University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad

AGRI-INFORMATICS
(AST-201)

By:
Dr. Ashalatha K. V.
Mr. Anand P
Ms. Megha J
Ms. Jyoti B Bagalkoti

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD –5
 Introduction to Computers
A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data
by performing calculations and operations on it and generates the desired output as a result. It is
often referred to as a data processor because it can store, process and retrieve data whenever
desired.

The word ‘computer’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘computerae’ which means
‘to compute’.

Charles Babbage is known as the ‘father of computer’.

Binary number system
em was suggested by John Von Newman

Generally, computer is the combination of Hardware and Software which converts data into
information. Computer operates on set of instructions only, they cannot think as human being.

The power of computer can be judged iin the following parameters

 Speed - A computer can do billions of actions per second.

 Reliability - A computer can be considered as highly reliable as failures are usually due
to human error, one way or another.
 Storage – A computer can store ample amoun
amount of data.

Functions of a Computer System:

System

Computer is responsible for performing four basic functions

1. Input – Information or data that is entered into a computer is called input. It sends data
and instructions to the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
2. Processing – It is the sequence of actions taken on data to convert it into information
which is meaningful to the user. It can be calculations, comparisons or decisions taken by
the computer.
3. Output – it makes processed data available to the user.
4. Storage – It stores data and programs permanently.
 Table 1.1 Characteristics of computers
Characteristics of computers
Sr.
Characteristics Description
No

An automatic machine works by itself without human intervention.

Computers are automatic machines because once started on a job, they
carry out the job until it is finished. However, computers being
1 Automatic
machines cannot start themselves and cannot go out and find their own
problems and solutions. We need to instruct a computer using coded
instructions that specify exactly how it will do a particular job.

A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in a few seconds, the

amount of work that a human being can do in an entire year. It can
2 Speed
perform several billion (109), even trillion (1012), simple arithmetic
operations per second.

In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. Accuracy of

a computer is consistently high and the degree of its accuracy depends
3 Accuracy
upon its design. A computer performs every calculation with the same
accuracy.

Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and

4 Diligence lack of concentration. It can continuously work for hours without
creating any error and without grumbling.

Versatility is one of the most wonderful things about a computer. One

moment it is preparing results of an examination, next moment it is
5 Versatility busy preparing electricity bills, and in between, it may be helping an
office secretary to trace an important letter in seconds.
It can perform a wide variety of tasks.

It can store huge amount of information and can recall any piece of this
6 Memory
information whenever required.
A computer is not a magical device. It possesses no intelligence of its
7 No I. Q. own. It cannot take its own decisions and has to be instructed what to
do and in what sequence.
They have no feelings and no instincts because they are machines. They
8 No feelings make judgments based on the instructions given to them in the form of
programs that are written by human beings.
 Generations of Computer
A generation refers to the state of improvement in the development of system. Computers
are built of Electromechanical, before generation. Each generation of computer is characterized
by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate.
“Generation” in computer talk provides a framework for the growth of computer industry
based on the key technologies developed. Originally, it was used to distinguish between
hardware technologies but was later extended to include both hardware and software
technologies.
Nowadays, a computer can be used to type documents, send email, play games, and
browse the Web. It can also be used to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even
videos. But the evolution of this complex system started around 1946 with the first Generation of
Computer and evolving ever since.
There are five generations of computers.
1. FIRST GENERATION (1942-1955)
The early computers of the first generation were manufactured using vacuum tubes as
electronic switching device.
A vacuum tube (Fig 1.1) was a fragile glass device using filaments as a source of
electronics and could control and amplify electronic signals. It was the only high-speed
electronic switching device available in those days.These vacuum tube computers could
perform computations in milliseconds.

Fig 1.1 Vacuum tube

Characteristic features of first generation computers are as follows:
1. They were the fastest calculating devices of their time.
2. They were too bulky in size, requiring large rooms for installation.
3. They used thousands of vacuum tubes that emitted large amount of heat and burnt out
frequently. Hence, the rooms/areas in which these computers were located had to be
properly air-conditioned.
4. Each vacuum tube consumed about half a watt of power. Since a computer typically used
more than ten thousand vacuum tubes, power consumption of these computers was very
high.
5. As vacuum tubes used filaments, they had a limited life. Because a computer used thousands
of vacuum tubes, these computers were prone to frequent hardware failures.
6. Due to low mean time between failures, these computers required constant maintenance.
7. In these computers, thousands of individual components were assembled manually by hand
into electronic circuits. Hence, commercial production of these computers was difficult and
costly.
8. Since these computers were difficult to program and use, they had limited commercial use.

Some representative systems of first generation are ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC
I, IBM 701

2. SECOND GENERATION (1955-1964)

John Bardeen, Willian Shockley and Walter Brattain invented a new electronic switching
device called transistor (Fig 1.2) at Bell Laboratories in 1947. Transistors soon proved to be
better electronic switching device than vacuum tubes due to their following properties:
• They were more rugged and easier to handle than tubes since they were made of
germanium semiconductor material rather than glass.
• They were highly reliable as compared to tubes since they had no parts like a
filament that could burn out.
• They could switch much faster (almost ten times faster) than tubes.
• They consumed almost one-tenth the power consumed by a tube.
• They were much smaller than a tube.
• They were less expensive to produce.
• They dissipated much less heat as compared to vacuum tubes.

Second generation computers were manufactured using transistors. They were more
powerful, more reliable, less expensive, smaller and cooler to operate than the first generation
computers.
 Fig 1.2 Transistors

Memory of second generation computers was composed of magnetic cores. Magnetic

cores are small rings made of ferrite that can be magnetized in either clock-wise or anti-
clockwise direction.

In 1957, researchers introduced magnetic tape as a faster and more convenient secondary
storage medium. Later magnetic disk storage was also developed, and magnetic disk and
magnetic tape were the main secondary storage media used in second generation computers.

On software front, high-level programming languages (like FORTRAN, COBOL,

ALGOL and SNOBOL) and batch operating system emerged during second generation.

In addition to scientific computations, business and industry users used second-

generation computers increasingly for commercial data processing applications like payroll,
inventory control, marketing and production planning.

Characteristic features of second generation computers are as follows:

1. They were more than ten times faster than the first-generation computers.
2. They were smaller than first-generation computers and required smaller space.
3. They consumed less power and dissipated less heat than the first-generation
computers. The rooms/areas in which the second-generation computers were located
still required to be air-conditioned.
4. They were more reliable and less prone to hardware failures than the first-generation
computers.
5. They had faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to first-
generation computers.
6. They were easier to program and use than the first-generation computers. Hence, they
had wider commercial use.
7. In these computers, thousands of individual transistors had to be assembled manually
by hand into electronic circuits making commercial production of these computers
difficult and costly.
 Some representative systems of second generation are Honeywell 400, IBM 7030, CDC
164, UNIVAC LARC

3. THIRD GENERATION (1964-1975)

In 1958, Jack St. Clair Kilby and Noyce invented the first integrated circuit.
Integrated circuits (called ICs)are circuits consisting of several electronic components like
transistors, resistors and capacitors grown on a single chip of silicon eliminating wired
interconnection between components. IC technology was also known as “microelectronics”
technology because it made it possible to integrate larger number of circuit components into
very small (less than 5 mm square) surface of silicon, known as “chip” (Fig 1.3).
Third generation computers were manufactured using ICs.

Fig 1.3 Integrated Circuit

Parallel advancements in storage technologies allowed construction of larger magnetic

core based random access memory as well as larger capacity magnetic disks and tapes.
Hence, third generation computers typically had few megabytes (less than 5 Megabytes) of
main memory and magnetic disks capable of storing few tens of megabytes of data per disk
drive.
On software front, standardization of high-level programming languages,
timesharing operating systems, unbundling of software from hardware, and creation of an
independent software industry happened during third generation. FORTRAN and COBOL
were the most popular high-level programming languages in those days. American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) standardized tem in 1966 and 1968 respectively, and the
standardized versions were called ANSI FORTRAN and ANSI COBOL.

