation.
Any substance that causes a mutation is called a mutagen or mutagenic factor. All mutagens
are also carcinogens (cancer-causing agents). Examples of mutagens are chemicals, radiation
and viruses.
10. Explain effects of mutation.
There are two types of mutations, namely gene mutations and chromosome mutations.
Gene Mutation: This is a change in the chemical structure of a gene. Examples of gene
mutations in humans are albinism, sickle cell anaemia, red-green colour blindness and
haemophilia.
Albinism: This is an inherited disease where an organism lacks the capacity to synthesize
melanin. As a result, the skin, hair, eyebrows and eyelashes all have a white colour. Even the
iris does not contain melanin in albinos. This causes internal reflections in the eye, making
it difficult for albinos to see clearly.
Sickle Cell Anaemia: This is an inherited disease where a person has abnormal haemoglobin,
making the red blood cells sickle-shaped, especially when oxygen levels are low in the body.
The disease reduces the capacity of the body to transport oxygen. One advantage of sickle
cell anaemia is that it reduces the incidence of malaria. This is because the malaria parasite
fails to reproduce inside abnormal red blood cells due to small amounts of oxygen. The other
reason is that sickle-shaped red blood cells infected with the malaria parasite are destroyed
in the spleen.

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 Chromosome Mutation: This is a spontaneous change in the number of chromosomes. An
example of chromosome mutation in humans is Down’s syndrome. Down’s syndrome is a
genetic disorder where a human being has 47 chromosomes instead of 46. The signs and
symptoms of Down’s syndrome are:
- Mental retardation
- Round face with squinty eyes, rather like a Mongolian. That is why the disease is sometimes
called mongolism.
- Abnormally short limbs.
- Six digits (toes or fingers) on the limbs.
Chances of having Down’s syndrome babies are higher in women who have children when
they are old (over 35 years).
NB Mutation is a source of variation within a population.
11. Describe the uses of mutations
Although mutations are bad, some mutations can be advantageous. This is because mutations
may enable the mutant organism to withstand particular environmental stresses better than
normal organisms or reproduce more quickly. In these cases, a mutation will tend to become
more common in a population through natural selection. An example of a useful mutation in
agriculture is called polyploidy. Polyploidy is the presence of multiple number of
chromosomes in the organism. Polyploidy is caused by non-disjunction during meiotic cell
division. The chromosomes in a cell fail to separate and the doubled number of chromosomes
is retained hence the cell will have double number of chromosomes. Polyploidy plants are
usually larger in size and produce larger fruits or seeds. Polyploidy is advantageous in plants
since it results in increased yield, increased resistance to pests and diseases and early maturity.

12. Describe chromosomes.

Chromosomes are DNA threads found in the nucleus and responsible for storage of inherited
information in the form of genes. Each chromosome is made of two strands called chromatids
which are linked to each other at the centromere. Chromatids found on the same chromosome
are called sister chromatids.

Chromosome Numbers: The number of chromosomes in each cell of a particular species of

organisms is fixed. There are two kinds of cells in organisms that reproduce sexually, namely
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 somatic cells (body cells) and gametes (sex cells). The number of chromosomes in each
somatic cell is called the diploid number and its symbol is 2n. The number of chromosomes
in each gamete is called the monoploid or haploid number and its symbol is n. The haploid
number is always half of the diploid number in a given species.
The following table gives examples of species and their diploid and haploid numbers.
Species Diploid number (2n) Haploid number (n)

Human Beings 46 23
Rat 40 20
Fruit fly 8 4
Onion 16 8
Tomato 24 12

Chromosome Types: There are two types of chromosomes, namely sex chromosomes and
autosomes (non-sex chromosomes). Every somatic cell has two sex chromosomes while every
gamete has only one sex chromosome.
13. Describe the stages of cell division
Nuclear Division (Mitosis and Meiosis): Nuclear division or cell division is the process by
which new cells (daughter cells) are formed from existing cells (parent/mother cells). There
are two types of nuclear division, namely mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis
This is a type of cell division that results in the formation of two daughter cells that are diploid
and genetically identical from one diploid parent cell.

Stages of Mitosis: Mitosis involves four stages, namely prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase. However, it is proceeded by a resting phase called Interphase.
Interphase: During interphase, DNA replicates and chromosomes make extra copies of
themselves. Energy is also built up in form of ATP. Chromosomes cannot be seen clearly
during this stage; they are long and thin and appear as a twisted mass called chromatin.

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 Prophase: The following events take place during prophase
- Movement of centrioles to opposite poles of the cell
- Appearance of spindle fibers from the centrioles
- Disappearance of the nuclear membrane and nucleolus
- Chromosomes become visible by coiling and shortening

Metaphase: During metaphase the following events take place

- Centromeres of chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell
- Spindle fibres from the centrioles attach themselves to the centromeres of the chromosomes

Anaphase: During anaphase the sister chromatids are separated from each other and pulled to
opposite poles, centromere first.
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 Telophase: The following events take place
- The chromatids arrive at the poles and each of them becomes a complete chromosome
- The spindle fibres disappear
- Chromosomes disappear by unwinding and becoming longer
- The nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear

Importance of mitosis (MR. RAG)

Growth, Regeneration, Asexual reproduction e.g., binary fission in Amoeba, Maintaining
genetic stability, Replacement of cells
Meiosis (reduction division)
This is a type of nuclear division where one diploid parent cell produces four daughter cells
that haploid and genetically different from the parent cell. There are two divisions that take
place during meiosis. These are meiosis I (first meiotic division) and meiosis II (second meiotic
division). Each of the two divisions is made of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

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 Interphase
Interphase in meiosis is identical to interphase in mitosis. Each of the 46 chromosomes is
replicated and exists as two sister chromatids.

Meiosis I
Prophase I
- Movement of centrioles to the poles of the cell
- Appearance of spindle fibres from the centrioles
- Disappearance of the nuclear membrane and nucleolus
- Chromosomes become visible by coiling and shortening
- Homologous chromosomes pair up. These are chromosome pairs having the same length, same
gene loci and an identical position of the centromere. Each member of this pair comes from a
different parent.

Crossing over takes place between chromatids of homologous chromosomes. This is a process
during which the chromatids of homologous chromosomes get entangled and exchange pieces.
The point of crossing over is called a chiasma (plural=chiasmata). This process contributes to
genetic variation. The following diagram demonstrates crossing over in homologous
chromosomes:

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 Metaphase I
- Centromeres of homologous chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell
- Spindle fibres from the centrioles attach themselves to the Centromeres of the homologous
chromosomes

Anaphase I
During anaphase I the homologous chromosomes are separated from each other and pulled to
opposite poles, centromere first. The chromosomes are separated randomly. This is called
random assortment of chromosomes and is one of the processes that contributes to genetic
variation.