Characteristic features of third generation computers are as follows:

1. They were more powerful than second-generation computers. They were capable of
performing about 1 million instructions per second
2. They were smaller than second-generation computers requiring smaller space.
3. They consumed less power and dissipated less heat than second-generation
computers. The rooms/areas in which third-generation computers were located still
required to be properly air-conditioned.
 4. They were more reliable and less prone to hardware failures than second-generation
computers requiring lower maintenance cost.
5. They had faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to second-
generation computers.
6. They were general-purpose machines suitable for both scientific and commercial
applications.
7. Their manufacturing did not require manual assembly of individual components into
electronic circuits resulting in reduced human labor and cost involved at assembly
stage.
8. Standardization of high level programming languages allowed programs written for
one computer to e easily ported to and executed on another computer.
9. Timesharing operating system allowed interactive usage and simultaneous use of
these systems by multiple users.
10. Timesharing operating system helped in drastically improving the productivity of
programmers cutting down the time and cost of program development by several fold.
11. Timesharing operating system also made on-line systems feasible resulting in usage
of these systems for new on-line applications.
12. Unbundling of software from hardware gave users of these systems an opportunity to
invest only in software of their need and value.
13. Minicomputers of third-generation made computers affordable even by smaller
companies.

Some representative systems of third generation are IBM 360/370, PDP-8, PDP-11,
CDC 6600

4. FOURTH GENERATION (1975-1989)

Average number of electronic components packed on a silicon chip each year after
1965. This progress soon led to the ear of large scale integration (LSI) when it was possible
to integrate over 30,000 electronic components on a single chip, followed by very-large-
scale integration (VLSI) when it was possible to integrate about one million electronic
components on a single chip. This progress led to a dramatic development – creation of a
microprocessor. A microprocessor contains all circuits needed to perform arithmetic logic
and control functions, the core activities of all computers, on a single chip.
 Fig 1.4 Microprocessor

During fourth generation, semiconductor memories replaced magnetic core

memories resulting in large random access memories with very fast access time. Hard disks
became cheaper, smaller and larger in capacity. In addition to magnetic tapes, floppy disks
became popular as a portable medium for porting programs and data from one computer
system to another.
High-speed computer networking also developed during fourth-generation. This
enabled interconnection of multiple computers for communication and sharing of data
among them. Local area networks (LANs) became popular for connecting computers within
an organization or within a campus. Similarly, wide area networks (WANs) became popular
for connecting computers located at larger distances. This gave rise to network of computers
and distributed systems.
On software front, several new developments emerged to match the new technologies of
fourth generation. For example, vendors developed several new operating systems for PCs.
Notable ones among these were MS-DOS, MS-Windows and Apple’s propriety Mac OS.
Some other software technologies that became popular during fourth-generation are C
programming language, object-oriented software design and object-oriented programming.

Characteristic features of fourth generation computers are as follows:

1. PCs were smaller and cheaper than mainframes or minicomputers of third generation.
2. Although the fourth-generation mainframes and supercomputers required proper air-
conditioning of the rooms/areas in which they were located, no air-conditioning was
required for PCs.
3. They consumed less power than third generation computers.
4. They were more reliable and less prone to hardware failures than third generation
computers requiring negligible maintenance cost.
5. They had faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to third
generation computers.
6. They were general purpose machines
7. Their manufacturing did not require manual assembly of individual components into
electronic circuits resulting in reduced human labor and cost involved at assembly stage.
8. Use of standard high-level programming languages allowed programs written for one
computer to be easily ported to and executed on another computer.
 9. Graphical user interface (GUI) enabled new users to quickly learn how to use
computers.
10. PC-based applications made PCs a powerful tool for both office and home usage.
11. Network of computers enabled sharing of resources like disks, printers etc. among
multiple computers and their users.

Some representative systems of fourth generation are IBM PC and its clones, Apple II,
TRS-80, VAX 9000, CRAY-1, CRAY-2, CRAY-X/MP

5. FIFTH GENERATION (1989-Present)

The trend of further miniaturization of electronic components, dramatic increase
in power of microprocessor chips and increase in capacity of main memory and hard disk
continued during fifth generation.VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra-Large-Scale
Integration) technology in fifth generation resulting in production of microprocessor chips
having ten million electronic components. In fact, the speed of microprocessors and the size
of main memory and hard disk doubled almost every eighteen months. Processor
manufacturers started building multicore processor chips instead of increasingly powerful
(faster) single-core processor chips.
Storage technology also advanced making larger main memory and disk storage
available in newly introduced systems. Currently, PCs having few Gigabytes (GB) of main
memory and 80 to 320 Gigabytes (GB) of hard disk capacity are common. During fifth
generation, optical disks (popularly known as Compact Disks or CDs) emerged as popular
portable mass storage media.
During fifth generation, the Internet emerged with associated technologies and
applications. It made it possible for computer users sitting across the globe to communicate
with each other within minutes by use of electronic mail (known as e-mail) facility. A vast
ocean of information became readily available to computer users through the World Wide
Web (known as WWW). Moreover, several new types of exciting applications like electronic
commerce, virtual classrooms, distance education etc. emerged during the period.
In the area of programming languages, concepts that gained popularity during
fifth generation are JAVA programming language and parallel programming libraries like
MPI (Message Passing Interface) and PVM (Parallel Virtual Machine). JAVA is used
primarily on the World Wide Web.

Characteristic features of fifth generation computers are as follows:

1. Portable PCs (called notebook computers) are much smaller and handy than PCs of
fourth generation allowing users to use computing facility even while travelling.
2. Fifth generation desktop PCs and workstations are several times more powerful than
PCs of fourth generation.
 3. Although firth generation mainframes and supercomputers require proper air-
conditioning of the rooms/areas in which they are located, no air-conditioning is
normally required for notebook computers, desktop PCs and workstations.
4. They consume less power than their predecessors do.
5. They are more reliable and less prone to hardware failures than their predecessors were,
requiring negligible maintenance cost.
6. They have faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to their
predecessors
7. They are general purpose machines
8. Use of standard high-level programming languages allows programs written for one
computer to be easily ported to and executed on another computer.
9. More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features make the systems easier to learn
and use by anyone, including children.
10. With so many types of computers in all price ranges today, we have a computer for
almost any type of user whether the user is a child or a world-fame scientist.

Some representative systems of fifth generation are IBM Notebooks, Pentium PCs,
SUN Workstations, IBM SP/2, SGI Origin 2000, PARAM Supercomputers.

Answer the following questions:

1. What is a computer? Why it is also known as data processor?
2. List the abbreviations related to computers (More than 30).
3. List and explain important characteristics of a computer.
4. What are the functions of a computer?
5. What is “generation” in computer terminology? List various computergenerations along
with key characteristics of computers of each generation.
 II. Classification of Computer
Based on Size Based on Work
1. Microcomputer
1. Analog Computer
2. Mainframe computer
2. Digital Computer
3. Minicomputer
3. Hybrid Computer
4. Supercomputer
Based on Size

1. Microcomputer:
Microcomputers are the least powerful, yet the most widely used and fastest growing type
of computers and are also called portable computers.Microcomputer consists of three basic
categories of physical equipment i.e system unit, input/output and memory.

Some types of microcomputers are

Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC) - These are small, relatively inexpensive
computers. These are based on the microprocessor technology (Integrated Circuit).

Notebook - Notebook computers, also known as ultra book or laptop, are portable
lightweight and fit into most briefcases. They include rechargeable battery, so these can work
anywhere.

Handheld Computers or Palmtops – These are the smallest and are designed to fit into the
palm. So, these are also known as Palmtop. They are practical for certain functions such as
phone books and calendars. They use the pen for input instead of keyboard.

Tablet Computer – They have key features of the notebook computer, but it can accept
input from a pen instead of the keyboard or mouse.

SmartPhones – Smart phones are cellular phones that function both as a phone and as a
small PC. They may use a pen or may have a small keyboard. They can be connected to the
internet wirelessly. Apple, Blackberry, Motorola, Samsung etc are some manufacturers of
smart phones.

2. Mainframe Computer:

Mainframe computers are those having large internal memory storage and comprehensive
range of software. They serves as a backbone for the entire business world. It is considered as the
heart of a network of computers or terminals that allows a large number of people to work at the
same time. Mainframe computers are IBM-370, IBM-S/390, and UNIVAC-1110.
3. Minicomputer:

Minicomputers are smaller in size, faster, cost lower than mainframe computers. Initially,
the minicomputer was designed to carry out some specific tasks, like engineering and Computer
Aided Design (CAD) calculations. But now, they are being used as central computer which is
called as Server.Mini computers are IBM-17, DEC PDP-11, HP-9000, etc.

4. Super Computer:

Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have high
processing speed compared to other computers. The speeds of supercomputers are measured in
FLOPS (Floating Point Operations Per Second).

These computers are used for highly calculation intensive tasks, such as weather
forecasting, nuclear research, military agencies and scientific research laboratories.

Super computers are most powerful, large in size and memory, compared to all other
computers.

PARAM was the first supercomputer developed in India in 1990. It is a series of

gigaflops, assembled by C-DAC in Pune.

ASHOKA-Advanced Supercomputing Hub for OMICS Knowledge in Agriculture

developed under National Agricultural Bioinformatics Grid in ICAR-IASRI (Indian
Agricultural Statistics Research Institute), New Delhi ( In order to access ASHOKA Bio-
computing Portal/Resources, The user can visit through URL:
http://webapp.cabgrid.res.in/biocomp or via IASRIwebsite (http://iasri.res.in/) and CABinwebsite
(http://cabgrid.res.in/cabin/).

Table 1.2List of world’s fastest supercomputers.

Year Supercomputer Peak Speed (Rmax) Location
2018 IBM Summit 122.3 PFLOPS Oak Ridge, U.S.
2016 Sunway TaihuLight 93.01 PFLOPS Wuxi, China
2013 NUDT Tianhe-2 33.86 PFLOPS Guangzhou, China
2012 Cray Titan 17.59 PFLOPS Oak Ridge, U.S.
2012 IBM Sequoia 17.17 PFLOPS Livermore, U.S.
2011 Fujitsu K Computer 10.51 PFLOPS Kobe, Japan
2010 Tianhe-IA 2.566 PFLOPS Tianjin, China
 Fig 1.5 Supercomputers

Based on Working System

On the basis of work, computers are categorized as follows

1. Analog Computer
An analog computer or analogue computer is a type of computer that uses the
continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical,
or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital
computers represent varying quantities symbolically and by discrete values of both time and
amplitude.
Analog computers are the job-oriented computers. They carry out arithmetic and logical
operations by manipulating and processing of data. e.g., speedometers, seismograph etc.

Fig 1.6 Analog Computers

2. Digital Computer
Digital Computers, any class of devices capable of solving problems by
processing information in discrete form. It operates on data, including magnitudes, letters,
 and symbols, that are expressed in binary code—i.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1. By
counting, comparing, and manipulating these digits or their combinations according to a set
of instructions held in its memory.

Digital Computers work by calculating the binary digits. A digital computer, not only
performs mathematical problems, but also combines the bytes to produce desired graphics,
sounds.

Digital computer is a computer machine which is both an electronic computer and a digital
computer. Examples of digital electronic computers include the IBM PC, Apple
Macintosh as well as modern smartphones.

Fig 1.7 Digital Computers

3. Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computers are the combination of analog and digital computers.
Hybrid computer is a digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to
digital and processes them in digital form.
Machines used in hospitals like ECG and DIALYSIS are the commonly used hybrid
computers.
Devices used in petrol pump and Gas Pump Station (where measurement of gas by
analog system, and displaying such calculation by digital system (computer)).

Answer the following questions:

1. What is personal computer? What are its main uses?
2. What is the main difference between a supercomputer and mainframe system?
3. What is a supercomputer? What are its main uses?
4. What is the main difference between Analog computer and Digital computer?
5. How Smart Phones are used as small PC?
6. Write short note on PARAM.
7. Write short note on ASHOKA.
Basic Computer Organization
Even though the size, shape, performance, reliability and cost of computers have been
changing over the years, the basic logical structure (based on the stored program concept) has not
changed.
Computer is a system, because a system is a group of integrated parts that have a
common purpose of achieving some objectives, hence the name as system.
There are five functional units corresponds to the five basic operations performed by all
the computer systems. Functions of each of these units are described below.

1) Input Unit:
Data and instructions must enter a computer system before the computer can perform any
computation on the supplied data. The input unit that links a computer with its external
environment performs this task. Data and instructions enter a computer through an input unit
in a form that depends upon the input device used.
 It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside world.
 It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form. Units called input
interfaces accomplish this task.
 It supplies the converted instructions and data to the storage unit for storage and further
processing.
Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Touch Screen, Joystick, Electronic Card Reader,
Biometric System, Electronic Pen, Optical Mark Reader (OMR), Bar Code Reader, Micro
phone, Digital Camera.

Fig 1.8Basic organization of a computer system

2) Output Unit:
An output unit performs the reverse operation of that of an input unit. It supplies
information obtained from data processing to outside world. Hence, it links a computer with
its external environment.
 It accepts the produced results, which are in coded form. We cannot understand the coded
results easily.
 It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form. Units called output
interfaces accomplish this task.
 It supplies the converted results to outside world.

Examples: Monitor, Printers, Projector, Speakers, ATM, Automatic answering telephone

enquiries and Drum Plotter.

3) Central Processing Unit:

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of a computer system. In a human
body, the brain takes all major decisions and other parts of the body function as directed by
the brain. The CPU is responsible for activating and controlling the operations of the other
units of the computer system.

a) Memory Unit:
This is also known as Primary Memory. This unit stores the data received from
the input unit. It is a temporary memory and works so long as the power is on. The results
of the processed data are stored in this unit.

b) Arithmetic Logic Unit:

The calculations and comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU. Data and
instructions stored in primary storage before processing which are transferred as and
when needed to the ALU where processing takes place.
ALU’s performs arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply and divide) and
logic operations such as less than, equal to, and greater than.

c) Control Unit:
The control unit acts as a central nervous system for other components of a
computer system. It manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It obtains
necessary instructions from main memory, identifying the storage locations, transferring
data to the output units etc.

Note: Input and output devices are also known as peripheral devices because they surround a
computer’s CPU and memory.
Booting
Starting a computer or a computer-embedded device is called booting. Booting takes
place in two steps −
• Switching on power supply
• Loading operating system into computer’s main memory
• Keeping all applications in a state of readiness in case needed by the user
The first program or set of instructions that run when the computer is switched on is
called BIOS or Basic Input Output System. BIOS is a firmware, i.e. a piece of software
permanently programmed into the hardware.
If a system is already running but needs to be restarted, it is called rebooting. Rebooting
may be required if a software or hardware has been installed or system is unusually slow.
There are two types of booting −
• Cold Booting − When the system is started by switching on the power supply it is called
cold booting. The next step in cold booting is loading of BIOS.It is only switching OFF
the system and after some time again switching ON.
• Warm Booting − When the system is already running and needs to be restarted or
rebooted, it is called warm booting. Warm booting is faster than cold booting because
BIOS is not reloaded.It is carried out by pressing the following keys CTRL + ALT +
DELETE simultaneously.

Answer the following questions:

1. Draw a block diagram to illustrate basic organization of a computer system.
2. Explain the functions of various input units with examples.
3. Explain the functions of various output units with examples.
4. What is BIOS and what are its functions?
5. What is booting? Explain the types of booting
6. What are the two main components of CPU of a computer system? List the main functionsof
each component.
 Anatomy of Computers
A computer can accept input, process or store data, and produce output according to a set
of instructions which are fed into it. A computer system can be divided into two components
which are responsible for providing the mechanisms to input and output data, to manipulate and
process data, and to electronically control the various input, output, and their storage. They are
known as hardware and software. The hardware is the tangible parts of the computer. Whereas,
the software is the intangible set of instructions that control the hardware and make it perform
specific tasks. Without software, a computer is effectively useless.