Telophase I
- The chromosomes arrive at the poles
- The spindle fibres disappear
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 - Chromosomes disappear by unwinding and becoming longer
- The nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear

Cytokinesis: As in mitosis, cytokinesis involves the formation of a cleavage furrow in animals

or a cell plate in plants.
Meiosis II: The events that take place during meiosis II are similar to those in mitosis.
Prophase II: Nuclear envelope disappears and chromatin condenses

Metaphase II: The chromosomes are aligned along the metaphase plate.

Anaphase II: The sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles.

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 Telophase II: Nuclear envelopes reappear at each pole, Chromosomes uncoil and lengthen,
each daughter cell at the end of meiosis II has a haploid number of replicated chromosomes,
i.e. half the amount of DNA of a usual body cell.

Cytokinesis occurs to pinch the daughter cells apart.

Importance of meiosis
- Formation of gametes (sex cells)
- It contributes to genetic variation due to crossing over and random assortment of chromosomes

TOPIC 4.2: SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR

The human life cycle consists of birth, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old age. Sexuality
plays a role throughout the human life cycle to sustain human life and avoid human extinction
1. Describe the terms Love, affection and infatuation
Love is a strong affection for another person arising out of friendship or personal ties. In love
there is forgiving and accepting. It is strengthened by separation.
Affection is a very pleasant, kind, loving feeling towards another person that enhances the
lives of both parties.

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 Infatuation is the feelings of sexual attraction to another person. It depends on intense
physical attraction and it is weakened by separation.
2. Explain Sexual feelings
Sexual feelings are strong emotional desires to have sexual intercourse.
Sexual feelings are caused by sex hormones, sexual stimulating drugs, pornographic materials,
Inappropriate touching/hugging, being alone in with the opposite sex in a seclude place, Sex
talk with peers and nude advertisement, romantic songs or movies. Sex hormones are produces
during puberty and these are Testosterone in males and oestrogen in female
3. Describe the consequences of acting on sexual feelings without proper planning
The dangers of acting on sexual feelings without proper planning can cause unintended
pregnancies, contracting a sexually transmitted disease, rape, child defilement bestiality
(sexual intercourse between a person and an animal) and incest (the crime of having sexual
intercourse with a parent, child, sibling, or grandchild)
➢ Unintended pregnancy which in teenagers can lead to complications during childbirth
causing death.
➢ Dropping out of school which can lead to early marriage
➢ Contraction of STIs such as gonorrhoea and syphilis
➢ HIV and AIDS infection
➢ Bestiality: sexual intercourse between a person and an animal
➢ Child defilement
➢ Rape: Rape is a crime at common law defined as unlawful sexual intercourse with someone
without their consent and by means of fear or force.
➢ Incest: the crime of having sexual intercourse with a parent, child, sibling, or grandchild
4. Describe Ways of managing sexual feelings
Sexual feelings can be managed by: going for picnics, playing sports, reading constructive
literature and going to church and going for a good movie.
5. Explain Sexual Responsibility
- Always obtain sexual consent and give clear sexual consent or not
- Accept NO as NO
- Know your sexual limits: Avoiding sexual intercourse until marriage, avoid situations that
could lead to unhealthy sexual behaviour.
- If you choose to have sex you must use a condom every time
- Set and keep priorities & goals
- If you have sex, you must be tested regularly for STIs
6. Describe Child Abuse
A child is any person who is sixteen years or below. Child abuse is any form of ill treatment of a
child. This ill-treatment could be either physical or mental. Physical abuse could be battery,
canning, slapping, and pinching of the skin, pulling ears, burning of the skin, biting the child or

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 any action that can cause physical impairment of the child. Mental abuse could be lack of love,
neglect, insults, shouting at the child, name-calling or ridicule.
7. Explain Child sexual abuse and sexual assault
Sexual abuse is any sexual act imposed on a child or young person and includes fondling a child`s
genitals, making the child fondle the adult`s genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy,
exhibitionism and sexual exploitation. To be considered child abuse, these acts have to be
committed by a person who is related or close to a child.
Sexual assault is when a stranger commits the above acts to a child. Sexual abuse and sexual
assault can be handled by the police and criminal courts.
8. Explain different forms of child abuse
Child defilement: This is the act of having unlawful sexual intercourse with a girl under the age
of 16 years with or without her consent. Defilement is a crime and it should be reported
immediately. The penalty for defilement is imprisonment. Attempting or trying to have sex with
someone under the age of 16 can earn a person fourteen years imprisonment. Therefore, people
who marry girls under the age of sixteen should be prosecuted for defilement.
Child battering: This is a form of child abuse where someone beats a child often. Most people
beat up children as a form of punishment. This, however, is discouraged. It is better to discuss
issues with children rather than resorting to beating when they do something wrong.
Child neglect: This is a situation where children are not taken care of by their parents or guardians.
Children are not given the love and care that they need for personal development. Sometimes,
babies are abandoned. Some children are expected to fend for themselves. Other forms of child
neglect include children fending for the family, lack of parental guidance, parents being pre-
occupied with their careers and creating wealth for the family at the expense of taking care of their
children.
Child labour: This refers to work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and
harmful to children. This work normally interferes with the children’s opportunity to attend school,
their overall development and recreation. For instance, children are expected to combine school
work with heavy work.
Child trafficking: This is the illegal transportation and selling of children within or outside a
country for prostitution, pornography, forced labour, crime or business involving selling of sexual
private parts.
9. Explain ways by which can be addressing child abuse
- Legislation on child labour:
- Enacting stiff punishment for child defilers including those who batter or neglect their children.
- Sensitising the community about child abuse.
- Reporting cases of child abuse.
- Speaking out about the problem of child abuse. Encouraging victims to go to the Victim
Support Unit, Drop in Centres and NGOs for counselling services and legal advice.
10. Describe sexual harassment

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 Sexual harassment is when someone keeps on saying things or doing things of a sexual kind, like
touching you or making sexual remarks, and he does this even though he knows you do not want
it.
11. Discuss ways of protection against sexual harassment and rape.
- Make it clear you do not want that kind of behaviour from the person as a result, she or he has
no excuse that you encouraged him or her to think that you approved his or her conduct.
- If he or she does not stop harassing you, keep a record of the incidents in a small note-book.
Write them down and ask a friend to witness them. This way your friend will support you.
- Discuss the problem openly and you will probably find others who have been suffering the
same problem. In that way, you can make the problem known, which may stop the harasser.
- Try to make your home as secure as possible.
- Do not let anyone into your home if you feel in any way doubtful or suspicious.
- Try to avoid situations that make you feel uncomfortable or unsafe, even if you can see no real
reason for your feelings.
- Try to get help from the police immediately if you know or suspect that you are in danger.
- Try to get help from someone nearby, but stay alert and use your judgment. Otherwise, you
may escape from your attacker only to find that the person you appealed to for help takes
advantage of your vulnerability.
- If you are walking and a car follows you or stops beside you, stay as far away from the car as
possible and keep walking even if you are helping the driver by giving him direction.
- Hitch- hiking is risky especially for girls and women. If you have to take a lift, trust your
judgment about the person or people in the car.
- When you travel alone using public transport, try to sit near another woman.
- Remember that most rapes are planned in advance. It is a good idea to vary your behaviour,
such as the route you use and the times you take to fetch water or play with your friends.
- If you learn self-defence skills, remember that you are still vulnerable. Your attacker may have
a gun or a knife, or he may simply be stronger or more skilled in martial arts than you are.
Practice your self-defence skills regularly.
12. Explain the meaning of rape.
Rape is when a man/woman has unlawful sexual intercourse with a woman or girl/man or boy
without her or his consent by using force and or by means of threats or intimidation.
Rape is legally defined as: Any person who has unlawful carnal knowledge of a woman or girl
without her or with her consent.
13. Suggest ways of Resisting Rape.
One can resist rape in the following ways:
- Attention seeking tactics: shouting, screaming or trying to get someone to help.
- Non-cooperation tactics: for example, refusing to take your clothes off.
- Psychological tactics: for example, reasoning with the rapist, trying to frighten him, disgust
him or gain his sympathy.
- Physical resistance: fighting back or struggling.
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 However, it is worth noting that there is no single right way of reacting, when attached by a rapist.

TOPIC 5: CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Classification is the placing of organisms in groups based on features they have in common.
It
involves taxonomy, nomenclature and the construction and usage of identification keys .
Taxonomy: The branch of biology where each organism is placed in a series of groups
arranged in a hierarchy is called taxonomy. The groups are called taxa (singular: taxon). A
taxon is a group of organisms that have similar features. The highest taxon an organism can
belong to is a kingdom. Each kingdom is made of related phyla (singular: phylum); each
phylum is made of related classes; each class is made of related orders; each order is made of
related families; each family comprises a number of related genera (singular: genus) and each
genus is made of related species. The species is defined as a group of organisms having similar
features and capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring. It is the lowest taxon an
organism can belong to. The above hierarchy of taxa can be remembered using the following
memory aid: Kings Play Chess On Fine Gold Stools. The taxonomies of the human being,
lion and maize plant are given in the following table:

Nomenclature is the naming of organisms with scientific names. The system of naming used
is called the binomial system of nomenclature. In this system, the biological/scientific name
of each organism has two parts. The first part is the name of the genus (generic name) and
always begins with a capital letter while the second part is the name of the species (specific
epithet). If printed, the name is italicized (e.g. Homo sapiens) but if hand-written, the name is
under-lined (e.g. Homo sapiens). This is to indicate that the name is scientifically accepted
world-wide. The names are normally in Latin because it was the original scientific language
and is universally accepted. When written for the first time, the name must be written in full
(e.g. Panthera leo) but if mentioned afterwards, only the first letter of the generic name is
written followed by the full specific epithet (e.g. P. leo).
Kingdoms: There are five kingdoms of living organisms, namely Kingdom Prokaryota (the
prokaryotes or bacteria), Kingdom Protoctista (the protoctists or protists such as Amoeba,
Plasmodium and Trypanosoma), Kingdom Fungi (the fungi such as yeasts, mushrooms,
toadstools and Penicillium), Kingdom Plantae (the plants) and Kingdom Animalia (the

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 animals). Viruses are not assigned a kingdom because they are considered to be on the border-
line between living and non-living things. When independent, they behave like non-living
particles because they do not metabolize or self-regulate. But once inside a host, they behave
like living things by carrying out reproduction.
Kingdom Prokaryotae: No nucleus; no double-membraned organelles; unicellular; includes
all bacteria (singular=bacterium)
Kingdom Protoctista: Have well defined nucleus; have double-membraned organelles;
mainly unicellular (single celled) or with a cellular level of organization; includes protozoa
and algae. Examples of protists are Plasmodium, Amoeba and Trypanosoma.

Kingdom Fungi: Multicellular; Have well defined nucleus; have double-membraned

organelles; cell wall of chitin; non photosynthetic (no chloroplasts); saprophytic nutrition;
examples are yeasts, moulds, mushrooms and toadstools.
Kingdom Plantae: Multicellular; Have well defined nucleus; have double-membraned
organelles; cellulose cell walls; photosynthetic (presence of chloroplasts); includes mosses,
ferns, conifers and flowering plants.
1. Identify various types of plants.
Plants are grouped into the following:
a) Chlorophytes: These belong to the phylum Chlorophyta and consist of photosynthetic plants
called green algae. The organisms are aquatic and marine and have chlorophyll.
Characteristics: They have chlorophyl, they have simple body form with little or no cell
differentiation and their cells have cellulose cell walls except euglena which lack cell walls.
Examples include: spirogyra, Euglena, Chlamydomonas.

b) Bryophytes: They belong to phylum Bryophyta. They are simple and green in colour. They
usually grow on damp surfaces and barks of trees. Examples: mosses and liver worts.

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 Characteristics: they are tiny plants which are green in colour, they contain chlorophyll, they
lack vascular bundles, they have root-like structures called rhizoids, most of them carryout
sexual reproduction while some sexual reproduction

c) Pteridophytes: They are larger than mosses and liverworts. They have well developed roots,
stems and leaves for examples ferns.
Characteristics: they are large plants which are green in color, they have chlorophyll for
photosynthesis, they have vascular tissues in the roots, stems and leaves, have well developed
roots, leaves and stems, they have adventitious roots, they have large compound leaves called
fronds and reproduction is mainly by spore formation.

d) Spermatophytes: These are seed producing plants and they are some of the most advanced
organisms on earth. They are grouped into two:
- Angiosperms (flowering plants)
- Gymnosperms (conifers)
i. Angiosperms (Flowering Plants): They have well developed roots, stem,
vascular system and leaves; they bear flowers; they bear seeds which are enclosed
in fruits.

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 ii. Gymnosperms: these are plants that produce spore bearing structures called cones.
They are also known as conifers. They do not produce flowers hence they are not
fruit bearing plants, they have developed vascular tissues and they exhibit
xerophytic feature such as needle-shaped leaves, thick waxy cuticles and sunken
stomata.
There are two classes of flowering plants: monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants.