1. Hardware
Hardware is the physical components of a computer that includes all mechanical,
electrical, electronic and magnetic parts attached to it. A computer consists of the following
major hardware components:

• Input and output devices

• Central processing unit (CPU)
• Memory unit and storage devices
• Interface unit

A brief description of the most common hardware found in a personal computer is given
in the next few sections.

Input devices
The data and instructions are typed, submitted, or transmitted to a computer through input
devices. Input devices are electronic or electro-mechanical equipment that provide a means of
communicating with the computer system for feeding input data and instructions. Most common
input devices are briefly described below.
Keyboard:
Keyboard is like a type-writer. A keyboard, normally, consists of 104 keys. These keys
are classified into different categories which are briefly described below.

Character keys -These keys include letters, numbers, and punctuation marks. On pressing any
character key, the corresponding character is displayed on the screen.

Function keys - There are 12 functional keys above the key board which are used to perform
certain functions depending on the operating system or the software currently being executed.
These keys are placed at the top of the key board and can easily be identified with the letter F
followed by a number ranging from 1 to 12.
 Table 1.3 Function Keys
Function Keys Function
F1 To view Help menu
F2 To Rename selected item
F3 To Search for a file or folder
F5 To Refresh the active window

Control keys - Alt, Ctrl, Shift, Insert, Delete, Home, End, PgUp, PgDn, Esc and Arrow keys are
control keys.
Table 1.4 Control Keys
Command keys Use
Display or hide the Start menu
Esc To negate the current command
Tab To advance the text cursor to the next user defined tab stop
Caps lock If it is pressed, the status light under ‘Caps Lock’ lights up.
Then upper case letters are produced. The numbers and
symbols are unaltered.
Shift To produce upper case letters and the upper symbols shown
on the keys.`
Ctrl These two keys are pressed in combination with other keys
Alt to initiate commands specified by the software.
Backspace To delete the character one position left
To view the folder one level up in My Computer or
Windows Explorer.
Enter To do action/to open

Navigation keys - These include four arrows, Page Up and Page Down, Home and End. These
keys are normally used to navigate around a document or screen.

Toggle keys - Scroll Lock, Num lock, Caps Lock are three toggle keys. The toggle state is
indicated by three LEDs at the right-top side of the keyboard. For example, on pressing caps
lock, letters typed by the user will appear in upper case. On pressing again, letters are typed on
the screen in lower case.

Miscellaneous keys - These keys include Insert, delete, escape, print Screen etc. The keys on the
keyboard are placed in a series of rows and columns called the key matrix. Each key holds a
position with respect to a row and column. When a key is pressed, the key switch in that position
closes a circuit, sending a signal to the circuit board inside the keyboard. The keyboard controller
uses the x and y coordinates of the matrix position to determine which key was pressed, thereby
determining what code is transmitted to the computer by the keyboard.
Mouse :
A mouse is the pointing device attached to a computer. It is used to move the cursor
around the screen and to point to an object (such as icon, menu, command button etc.) It has two
or three buttons for clicking. The mouse tracks the motion of the mouse pointer and senses the
clicks and sends them to the computer so it can respond appropriately. The mouse can be
connected to the system either through a USB connector or wirelessly through infrared radiation.
A wireless mouse needs to be powered through batteries.

Scanner:
A scanner is a device that captures pictures or documents so that they can be stored in
storage devices, seen on the video screen, modified suitably, transported to other computers, or
printed on a printer. A personal computer with a scanner and printer can function as a
photocopier.

Output devices
Output devices mirror the input data, or show the output results of the operations on the
input data or print the data. The most common output device is monitor or visual display unit.
The printer is used to print the result. A hard copy refers to a printout showing the information.
On the other hand soft copy means information stored on a storage device.

Monitor :
Computer display devices are commonly known as Visual Display Unit (VDU) or
monitor. It operates on a principle similar to that of a normal television set. Various technologies
have been used for computer monitors. They are also of different sizes. CRT (Cathode-ray tube)
and LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors are the two common types which are widely used.

Printer :
The printer is a device that prints any data, report, document, picture, diagrams, etc.
Printers are categorized based on the physical contact of the print head with the paper to produce
a text or an image. An impact printer is one where the print head will be in physical contact with
the paper. In a non–impact printer, on the other hand the print head will have no physical contact
with the paper.
The Dot matrix printer is considered as an Impact printer and Laser printer is considered
as Non-impact printer. In a dot matrix printer, the printer head physically ‘hits’ the paper
through the ribbon which makes the speed of the printer relatively slow. The printer head consist
of some two dimensional array of dot called ‘dot matrix’. Every time when it strikes the paper
through ribbon its dots are arranged according to the character which is going to be printed. The
ink in the ribbon falls on the surface of the paper and thus the character get printed.
In inkjet printer, instead of a ribbon one ink cartridge holds the ink in it. They are placed
above the inkjet head. The printing head takes some ink from the cartridge and spreads it on the
surface of the paper by the jet head. This ink is electrically charged. An electric field is created
near the paper surface. Thus the small drops of ink are arranged in the surface according to the
character it prints. These printers are fast and capable of printing good quality graphics.
The laser printer uses a laser beam to create the image.

Memory unit
Components such as the input device, output device, and CPU are not sufficient for the
working of a computer. A storage area is needed in a computer to store instructions and data,
either temporarily or permanently, so that subsequent retrieval of the instructions and data can be
possible on demand.

Data are stored in memory as binary digits, called bits. Data of various types, such as
numbers, characters, are encoded as series of bits and stored in consecutive memory locations.
Each memory location comprises of a single byte which is equal to eight bits and has a unique
address so that the contents of the desired memory locations can be accessed independently by
referring to its’ address. There are mainly two types of memory that are used in a computer
system. One is called primary memory and the other secondary memory.

Primary memory
Primary memory is the area where data and programs are stored while the program is
being executed along with the data. This memory space, also known as main memory, forms the
working area of the program. This memory is accessed directly by the processor.
These type are called Random Access Memory, or RAM, where any location can be
accessed directly, and its stored contents get destroyed the moment power to this module is
switched off. Hence, these are volatile in nature. Primary memory devices are expensive. They
are limited in size, consume very low power, and are faster as compared to secondary memory
devices.
There is another kind of primary memory increasingly being used in modern computers.
It is called cache memory (pronounced as “cash”). It is a type of high speed memory that allows
the processor to access data more rapidly than from memory located elsewhere on the system. It
stores or caches some of the contents of the main memory that is currently in use by the
processor. It takes a fraction of the time, compared to main memory, to access cache memory.

Secondary memory
Secondary memory provides large, non-volatile, and inexpensive storage for programs
and data. However, the access time in secondary memory is much larger than in primary
memory. Secondary storage permits the storage of computer instructions and data for long
periods of time. Moreover, secondary memory, which is also known as auxiliary memory, stores
a huge number of data bytes at a lesser cost than primary memory devices.
Note:

 The memory unit is composed of an ordered sequence of storage cells, each capable of
storing one byte of data. Each memory cell has a distinct address which is used to refer
while storing data into it or retrieving data from it.

 Both RAM and cache memory are referred to as primary memory. Primary memory is
comparatively expensive, and loses all its data when the power is turned off. Secondary
memory provides less expensive storage that is used to store data and instructions on a
permanent basis.

 The motherboard is a printed circuit board which contains the circuitry and connections
that allow the various components of the computer system to communicate with each
other. In most computer systems, the CPU, memory, and other major components are
mounted to wiring on the motherboard.

 The input, output, and storage equipment that might be added to a computer system to
enhance its functionality are known as peripheral devices. Popular peripheral devices
include printers, digital cameras, scanners, joysticks, and speakers.