2. Identify various types of animals.

Kingdom Animalia: Multicellular; have well defined nucleus; have double-membraned
organelles; no cell walls; heterotrophic nutrition; presence of nervous system; presence of
anterior and posterior ends; presence of dorsal and ventral surfaces; presence of two lateral
surfaces; presence of either radial or bilateral symmetry; includes invertebrates and vertebrates.
Invertebrates: These are animals without backbones. They include the following phyla:
Cnidaria (e.g. sea anemones, corals, hydras and jellyfish): have radial symmetry; have
tentacles.
Mollusca (e.g. snails, slugs, squids, limpets, mussels and octopus): soft-bodied with a
muscular foot; slimy covering; two pairs of tentacles, one with eyes and the other with smell
receptors; usually have shells.
Nematoda (unsegmented roundworms): often microscopic, parasitic and extremely common.
Platyhelminths (flatworms such as tape worm and liver fluke): flat, unsegmented and
bilaterally symmetrical; mouth present but no anus.
Annelida (truly segmented worms e.g. earthworms): long cylindrical bodies; bristle (chetae);
clitellum

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 Echinodermata (sea urchins and starfish)
Arthropoda (Crustaceans, insects, myriapods and arachnids): theses are animals with jointed
appendages, Exoskeleton, Bilateral symmetry, segmented body, Ventral notochord and dorsal
heart. (Can be summarized JEBSVD).
Crustaceans (e.g. crabs, lobsters, crayfish and woodlice): aquatic or found in damp places;
cephalothorax present; two pairs of antennae; three pairs of jaws; exoskeleton not water proof.

Insects: 3 body regions (head thorax and abdomen), 2 pairs of wings, compound eyes, 3 pairs
of legs, tracheal system for respiration.

Myriapods: terrestrial; herbivorous; one pair of antennae; one pair of jaws; many legs;
centipedes have flattened bodies and one leg per segment; millipedes have cylindrical bodies
and 2 pairs of legs per segment. Myriapods consist of Diplopoda (Millipedes) and
Chilopods(Centipedes)

Arachnids: 2 body regions (cephalothorax and abdomen); 4 pairs of legs; powerful jaws;
spinneret (used for spinning webs in spiders); wings absent; simple eyes; antennae absent;one
pair of appendages; one pair of sensory appendages.

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 Vertebrates: These are animals with backbones. They include the classes; Pisces (fishes),
amphibia, Reptilia, Aves(birds) and Mammalia.
Class Pisces: the term ‘Pisces’ is a Latin word which means ‘fish’.

Characteristics: they live in water, they have scales, they have gills for gaseous exchange,
they have fins for movement, they are poikilothermic (they cannot regulate their body
temperature, it depends on the environmental temperature), they exhibit internal fertilisation,
have single circulatory system and have a lateral line system for sensitivity.
Class Amphibia: the word ‘amphibia’ comes from the word ‘amphi’ which means ‘two’. This
is because amphibians can live both on land and in water. They include the animals such as
newts, salamanders, toads and frogs.

Characteristics: they have two pairs of limbs, three chambered hearts with double circulatory
system, adults use lungs while young ones use gills for gaseous exchange, they exhibit external
fertilisation, they have mucus glands under their skins to keep the skin moist, they do not have
scales.
Class Reptilia: The word Reptilia comes from a Latin work ‘reptilis’ which means to ‘crawl.
Animals in this class move by creeping or crawling. Examples include; snakes, turtles,
tortoises, crocodiles and lizards.

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 Characteristics: they have dry scary skins, some have hard shells like tortoises, have two
pairs of limbs except snakes which have no limbs, have hard conical teeth for grasping prey,
they exhibit internal fertilization and lay eggs in a leathery shell, they have well developed
lungs for gaseous exchange and they have double circulatory system.
Class Aves: The term Aves comes from a Latin word ‘Avis’ which means ‘bird’. Examples
include humming bird, ostrich, fowl, sparrows, hawk, eagle, parrot, chicken etc.

Characteristics: Their bodies are covered with feathers, legs are covered with scales, front
limbs are modified to form wing while hind limbs are used for walking, running, swimming
etc, they have hollow bones that make them light for flight, mouths are modified to beaks
which are used for feeding, they have no teeth, they carry out internal fertilisation and lay eggs
with hard shells made of calcium, they are homoiotherms (can control their body temperature).
Class Mammalia: The term Mammalia is derived from the Latin word ‘mammalis’ which
means ‘mammal’ or ‘mamma’ meaning ‘milk secreting’ organ of female mammals. Examples
include human beings, cats, dogs, cows, whales, bats etc. Mammals that fly are called
chiropterans, that’s that lay eggs are called monotremes, pouched mammals are called
marsupials like kangaroos while those that give birth to young ones are called placental
mammals.

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 Characteristics: All mammals have mammary glands that produce milk, their skin is covered
by hair, wool or fur, they have external ears, they exhibit internal fertilisation, they have well
developed lungs for gaseous exchange, they have four chambered heart with double circulatory
system, they have sweat glands, they are heterodant (different types of teeth), they are
homoiothermic (control their body temperature).
3. Formulate a simple key for classification of plants and animals.
An identification key is a series of statements about characteristics of organisms which, if
followed step by step, makes it possible for identification or classification of organisms. The
type of key normally used in Biology called the dichotomous key. In this type of key, there is a
series of paired contrasting statements or a branching tree diagram, leading to the identification of
the organisms covered by the key. When constructing an identification key,
one must always begin by listing the characteristics of the organisms they are trying to identify and
then proceed with construction of the key based on the listed characteristics.
This presentation attempts to give some practice in the use of an identification key to place
organisms in their kingdoms.
4. Use a simple classification key to identify plants and animals.
Example: You are provided with three specimens labelled A, B and C.

Use the identification key provided below to write down the scientific name of each of the
three specimens
Identification Key for Specimens A, B and C
1. Organism has simple eyes (go to 2)
Organism has compound eyes (Glossina fuscipes)
2. Organism has four pairs of limbs (Euscorpius carpathicus)
Organism has more than four pairs of limbs (Scolopendra subspinipes)

TOPIC 6: THE SOIL

Soil is the top layer of the Earth’s crust and is formed by the weathering of surface rocks.
Weathering is the breaking down of the large rocks into small particles. Soil plays very important
role in our lives which include;
- Serve as media for growth of all kinds of plants
- Provides habitat for animals that live in the soil.
- Serve as filter to clean water before it moves into the ground.

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1. Demonstrate soil composition.
a) Air. Soil contains air. Air is a mixture of gases namely carbon oxide, oxygen, nitrogen and
inert gases. Air is found in the spaces between soil particle. Soil airconstantly moves from the
pores into the atmosphere and from the atmosphere into the pores. The amount of air in the
soil is inversely proportional to the amount of water available in theta soil. This means that
soil with too much water contains little air.
How to work out percentage of air in the soil.
Percentage of soil air= expected volume -final reading x 100/100.
Example: If the final reading is 195cm3 and the expected volume is 200. Calculate the
percentage of air in the soil.
Solution
Percentage of soil air =(200-195)/100x100= 5%
b) Water
Water is a very important constituent of the soil. Its functions include:
- It is the major component of cell protoplasm and water provides support to the plant by
making the plant cells turgid.
- Soil water acts as the medium in which plant nutrients are dissolved before transportation up
the plant.
- Water is essential for photosynthesis
- Transpiration as a cooling effect on plants
- Water is necessary for microbial activities in the soil
- Water creates suitable conditions for seed germination.
How to Calculate the Percentage of the Water in the Soil.
Percentage of water = mass of water x 100/ 50.
Example: If the weight of the evaporation dish is 20g and the total weight is of the dish is
and heated soil is 62g, mass of the fresh garden soil is 50g. Calculate the percentage of the
water in the soil.
Solution
Mass of the evaporation dish + soil =70g
Mass of dish + heated soil = 62g
Mass of water = 70g - 62g = 8g
Percentage water = 8x 100/50 = 16%.
c) Humus (Organic Matter)
This is another important component of the soil. It comes from decaying remains of animals
and plants and these remains contain carbon. The undergo decomposition to release various
nutrients. Organic matter helps bind the soil particles together thus improving water-holding
capacity and reducing soil erosion. The dark colour of organic matter is called humus.
How to Calculate the Percentage of Humus in a Soil Sample

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 Percentage of organic matter = mass of organic matter x 100/ 100.
Example: The following sample data were obtained in an experiment. Determine the
percentage of humus in the soil.
Mass of dish alone = 30g
Mass of dish + dry soil = 110
Mass of dish + burnt soil = 105g
Mass of organic matter = 110g - 105g
Solution
Percentage of humus = 5 x 100 / 100 = 5%
d) Mineral (Soil Particles)
These are compounds which come from disintegration of rocks and the form the skeleton or
framework of the soil. Apart from anchorage of plants, the also provide minerals necessary
for proper growth of plants such as calcium, sulphur, potassium etc.
e) Micro-organisms
Micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi in the soil bring about decomposition thus
helping add organic matter into the soil. Bacteria like Rhizobium spp and azotobacter spp
carry out nitrogen fixation, adding nitrates into the soil.
2. Describe the types of soil and their properties
Soil can be classified in terms of its physical properties. One of the physical properties of the soil is
called soil texture. Soil texture is also known as the feel of the soil. It is the percentage of
composition of sand, silt and clay in a soil sample. These Particles vary in size (diameter) as follows:
⚫ Sand (0.02-2.0mm)
⚫ Silt (0.002-0.02mm)
⚫ Clay (less than 0.002mm)

There are three types of soils based on the appearance and the size of their particles and these are:
sandy soils (largest particles), loam soils (mixture of sand and clay) and clay soils (smallest
particles).
SANDY SOILS: Sandy soil is made of the largest particles among the different types of soil. The
particles do not fit closely together thus there are large spaces between them which are filled with
air. Therefore in this type of soil, water absorption is very high as the water passes quickly through
these spaces. These soils are light, well aerated and dry.
Characteristics of sandy soil: Very well – drained, Coarse-textured, moderately fertile, Low water
- holding capacity, slightly acidic, less stable structure hence prone to soil erosion, highly aerated,
Low density and light

CLAY SOILS: The particles that make up clay are the finest and bind very well.
Characteristics of clay soil: Sticky when wet, High water-retention, Cracks when dry, Hard when
dry, Very poorly aerated, Very poorly drained, Swells when dry, Smooth when felt between fingers,
Has fine soil particles.

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LOAMY SOILS: Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, clay and silt. It also contains humus and is
therefore considered the best for growth of plants. The percolation rate is between that of sandy and
clay soil. This is the best soil for crop production.
Characteristics of loam soil: Well drained, moderately textured, very fertile, Good -water holding
capacity, slightly acidic, Easy to dig.

3. Describe factors that make soil fertile.

AIR: Air is present in tiny spaces between soil particles. Air consists of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
dioxide. Soil air has the following functions:
⚫ Organisms and plant roots breathe air
⚫ Seeds need air to germinate
⚫ Air helps rocks to weather
⚫ Prevents build-up of poisonous gases

MICROORGANISMS: Microscopic organisms such as fungi, bacteria and algae occur in soil.
They play a very important part in soil fertility and nutrient recycling. Fungi and some bacteria are
saprophytes that break down dead leaves and animals. They return mineral salts to the soil during
the carbon cycle. Some microorganisms, especially bacteria and algae, are involved in the nitrogen
cycle. Plants cannot use the nitrogen in the soil. Bacteria in the soil change the nitrogen into a form
that plants can use.

MOISTURE: Water is found in tiny spaces between the soil particles, in form of moisture. Some
water occurs as a thin layer around the soil particles. The root hairs of plants absorb the water through
osmosis. The sources of soil water are rain, dew and snow. Soil water has the following functions:
It is necessary for photosynthesis to take place in plants, It dissolves the mineral salts before it can
be absorbed by the root hairs, It helps seeds to germinate, It transports nutrients from the roots to
the rest of the plant.

MINERAL ELEMENTS: Mineral salts come from weathering of rocks and play an important role
in soil fertility and plant growth. Plants require calcium, magnesium, nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassium, sulphur, iron and zinc to grow. Farmers can also increase the minerals in the soil by
adding fertiliser to the soil. Farmers can also add farm manure and compost (humus), which are rich
in minerals, to the soil. Minerals are absorbed by the root hairs of plants.
ORGANIC MATTER: Organic matter in soil consists of dead plants and animals. These are slowly
broken down by microorganisms. The material that remains is called humus. Humus is dark brown,
decomposed organic matter found in soil. Dead organic matter is important to improve soil fertility
for these reasons: It supplies food to soil organisms such as earth worms, ants and rodents, It
improves soil structure by allowing good aeration and good water retention and drainage thereby
minimising soil erosion, It is a source of nutrients such as potassium, calcium and magnesium for

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plants, It makes colour of soil dark thereby helping it to absorb heat quickly and warming easily,
this improves plant growth and seed germination

PH: Plants such as maize, wheat and potatoes, grow best in neutral or slightly acidic soil (PH 6-7).
This is also best for soil animals and bacteria. We use the PH scale to measure how acidic or alkaline
a soil sample is. Blackish (alkaline) soil contains a high percentage of mineral salts, especially
sodium and magnesium. This soil has PH higher than 7. It occurs in regions with a low annual
rainfall, where little leaching takes place. Acid soil has very few mineral salts. This soil has a PH
lower than 7. Soil is acidic in high rainfall regions. Soluble minerals dissolve in the water and
leaching takes place. The plants cannot absorb the minerals and microorganisms die. Acid soil can
be neutralised by adding agricultural lime to the soil.