2. Software
Software provides the instructions that tell the hardware exactly what is to be performed
and in what order. This set of instructions is sequenced and organized in a computer program.
Therefore, a program is a series of instructions which is intended to direct a computer to
perform certain functions and is executed by the processor.
In a broader sense, software can be described as a set of related programs. But software
is more than a collection of programs. It refers to a set of computer programs, which provide
desired functions and performance, the data which the programs use, data structures that
facilitate the programs to efficiently manipulate data and documents that describe the operation
and use of the programs.
Nowadays, most of the software must be installed prior to their use. Installation involves
copying several files to computer memory or requires a series of steps and configurations
depending on the operating system and the software itself so that it can be run or executed when
required. Software is generally categorized as system software or application software or utility
software.

System software
System software is designed to facilitate and coordinate the use of the computer by
making hardware operational. It interacts with the computer system at low level. Examples of
such software include language translator, operating system, loader, linker, etc. However, the
most important system software is the operating system which is a set of programs designed to
control the input and output operations of the computer, provide communication interface to the
user, and manage the resources of the computer system, such as memory, processor,
input/output devices etc. and schedule their operations with minimum manual intervention.
The loader is the system software which copies a executable program from secondary
storage device into main memory and prepares this program for execution and initializes the
execution. Hardware devices, other than the CPU and main memory, have to be registered with
the operating system by providing a software, known as device driver, for communication
between the device and other parts of the computer. This type of system software is used by
printers, monitors, graphics cards, sound cards, network cards, modems, storage devices,
mouse, scanners, etc.
Application software
Application software is designed to perform specific usages of the users. Microsoft
Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Power Point, Microsoft Access, Page Maker, Coral Draw,
Photoshop, Tally, AutoCAD, Acrobat, WinAmp, Micro Media Flash, iLeap, Xing MP3 Player
etc. are some of the examples of application software. There are two categories of application
software, custom software and pre-written software packages.
Software that is developed for a specific user or organization in accordance with the
user’s needs is known as custom software. A pre-written software package is bought off the
shelf and has predefined generic specifications that may or may not cater to any specific user’s
requirements.
The most important categories of software packages available are as follows:

• Database management software, e.g. Oracle, DB2, Microsoft SQL server, etc.
• Spreadsheet software, e.g. Microsoft Excel.
• Word processing, e.g. Microsoft Word, Corel Wordperfect and desktop publishing (DTP)
• Graphics software, e.g. Corel Draw.
• Statistical software, e.g. SPSS, SAS and R

Answer the following questions:

1.Explain the differences between impact printers and non-impact printers.

2. Explain the different types of Keys in Keyboard with neat labeled diagram.
3.List the different input and output devices of a computer system.
4. Explain the differences between primary and secondary memory.
5. Explain System software and Application software with examples.
 Memory of the Computer
Memory or storage capacity is one of the important components of a computer. Any storage
unit of a computer system is classified on the basis of Access time, Storage capacity and Cost per
bit of storage.

Units of memory:
The computer stores a character in the storage cells with binary (0,1) mechanism. Thus
the basic unit of memory is a bit (binary digit - 0, 1). To store a character, a computer requires 8
bits. This is called the word length of the storage unit. Hence the storage capacity of the
computer is measured in the number of words it can store and is expressed in terms of bytes.
Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage
capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

Table 1.5The main memory storage units

Sr.
Unit and Description
No
Bit (Binary Digit): A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an
1
active state of a component in an electric circuit.

2 Nibble: A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte: A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent
3
a data item or a character.

Table 1.6The different units of measurement

8 Bits = 1 Byte
1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Byte (KB)
1024 Kilo Bytes = 1 Mega Byte (MB)
1024 Mega Bytes = 1 Gega Byte (GB)
1024 Gega Bytes = 1 Terra Byte (TB)
1024 Terra Byte = 1 Peta Byte (PB)

Types of computer memory

Two types
1) Primary Memory (Internal storage)
2) Secondary Memory ( External storage)

1) Primary Memory:
 Primary memory is also called internal memory. It is the main area in a computer where the
data is stored. The stored data can be recalled instantly whenever desired. This memory can be
quickly accessed by the CPU for reading or storing the information.

Physically, this memory consists of some integrated circuit (IC) chips on the motherboard
(Mother board is a largest electric board in the computer on which all the circuits and
components are fixed and it is referred as the backbone of the entire system).

The primary memory has two sub components namely ROM and RAM.

Read Only Memory (ROM):

It contains all the basic instructions required to start the computer.The data can only be
read. The user can not modify the contents of ROM. When the power is off, the contents of
ROM are not lost hence it is a non volatile memory.

Random Access Memory (RAM):

It stores all the data, programs and intermediate results. The data can be read and write. It
is the working area for the user. When the power is off, the contents of RAM are lost hence it is a
Volatile Memory.

2) Secondary memory:

The primary memory which is faster (and hence expensive) is generally not sufficient for
large storage of data. As a result, additional memory, called the auxiliary or secondary memory
or external memory is used. It is also referred as backup storage as it is used to store large
volume of data on a permanent basis which can be transferred to the primary memory whenever
required for the processing. Some of the secondary storage devices are Magnetic tape, Floppy
Disk, Hard Disk, CD, DVD, Pen drive and memory card.

Secondary Storage Devices

a) Magnetic tape: The information can be retrieved in the same sequence only in which it is
stored. It can be erased and reused many times.
b) Floppy Disk: It is a flat, circular piece of flexible plastic coated with magnetic oxide. It is
encased in a square plastic or vinyl jacket cover. A floppy disk drive is a device used to
read/write data from/to a floppy disk. Its storage capacity is 1.4 MB.
c) Hard Disks: Hard disks are the made of rigid metal platters. Available storage capacities are
up to 1 Terra Byte.
d) CD (Compact Disk): It is known as laser disks because they use laser beam technology. Its
storage capacity is 700 MB’s.
 1) CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory): As the name implies, data can be
read only. That is, these disks come pre-recorded and information stored on them cannot
be altered.
2) CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable) or CD-WORM (Write Once Read Many): As the
name implies, data can be written only once on a disk and can be read many times and
cannot alter the information.
3) CD- RW (Compact Disk - Read/write): As the name implies, data can be Read or write
many times.

e) DVD (Digital video Disk or Digital versatile Disk): It is known as laser disks because they
use laser beam technology. DVD was designed to distribute movies. Its storage capacity is
4.7 GB. DVD also has many types as in the case of CD’s such as DVD-ROM, DVD-R
(DVD-WORM) and DVD-RW.
f) Pen Drive: It is a compact device of the size of a pen, comes in various shapes and stylish
designs and may have different added features (such as with a camera, with a built-in MP3/
FM Radio play back for music on the go, etc.). It enables easy transport of data from one
computer to another. It is a plug-and-play device that simply plugs into a Universal Serial
Bus (USB) port of a computer. Available storage capacities are up to 64GB.
g) Memory Card: The memory cards are used in various types of digital devices such as cell
phone and digital camera. The photographs taken by a cell phone and digital camera can be
transferred to a computer for storage or editing. Available storage capacities are up to 64GB.

Note:

PROM: There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable
Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs
stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip. Once the
programmes are written it cannot be changed and remain intact even if power is switched off.
Therefore programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed.

EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which overcome the
problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the
information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time
ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When
the EPROM is in use information can only be read.

Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main
memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory.
To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU
and Main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called
CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is
used to store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by
the CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger than it really is. It is also
very expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size is normally kept small.