4. Investigate causes of loss of fertility in soil.

Deforestation, Poor farming methods, Overgrazing, Late burning, Leaching, Harvesting
5. Explain methods of improving and retaining soil fertility.
Farmers use various methods to improve soil fertility. This ensures good harvests. The methods
used by farmers include: Suitable PH, Weeding, Application of fertilizers, Crop rotation,
Conservation farming
6. Determine the distribution of earth worms in different types of soils
Earthworms’ distribution depends on; Soil types, Moisture content of the soil, Temperature, Soil
PH and Plant population

TOPIC 7: ECOLOGY
1. Explain the term ecology
Ecology is the study of interactions of living things with each other and the environment
2. Explain the terms used in ecology
Ecosystem: a definable area made of communities of living things that interact with each other
and their non-living environment e.g. a pond, Game Park.
Community: a group of populations found in the same area and interact with each other.
Population: a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time.
Species: a group of living things that have similar features and can inter-breed to produce
fertile offspring.
Habitat: a place where an organism lives. Examples of habitats are aquatic habitats (found in
water), terrestrial habitats (found on land)

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 Niche: the specific role a given organism plays in an ecosystem e.g. some organisms such as
algae and green plants are producers; other such as animals are consumers; and other such as
bacteria and fungi are decomposers.
3. Design a food chain
A food chain is a sequence of feeding relationships that begins with producers and involves at
least three organisms. In every food chain the producers occupy the first trophic level, the
primary consumers occupy the second trophic level, and the secondary consumers occupy the
third trophic level and so on. In a food chain the organisms are linked by a series of arrows
which always point towards the organism that is feeding on another. An example of a food
chain is given below:

4. Design a food web.

This is a group of interlinked food chains. The following diagram illustrates a
food web:

5. Describe the way energy flows along food chains and food webs.
The principal source of energy for ecosystems is the sun. Energy from the sun is called solar
energy. Solar energy is captured by green plats during the process of photosynthesis and
converted to chemical energy (food) which living organisms are able to use. Because of their
capacity to produce food for other living organisms in an ecosystem, plants are called
producers. Animals that feed on plants are called primary consumers or herbivores. Those that
feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers and those that feed on secondary
consumers are called tertiary consumers. The flow of energy from the sun is non cyclic (the
energy can never be returned to the sun).
6. Describe the efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels.
In the process of being transferred from trophic level to another, 10% of energy is passed on
to the next while 90% of the energy is lost through respiration, egestion and excretion. By the
time a food chain reaches the fourth trophic level there is very little energy available for any
higher level.

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 7. What are the differences between a food chain and a food web?
FOOD CHAIN FOOD WEB
One sequence of Several inter-linked sequences of
feeding relationships feeding relationships
Each organism Each organism may occupy more
occupies only one than one trophic level except the
trophic level producer
Usually involves fewer Usually involves more
organisms than a food organismsthan a food chain
web

8. Construct pyramids of numbers, bio-mass and energy

These are diagrammatic ways of showing feeding relationships in an ecosystem. Each

ecological pyramid is made of a pile of rectangular blocks on top of each other. There are three
types of ecological pyramids which are: Pyramids of numbers, Pyramids of biomass and
Pyramids of energy.

Pyramids of numbers: This shows the numbers of organisms at each trophic level in a food
chain. The length of each rectangular block is proportional to the number organisms at the
trophic level it represents. Pyramids of numbers are not always upright but maybe inverted.
This results when a small number of large organisms is supplying food to a large number of
small organisms e.g. Parasites feeding on a host. For example the following pyramid of
numbers may represent an ecosystem where there are 5 producers, 10 primary consumers, 150
secondary consumers and 5 tertiary consumers

Pyramids of Biomass: This shows the biomass of organisms at each trophic level in a food
chain. Biomass is the total dry mass of an organism. It is also defined as the total amount of
organic matter in an organism. It is measured in kilograms (Kg). The length of each rectangular
block is proportional to the biomass of organisms at the trophic level it represents. Pyramids
of biomass are usually upright but may sometimes be inverted. This is because the
measurements used for constructing the pyramids are based on the standing crop, rather than
the total biomass per growing season. Example: construct a pyramid of biomass for an

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 ecosystem where the producers have a biomass of 1000Kg, primary consumers 750Kg,
secondary consumers 850 Kg and Tertiary consumers 500 Kg.

Pyramids of Energy: This shows the energy of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain.
The length of each rectangular block is proportional to the energy of organisms at the trophic
level it represents. The units used for measuring energy are Joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ). This
is the best way of showing feeding relationships as the pyramids are always upright.

Population

9. Explain the term population.

Population is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same
time.
Population size is the number of organisms in a population.
Population density is the number organisms of the same species per unit area.
Population growth rate is the increase in the size of a population per unit time.
10. Investigate factors that cause change in population size.
Factors that cause change in population size include birth rate, immigration, death rate and
emigration.
Birth rate: the number of births per unit number of adults in a population.
Immigration: the movement of more organisms into a population.
Death rate: the number of deaths per unit number of adults in a population.
Emigration: the movement of organisms out of a population.
These four factors are affected by two sets of factors called biotic factors and abiotic factors.
The biotic factors include food availability, predators, parasites, disease and competition. The
abiotic factors include climate change, availability of water, oxygen, light and pollutants.
A high birth rate and high rate of immigration leads to a positive population growth rate
(increase in the size of a population per unit time). A high death rate and high rate of emigration
leads to a negative population growth rate (decrease in the size of a population per unit time).

Carbon and Nitrogen, Water Cycles

These are also known as nutrient cycles. A nutrient cycle shows the different forms of a
particular element or nutrient in different parts of the environment and the processes involved
in converting it from one form to another.
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 11. Describe how carbon and nitrogen are cycled within an ecosystem.
The carbon cycle. Carbon occurs in the following parts and forms in the
environment:
- Atmosphere (in the form of carbon dioxide gas)
- Plants (in the form of organic molecules)
- Animals (in the form of organic molecules)
- Soil (in the form of fossil fuels and carbonates)
The processes involved in converting carbon from one form to another are
summarised in the following diagram of the carbon cycle.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen occurs in the following parts and forms in the environment:
- Atmosphere (in the form of nitrogen gas)
- Soil (in the form of ammonia/ammonium ions, nitrite and nitrate)
- Plants (in the form of proteins and nucleic acids)
- Animals (in the form of proteins, amino acids, urea and nucleic acids)
Note: Nucleic acids are molecules responsible for storage of genetic information
i.e. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
The processes involved in converting nitrogen from one form to another are
summarised in the following diagram of the nitrogen cycle.

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 Bacteria are involved in the following processes of the nitrogen cycle:
Nitrogen fixation: The process by which nitrogen gas from the atmosphere is
converted to absorbable nitrogen compounds by the action of nitrogen fixing
bacteria such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Clostridium and Anabaena. Rhizobium
is a symbiotic bacterium found in the root nodules of leguminous plants such as
beans, peas, groundnuts and clover. Clostridium and Azotobacter are freeliving
in the soil while Anabaena is aquatic. All nitrogen-fixing bacteria contain an
enzyme called nitrogenase which catalyses the reaction between nitrogen gas and
hydrogen to form ammonia.
Nitrification: The process by which ammonia is oxidised to form nitrite (NO2)
by the bacterium Nitrosomonas and nitrite is oxidised to form nitrate (NO3) by
the bacterium Nitrobacter. Oxygen is required in order for nitrification to take
place. The bacteria that carry out nitrification are called nitrifying bacteria.
Decomposition: The process by which complex organic molecules are broken
down into simple inorganic molecules by the action of microorganisms known as
decomposers. Decomposers include not only bacteria but also fungi. The
decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds is also called
ammonification because it leads to the formation of ammonia or ammonium
ions.
Denitrification: The process by which nitrate is converted to nitrogen gas by
denitrifying bacteria such as Pseudomonas denitrificans and Thiobacillus
denitrificans. The process occurs in water-logged soils, lacking oxygen. It makes
the soil less fertile and adds nitrogen gas to the atmosphere.

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 Other processes that have an effect on the nitrogen cycle discussed below:
Lightning: This carries out nitrogen fixation by causing nitrogen to react with
oxygen to form nitrogen oxides. The nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain water to
form nitric acid which has nitrate that the plants are able to absorb.
Harber Process: This is an artificial process where nitrogen gas and hydrogen
are made to react with each other at high temperature and pressure to form
ammonia. It reduces the amount of nitrogen gas in the atmosphere.
Application of nitrogen-containing fertilisers increases the amount nitrogen-
containing compounds in the soil.

12. Describe what the water cycle is.

Water Cycle:
Water exists in three states, namely solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (water vapour). The
processes that take place during the water cycle are summarised in the following diagram:

13. Investigate key features of an ecosystem.

An ecosystem consists of biotic factors (living organisms) and abiotic factors (non-living
components). Biotic and abiotic factors interact with one another, especially through feeding
relationships. In pond producers include reeds and water lilies. Herbivores such as such as
snails eat plants. Pond skaters feed on dead insects. Carnivores such as frogs feed on
herbivores. Decomposers include worms and larvae.
14. Explain the effects of Agriculture on an ecosystem.
The clearance of forest for agriculture leads to reduction in biodiversity. Fertilizers and
pesticides disturb the ecosystems by killing innocent organisms and increasing soil acidity.
This leads to pollution. Polution is the contamination of the environment with substances that
are harmful to living organisms. Any substance that causes pollution of the environment is
called a pollutant. There are three types of pollution, namely land, air (atmospheric) and water
pollution.
Water pollution: The following table discusses some pollutants of water, their sources and
effects:

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 Name of Sources Effects
pollutants
Raw (untreated) -Leaking of sewer -Some microorganisms present in sewage are
sewage:This is a pipes. pathogenic and may cause diseases such as
mixture of -Direct discharge of cholera, dysentery and typhoid
human faeces, untreated sewage -Decomposition of the organic components of
urine kitchen into water bodies i.e. sewage leads to high levels of phosphates and
waste and rivers and lakes. nitrates. The presence of high levels of
detergents phosphates and nitrates in water is called
eutrophication. It leads to algal blooms (the rapid
multiplication of algae in water) and
multiplication of water weeds. The algae use up
a lot of oxygen for respiration and during their
decomposition after death. This lowers the
amount of oxygen in water and may result in
death of fish. In addition, nitrates are poisonous
to both fish and humans.
-Suspended particles present in the sewage
reduce penetration of light, slowing down
photosynthesis in aquatic plants.
-Detergents in sewage lead to formation of foams
which block oxygen and light from getting into
the water.

Agricultural run- -Farms located -Fertilisers in water cause eutrophication (see

off containing near water bodies explanation above)
fertilisers, -Herbicides and pesticides are poisonous to
herbicides and aquatic organisms and to humans who may drink
pesticides the water.

Oil spills: These -Accidental spillages -Oil floats on top of water, thereby blocking
normally affect from tankers oxygen supply to aquatic organisms.
marine water -It kills aquatic organisms
bodies i.e. seas -It sticks to the feathers of some aquatic birds,
and oceans making it difficult for them to swim.

TOPIC 8: CONSERVATION
Conservation is the protection of species, their habitats and ecosystems from extinction.
Extinction is the end of a species or group of taxa. The moment of extinction is generally

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 considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed
and recover may have been lost before this point).
1. Identify the importance of conserving plant and animal species.
Health Aspect: Chemical compounds derived from plants are useful in manufacture of
medicines. Protecting plant species means preserving biodiversity in order to derive benefits
from them while at the same time conserving nature
Aesthetic and Spiritual values: plant variety serve as nature’s beauty, their destruction lays
the environment bare, denying it, its radiance.
Preservation of Habitats and Ecosystems: Conservation of an endangered species means
preserving its habitat. These species also form an important part of the food chain and its
removal disrupts an ecosystem. Preservation is a means of enhancing biological diversity.
Ecotourism: Ecotourism is a form of tourism involving visiting fragile, pristine and
undisturbed natural areas intended for education and fund raising to directly empower the
local communities economically.
Agricultural Benefit: Only a small proportion of the world plants have been cultivated for
food on a large-scale basis. Scientist can exploit these endangered plant species as a source
of genetic material to improve existing cultivated crops. Undiscovered that are on the verge
of extinction could have great potential for providing medicines if discovered, therefore
cultivated on a large scale.
Environmental Monitors: Endangered species can act as important indicators of
environmental quality. When species disappear or reduce drastically from their habitats, it
could serve as a warning that something is wrong in our environment. For example, the rapid
decline of the bald eagles served as an important warning of the dangers of a pesticide called
DDT.
Air Pollution: Forests filter particulate matter and regulate composition of the atmosphere
and purify our air. Losing forests around the world increases air pollution.
2. Explain how to reuse, reduce and recycle materials.
The three Rs are ways of reducing waste, conserving resources, energy and money
Reduce: Reducing the amount of waste produced is the best way to conserve the
environment. For example, save energy by turning lights off when leaving a room or save
water by turning off taps.
Reuse: Instead of throwing things away, try to find ways of using them again. It makes
economic and environmental sense. For example, reuse grocery bags or bring your own bags
to the store. Do not take a bag from the store unless you need one.
Recycle: Recycling is a series of steps that makes it possible to create a new product from a
used material. For example, Recycling can be done through putting to use old metal canes,
paper products, glass, plastic and oil.
3. Investigate the importance of sustainable use of resources
Sustainability creates and maintains the conditions under which human beings and nature
can exist in harmony. We can use resources sustainably.