Answer the following questions:

1. Differentiate between ROM and RAM
2. Write short note on Volatile and Non volatile memory
3. Write the full form of KB, RAM, ROM, MB, TB, CD, DVD, USB, PROM, and
EPROM
4. Differentiate among a bit, a byte and a word.
 Operating Systems

Operating system (often referred to as OS) is an integrated set of programs that controls
the resources (CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc) of a computer system and provides its users with
an interface or virtual machine that is easier to use than the bare machine.
According to this definition, the two primary objectives of an operating system are:

Make a computer system easier to use

Manage the resources of a computer system

Main functions of an operating system

 Process Management: A process is a program in execution. Process management
module takes care of creation and deletion of processes, scheduling of system resources
to different processes requesting them, and providing mechanisms for synchronization
and communication among processes.
 Memory Management: To execute a program, it must be loaded in main memory (at
least partially), together with the data it accesses. Memory management module takes
care of allocation and de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of this
resource.
 File Management: All computer systems store, retrieve, and share information.
Normally, a computer stores such information in units called files. File management
module takes care of file-related activities such as organization, storage, retrieval, naming
sharing and protection of files.
 Device Management: Normally, a computer system consists of several I/O devices such
as terminal, printer, disk and tape. The device management module of an operating
system controls all I/O devices. It keeps track of I/O requests from processes, issues
commands to I/O devices and ensures correct data transmission to/from an I/O device.
 Security:Computer systems often store large amount of information, some of which are
highly sensitive and valuable to their users. Security module protects the resources and
information of a computer system against destruction and unauthorized access.
 Command interpretation: For using various system resources, a user communicates
with the operating system via a set of commands provided by it. Command interpretation
module interprets user commands and directs system resources to process the commands.

Note:

Uniprogramming : A uniprogramming system processes only one job at a time, and all
system resources are available exclusively for the job until its completion.

Multiprogramming : It is interleaved execution of two or more different and
independent programs by a computer. (multiple users can use such a system
simultaneously, such as a mainframe system or a server class system)

Multitasking : It is interleaved execution of multiple jobs (often referred to as tasks of
same user) in a single user system.(only one user uses such a system at a time, such as a
personal computer or a notebook computer)

Multiprocessing : It is simultaneous execution of two or more processes by a computer
system having more than one CPU.

Some Popular Operating Systems

Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows has existed in one form or another since 1985, and it remains the
most popular operating system for home and office computers. Its latest versions, including
Windows 10 are also used on some tablets, and the OS is used on some web and number-
crunching server computers as well. Computers from a wide variety of manufacturers can use
Windows.
Initial versions of Windows worked with an earlier Microsoft operating system called
MS-DOS, providing a modern graphical interface on top of DOS's traditional text-based
commands. Signature features of Microsoft Windows's user interface include windows
themselves – rectangle-shaped, on-panel screens that represent individual applications. The
Windows Start menu has helped generations of users find programs and files on their devices.
Efforts to use versions of the Windows OS for smartphones have been less successful.
Main features of Microsoft Windows are as follows:
Its native interface is a GUI. Hence, for a new user it is easier to learn and use a computer
system.
Microsoft Windows is not just an operating system, but also a complete operating
environment. That is, all its programs conform to a standard way of working.
It is a single user, multitasking operating system. That is, a user may run more than one
program at a time.

Apple iOS
Apple's iOS is one of the most popular smartphone operating systems, second only to
Android. It runs on Apple hardware, including iPhones, iPad tablets and iPod Touch media
players.
Signature features of iOS include the App Store where users buy apps and download free
software, an emphasis on security including strong encryption to limit what unauthorized users
can extract from the phone, and a simple, streamlined interface with minimal hardware buttons.
Google's Android OS
Android is the most popular operating system in the world judging by the number of
devices installed. Largely developed by Google, it's chiefly used on smartphones and tablets.
Unlike iOS, it can be used on devices made by a variety of different manufacturers, and those
makers can tweak parts of its interface to suit their own needs.
Users can download custom versions of the operating system because large portions of it
are open source, meaning anyone can legally modify it and publish their own. However, most
people prefer to stick with the version that comes on their devices.
Android, like iOS, comes with an application and media store called the Play Store built
by Google. Some phone manufacturers and other organizations also offer their own stores to
install software and media.
Table 1.7Android versions history
Version Numbers Code Name Initial Release Date
Android 4.1 to 4.3.1 Android Jelly Bean July 9, 2012
Android 4.4 to 4.4.4 Android Kitkat Oct 31, 2013
Android 5.0 to 5.1.1 Android Lollipop Nov 12, 2014
Android 6.0 to 6.0.1 Android Marshmallow Oct 5, 2015
Android 7.0 to 7.1 Android Nougat Aug 22, 2016
Android 8.0 to 8.1 Android Oreo Aug 21, 2017
Android 9.0 Android Pie Aug 6, 2018
Android 10.0 Android 10 Sep 3, 2019

Apple macOS
Apple's macOS, successor to the popular OS X operating system, runs on Apple laptops
and desktops. Based in part on the historic family of Unix operating systems dating back to
research in the 1960s at AT&T's Bell Labs, macOS shares some features with other Unix-related
operating systems including Linux. While the graphical interfaces are different, many of the
underlying programming interfaces and command line features are the same.
Signature elements of macOS include the dock used to find programs and frequently used
files, unique keyboard keys including the Command key, and the stoplight-colored buttons used
to resize open program windows. MacOS is known for its user-friendly features, which include
Siri, a natural-voice personal assistant, and FaceTime, Apple's video-calling application.

Answer the following questions:

1. What is an operating system? Why it is necessary for a computer system?
2. Write various functions performed normally by as operating system.
3. Write short note on Windows OS
4. Write short note on Operating Systems used in mobile phones
 Microsoft Office
Microsoft Office, or simply Office, is a family of client software, server software, and
services developed by Microsoft. It was first announced by Bill Gates on August 1, 1988,
at COMDEX in Las Vegas. Initially a marketing term for an office suite (bundled set of
productivity applications), the first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft
Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially
closer with shared features such as a common spell checker, OLE data integration and Visual
Basic for Applications scripting language. Microsoft also positions Office as a development
platform for line-of-business software under the Office Business Applications brand. On July 10,
2012, Softpedia reported that Office was being used by over a billion people worldwide.
Office is produced in several versions targeted towards different end-users and
computing environments. The original, and most widely used version, is the desktop version,
available for PCs running the Windows and macOS operating systems. Office in a browser,
previously known as Office Online, is a version of the software that runs within a web browser,
while Microsoft also maintains Office apps for Android and iOS.
Since Office 2013, Microsoft has promoted Office 365 as the primary means of obtaining
Microsoft Office: it allows use of the software and other services on a subscription business
model, and users receive free feature updates to the software for the lifetime of the subscription,
including new features and cloud computing integration that are not necessarily included in the
"on-premises" releases of Office sold under conventional license terms. In 2017, revenue from
Office 365 overtook conventional license sales.
The current on-premises, desktop version of Office is Office 2019, released on
September 24, 2018.
Table 2.1Recent Microsoft Office versions
Release Date MS Office Version
January 30, 2007 Office 2007 (12.0)
June 15, 2010 Office 2010 (14.0)
January 29, 2013 Office 2013 (15.0)
September 22, 2015 Office 2016 (16.0)
September 24, 2018 Office 2019 (16.0)

Microsoft Office is application software and which is a basic requirement for the personal
computers.It has several applications in a single package.
The components of Microsoft Office
MS – Word
MS – Excel
MS – Power point
 I. Microsoft Word

Microsoft Word is the word processing component of the Microsoft Office Suite. It is
used primarily to enter, edit, format, save, retrieve and print documents.

Important Features:
1) It is used to prepare documents like letters and lessons.
2) It allows the user to insert pictures, tables, charts, drawings & features that will make the
text richer & more interactive.
(The term document refers to a file created using MS Word)
Starting MS-Word:
Start Button → All Programs → Microsoft Office→ Microsoft Office Word
The default file name as Document1 (the file will locate in Documents).
Or
Select the place where we want to create a MS Word
Then right click with the mouse → New → Select Microsoft Office Word Document

When we begin to explore MS Word 2007, we will notice three features: the Microsoft
Office Button, the Ribbon and Quick Access Toolbar. These three features contain many
functions.
 Fig 2.1MS Word 2007

A. The Microsoft Office Button

The Microsoft Office button has the following features
New_ To create a New Document
Click the Microsoft Office Button → click New → click create.
Open_To Open another Document
Click the Microsoft Office Button → click Open → type the file name
Save_ToSave a Document
Click the Microsoft Office Button → click Save or
Click the File save option on the Quick Access Toolbar.
Save as _ ToSave a Document in another name with duplicate
Click the Microsoft Office Button → click Save as →select any one format then type
a different name lastly click save.
Print _ To get a hard copy of the active document
 Click the Microsoft Office Button → click Print
Send _ To send the document through e- mail or fax to some other persons.
Click the Microsoft Office Button → click Send
Close _ To close the active document
Click the Microsoft Office Button → click Close
Recent Documents _ To open a recently used document
Click the Microsoft Office Button → click the name of the document in the Recent
Documents section.