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 a) Human Activities: Human survival depends on the health of the ecosystem. An
ecosystem is comprised of communities of plants, animals and other organisms in a
particular area that interact with each other and their surrounding environment. Both
living and non-living things are considered part of an ecosystem. Human beings
threaten ecosystems by producing waste, damaging habitats and removing too many
species without giving the ecosystem time to naturally regenerate.
b) Overhunting and Overfishing: Over hunting key predators such as lions, tigers and
bears remove the very animals that keep plant consumers in balance and prevent
overgrazing. A health ecosystem has a balance of predators and prey that naturally cycle
through life and death sequences.
The practice of commercial overfishing, where fishing nets result in bycatch, in
which unwanted fish are caught in nets and then thrown away is wasteful and
destructive. Bycatch result in the death of many fish species.
a) Deforestation: Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make
the land available for other uses. We cut down trees for various functions. However,
with availability of sophisticated equipment that drastically increases the rate of tree
removal, the rainforests are being destroyed at an alarming rate, resulting in vegetation
degradation, nutrient imbalance, flooding and animal displacement. Trees acts as a
natural air filter in the carbon cycle by taking in carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen,
so deforestation alters the cycle thus changing weather patterns.
b) Pollution: vehicles, trains and planes emit toxic gases that include carcinogenic
particles and irritants causing air pollution. Application of fertilizers and pesticides on
crops that runoff into ground water and water bodies, poisons the ecosystem. Aquatic
Plants and animals die from exposure to pollutants. Pollution is increasing resulting in
loss of biodiversity causing severe damage to ecosystems.
c) Land Conversion: urban development through construction o road system and
buildings has changed the earth’s natural surface, removing soil nutrients, surface
vegetation and trees that filter the air and equalise the carbon cycle. Urbanisation
displaces animals and increases environmental pollution from vehicles and factories.
d) Game Keeping: This is a way of conserving plants and animals that are endangered.
Game keepers are people that protect wild life from destruction. They try to protect
wildlife from poachers. a lot of wild birds and animals benefit from game keeping,
which helps to ensure a balanced environment with a diversity of wildlife.

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 TOPIC 9: BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms in an ecosystem. It is the measure of
the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems.
1. Investigate the importance of diversity of organisms in given locality
a) Biodiversity helps in the recycling and storage of nutrients, combating pollution and
stabilising climate, protecting water resources, forming and protecting soil and
maintaining eco-balance.
b) Biodiversity is an important part of ecological services that make life enjoyable on
earth. Wetlands help in cleaning water and absorbing chemicals, which, plants
provide oxygen for us to breathe.
c) Biodiversity allows for ecosystems to adjust to disturbances like extreme fires and
floods. If a reptile species goes extinct, a forest with 20 other reptiles is likely to
adapt better than another forest with only one reptile hence maintaining equilibrium
of organisms.
2. Explain how some organisms are adapted to the environment
a) Fish: these have endoskeleton and are found in water, bodies covered with scales
and swim with fins, breathe with gills and gaseous exchange takes place in water
and reproduces sexually and lay eggs.
b) Insects: these are invertebrates have exoskeleton made of chitin which prevents
them from drying out, reproduce sexually by laying eggs and grow in stages after
moulting, segmented bodies and jointed appendages.
c) Mammals: these are vertebrates with hair or fair on skin, born after internal
fertilization, have mammary glands which produce milk and have different sense
organs.
d) Plants: these are multicellular and are photosynthetic, have cellulose cell wall,
reproduce sexually using seeds while some asexually through spores.
3. Investigate the impact of human activity on organisms
a) Habitat Destruction and Alteration: This is a process in which a natural habitat is
rendered functionally unable to support the species present. In this case the organism
that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed. Habitat destruction by
human activity is mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources, for
industrial production and urbanisation and clearing the forests for agriculture.
Habitat destruction is the main cause of species extinction in the world.
b) Overfishing: Overfishing occurs when more fish are caught than the population can
replace through natural reproduction. Overfishing has serious consequences. The
results not only affect the balance the balance of life in the oceans, but also the social
and economic well-being of the communities who depend on fish for their way of
life.
c) Poaching: Wildlife poaching has negative side effects that affect local communities,
wildlife populations and the environment. A case study is the African elephant which
is endangered. African elephants are the world’s largest terrestrial animals. They

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 have tusks, which are modified incisors that grow throughout their lifetime. The
tusks occur in both males and females and they have several uses.
d) Charcoal Production: Charcoal is a light, black residue that is usually produced by
slowly heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen. Uncontrolled
charcoal production leads to devastating ecological and environmental effects. In
absence of plants there would be no life. Trees are important in several ways trees
regulate the levels of carbon dioxide in the air by carrying photosynthesis and
produces oxygen which animals use for breathing.
4. Describe the economic reasons for maintaining bio-diversity.
a) Source of Food: Biodiversity provides high variety of food. Crops, livestock,
forestry and fish are important food source of human species.
b) Medicinal Purposes: A wide variety of plants, animals and fungi are used as
medicine. People depend on the plant medicines for their primary health care. For
example, quinine which comes from the Cinchona tree has been used to treat malaria.
In traditional medicine some animals are used as drugs.
c) Industrial Application: Industrial products such as oils, lubricants, perfumes,
fragrances, dyes, paper, waxes, rubber, poisons are all derived from various plant
species. Supplies from animals include includes wool, fur, leather all these are useful
to us.
d) Tourism: Biodiversity is a source of economic wealth for many countries. This is
because many people travel far and wide to see wildlife. The places they visit include
parks, reserves, nature trails and forests.

THE END

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