Fig 2.2 MS Word Office Button

B. The Ribbon
The Ribbon is the panel at the top portion of the document. It hasHome, Insert, Page
Layout, References, Mailings, Review and View tabs. Each tab is divided into groups. The
groups are logical collections of features designed to perform functions that we can utilize in
developing or editing our Word document. Commonly used features are displayed on the
Ribbon, to view additional features within each group, click on the arrow at the bottom right of
each group.
 Fig 2.3 MS Word Ribbon

By default the Ribbon is divided into seven tabs, with an optional eighth tab (Developer)
They are:

• Home: This contains the most-used Word features, such as changing fonts and font attributes,
customizing paragraphs, using styles, and finding and replacing text.

• Insert: As you might guess, this one handles anything you might want to insert into a
document, such as tables, pictures, charts, hyperlinks, bookmarks, headers and footers, WordArt
... etc.

• Page Layout: This is where you'll change margins, page size and orientation, set up columns,
align objects and add effects. There is some overlap between this tab and the Home tab. E.G. On
the Page Layout tab you set paragraph spacing and indents, while on the Home tab you set
paragraph alignment and can also set spacing between lines.

• References: This tab handles tables of contents, footnotes, bibliographies, indexes and similar
material. It also lets you insert a "Table of Authorities," which like a security setting but is in fact
is a list of references in a legal document.

• Mailings: As the name says, this is where you'll go for anything to do with mailings, from
something as simple as creating labels to the more intimidating task of mail merges.

• Review: To check spelling and grammar use the thesaurus, track changes, review other
people's changes or compare documents? This is the tab to use.

• View: This tab allows you to change the view in any way, including displaying a ruler and
gridlines, zooming in and out, splitting a window and so on.

The final tab is for the more experienced word users.

• Developer: To display this tab, click the Office Button and choose Word Options > Popular
> Show Developer tab in the Ribbon. Most users will only need this tab to record Macros but if
you write code or want to create forms and applications for Word, this is your tab.
C. Quick Access Toolbar
The quick access toolbar is a customizable toolbar that contains commands that we want
to use.
 Click on down arrow in quick access toolbar to add items to quick access tool bar and
toplace the quick access toolbar above or below the ribbon.

Editing a document / Formatting Text

Typing and inserting Text:

 To enter text, just start typing! The text will appear where the blinking cursor is located.
 Move the cursor by using the arrow buttons on the keyboard or positioning the mouse
and clicking the left button.
 The keyboard shortcuts listed below are also helpful when moving through the text of a
document:
Move Action Key
Beginning of the line HOME
End of the line END
Top of the document CTRL + HOME
End of the document CTRL + END

Selecting Text
To change any attributes of text, it must be highlighted first. Select the text bydragging
the mouse over the desired text while keeping the left mouse button depressed,or hold down the
SHIFT key on the keyboard while using the arrow buttons to highlightthe text.
Table2.2 Shortcuts for selecting a portion of the text
Selection Technique
Whole Word Double-click within the word
Whole paragraph Triple-click within the paragraph
Several words or Drag the mouse over the words, or hold down
lines SHIFTwhile using the arrow keys
Entire document Choose Editing> Select > Select All from the Ribbon or
press CTRL + A

Deselect the text by clicking anywhere outside of the selection on the page or press
anarrow key on the keyboard.

Inserting Additional Text

Text can be inserted in a document at any point using any of the following methods:

Type Text: Put your cursor where you want to add the text and begin typing.

Copy and Paste Text: Highlight the text you wish to copy and right click andclickCopy,put
your cursor where you want the text in the document and rightclick and click Paste.
Cut and Paste Text: Highlight the text you wish to copy and right click andclick Cut, put your
cursor where you want the text in the document and right clickand click Paste.

Drag Text: Highlight the text you wish to move, click on it and drag it to theplace where you
want the text in the document.

You will notice that you can also use the Clipboard group on the Ribbon.

Deleting Blocks of Text

• Use the BACKSPACE and DELETE keys on the keyboard to delete text.
• Backspace will delete text to the left of the cursor and Delete will erase text to the right.
• To delete a large selection of text, highlight it using any of the methods outlined above
and press the DELETE key.

Search and Replace Text

To find a particular word or phrase in a document:

• Click Find on the Editing Group on the Ribbon or CTRL + F
• To find and replace a word or phrase in the document, click Replace on theEditing
Group of the Ribbon.

Undo Changes
To undo changes:
 Click the Undo Button on the Quick Access Toolbaror CTRL + Z

Formatting Paragraph

Formatting paragraphs allows you to change the look of the overall document.You can
access many of the tools of paragraph formatting by clicking the Page LayoutTab of the Ribbon
or the Paragraph Group on the Home Tab of the Ribbon.

Change Paragraph Alignment

The paragraph alignment allows you to set how you want text to appear. Tochange the
alignment:

 Click the Home Tab

 Choose the appropriate button for alignment on the Paragraph Group.

Table 2.3 Shortcut keys for Changing the alignmentsof paragraph

Move Action Shortcut Keys
 Align Text Left : the text is aligned with your left margin CTRL + L
Centre : The text is centered within your margins CTRL + E
Align Right : Aligns text with the right margin CTRL + R
Justify : Aligns text to both the left and right margins CTRL + J

Create Links
Creating links in a word document allows you to put in a URL that readers canclick on to
visit a web page.

To insert a link:
 Click the Hyperlink Button on the Links Group of the Insert Tab.
 Type in the text in the “Text to Display” box and the web address in the “Address” box.

TABLE
Tables are used to display data in a table format.

Create a Table
To create a table:

Place the cursor on the page where you want the new table

Click the Insert Tab of the Ribbon

Click the Tables Button on the Tables Group.

You can create a table one of fourways:

 Highlight the number of row and columns
 Click Insert Table and enter the number of rows and columns
 Click the Draw Table, create your table by clicking and entering the rowsand columns
 Click Quick Tables and choose a table

Enter Data in a Table

Place the cursor in the cell where you wish to enter the information. Begin typing.

Modify the Table Structure and Format a Table

To modify the structure of a table:

 Click the table and notice that you have two new tabs on the Ribbon: Design andLayout.
These pertain to the table design and layout.
 Fig 2.4 Table design and layout

Statistical and Mathematical Equations /Symbols

MS Word also allows you to insert Statistical / Mathematical equations. To access these
equations tool:

Place your cursor in the document where you want the symbol/Equation
Click the Insert Tab on the Ribbon
Click the Equation Button on the Symbols Group
Choose the appropriate equation and structure or click Insert New Equation
To edit the equation click the equation and the Design Tab will be available in theRibbon

Fig 2.5 Equation Tools

Watermarks

A watermark is a translucent image that appears behind the primary text in adocument.

To insert a watermark:
 Click the Page Layout Tab in the Ribbon
 Click the Watermark Button in the Page Background Group
  Click the Watermark you want for the document or click Custom Watermarkand
create your own watermark.
 To remove a watermark, follow the steps above, but click Remove Watermark

Creating Leave Letter/Personal Letter

AIM
To prepare leave letter/personal letter with some specifications
• Proper line spacing
• Use of proper alignments (Left, Centre, Right and Justify)
• Use of different Fonts and Font Sizes

Practical Question:
1. Type the Leave letter/Personal letter in MS Word with proper alignments & spacing and
paste the output.
2. Type a simple resume/C.V of you in MS Word with proper alignments & spacing and
paste the output.

Creating Office Circular

AIM
To prepare Office Circulars with some specifications
• Proper line spacing
• Use of proper alignments (Left, Centre, Right and Justify)
• Use of different Fonts and Font Sizes

Practical Question:
1. Create the Office Circular for celebration of Republic day with proper alignments &
spacing and paste the output below.

Creating Tables

AIM
To prepare different tables using merge rows, split cell, insert row/column.
• Creating tables with row/column heading.
• Left, Right and Centre margins
• Inserting Page Numbers
• Use of Watermark.
Practical Question:
1. Create a table for entering the marks of 10 students in 3 different courses (Sr. No., ID
Number., Name, AST201, AEC301 and HRT302, Total Marks) and paste the output.
2. Create your class time table in MS Word with proper alignments and paste the output.

Statistical/Mathematical Formulae and Equation

AIM
To create the followingstatistical / mathematical formula and equations in MS Word
     ………..  ∑  ∑ 
1.
 = ,
 = 
 =
2. ∑
 −
  = 0

3. .  = 
 .
.
… … . .
= 
 .
.
… … . .


4. !.  =    = ∑%&
"   …
# # #
$ '

 
 + and r central moment () = * ∑
 − ( 
5. rth raw moment () = * ∑* ) th * )


6. Variance, ,  = ∑ 
 − (
*
. ./
7. Skewness, - = and Kurtosis,- =
. .

8. Quadratic Equation, 
 + 1
+ 2 = 0 solutions of the equation are given by

−1 ± √1 − 42

=
2
<
9. log : ; = log : ; + log :  , log : " $ = log : ; − log :  and log : ; =  log : ;

Practical Question:

Create the following equations using MS Word and paste the output.

1.  + 1 =  + 1 + 21 ,  − 1 =  + 1 − 21

2. ! = 1. 2. 3 … . .  − 1.  and 0! = 1
:@ :@ : < 
3. < .  = < , = <A , = " $ ,C = 1 and  A =
: B@ B :
DEFG : 
4. log B  = DEFG B
and log B  = DEFH B


5. Standard Deviation , = √,  = I ∑
 − (
*
 Microsoft Excel

Microsoft Excel is a general-purpose electronic spreadsheet used to organize, calculate, and

analyze data.It is a Windows based application package. It is quite useful in entering, editing,
analysis and storing of data. Arithmetic operations with numerical data such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division can also be done with Excel. You can sort the
numbers/characters according to some given criteria (like ascending, descending etc.)and solve
simple financial, mathematical and statistical formulas.

Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet is an electronic document that stores various types of data. Thereare
vertical columns and horizontal rows. A cell is where the column and row intersect.A cell can
contain data and can be used in calculations of data within the spreadsheet.
AnExcel spreadsheet can contain workbooks and worksheets. The workbook is the
holderfor related worksheets.

Fig 2.6 MS Excel

Microsoft Office Button

 The Microsoft Office Button performs many of the functions that were located inthe File
menu of older versions of Excel. This button allows you to create a newworkbook, Open an
existing workbook, save and save as, print, send, or close.

Ribbon
The ribbon is the panel at the top portion of the document It has seven tabs:Home, Insert,
Page Layouts, Formulas, Data, Review, and View. Each tab is divided intogroups. The groups
are logical collections of features designed to perform function thatwe will utilize in developing
or editing our Excel spreadsheets.

Home: Clipboard, Fonts, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells, Editing

Insert: Tables, Illustrations, Charts, Links, Text
Page Layouts: Themes, Page Setup, Scale to Fit, Sheet Options, Arrange
Formulas: Function Library, Defined Names, Formula Auditing, Calculation
Data: Get External Data, Connections, Sort & Filter, Data Tools, Outline
Review: Proofing, Comments, Changes
View: Workbook Views, Show/Hide, Zoom, Window, Macros

Quick Access Toolbar

The quick access toolbar is a customizable toolbar that contains commands thatwe may
want to use. We can place the quick access toolbar above or below the ribbon.To change the
location of the quick access toolbar, click on the arrow at the end of thetoolbar and click Show
below the Ribbon.
 Fig 2.7(A) Ribbon, (B) Office Button and (C) Quick Access Toolbar

Entering Data
There are different ways to enter data in Excel: in an active cell or in the formulabar.

To enter data in an active cell:

• Click in the cell where you want the data
• Begin typing

To enter data into the formula bar

• Click the cell where you would like the data
• Place the cursor in the Formula Bar
• Type in the data
 Excel allows us to move, copy, and paste cells and cell content through cutting andpasting
and copying and pasting.

Select Entire Rows in a Worksheet

 Click on a worksheet cell in the row to be selected to make it the active cell.
 Then Press Shift key and Spacebarsimultaneously
 All cells in the selected row are highlighted; including the row header.

Select Entire Columns in a Worksheet

 Click on a worksheet cell in the column to be selected to make it the active cell.
 Then Press CTRL key and Spacebarsimultaneously
 All cells in the selected columns are highlighted; including the column header.

Use Shortcut Keys to Select Additional Rows/Columns

1. Press and hold the Shift key on the keyboard.
2. Use the Up or Down arrow keys on the keyboard to select additional rows/columns
above or below the selected row/column.
3. Release the Shift key when you've selected all the rows/columns.

Auto Fill
The Auto Fill feature fills cell data or series of data in a worksheet into a selectedrange of
cells. If we want the same data copied into the other cells, we only need tocomplete one cell. If
we want to have a series of data (for example, days of the week) fillin the first two cells in the
series and then use the auto fill feature.
To use the Auto Fillfeature:

 Click the Fill Handle

 Dragthe Fill Handle to complete the cells

Excel Formulas
A formula is a set of mathematical instructions that can be used in Excel toperform
calculations. Formals are started in the formula box with an = sign.

Calculate with Functions

A function is a built in formula in Excel. A function has a name and arguments(the
mathematical function) in parentheses.

Common functions in Excel:

Sum: Adds all cells in the argument
Average: Calculates the average of the cells in the argument
Min: Finds the minimum value
Max: Finds the maximum value
Count: Finds the number of cells that contain a numerical value within a range of theargument

SORT AND FILTER

Sorting and Filtering allow us to manipulate data in a worksheet based on givenset of
criteria.
Basic Sorts
To execute a basic descending or ascending sort based on one column:
 Highlight the cells that will be sorted
 Click the Sort & Filter button on the Home tab
 Click the Sort Ascending (A-Z) button or Sort Descending (Z-A) button

Filtering
Filtering allows us to display only data that meets certain criteria.
To filter:
 Click the column or columns that contain the data we wish to filter
 On the Home tab, click on Sort & Filter
 Click Filter button
 Click the Arrow at the bottom of the first cell
 Click the Text Filter
 Click the Words we wish to Filter
 To clear the filter click the Sort & Filter button
 Click Clear
 Fig 2.8 Sort and Filter

CHARTS
Charts allow us to present information contained in the worksheet in a graphicformat.
Excel offers many types of charts including: Column, Line, Pie, Bar, Area,Scatter and more.

To view the charts available click the Insert Tab on the Ribbon.

Create a Chart
To create a chart:

 Select the cells that contain the data we want to use in the chart
 Click the Insert tab on the Ribbon
 Click the type of Chart we want to create
 Fig 2.9InsertCharts

Add Borders and Colors to Cells

Borders and colors can be added to cells manually or through the use of styles.
To add borders manually:
 Click the Borders drop down menu on the Font group of the Home tab
 Choose the appropriate border

To apply colors manually:

 Click the Fill drop down menu on the Font group of the Home tab
 Choose the appropriate color
 Fig 2.10 (A)Borders and (B) Colors

Merge Cells
To merge cells select the cells you want to merge and click the Merge & Centerbutton
on the Alignment group of the Home tab.

The four choices for merging cells are:

Merge & Center: Combines the cells and centers the contents in the new, larger cell
Merge Across: Combines the cells across columns without centering data
Merge Cells: Combines the cells in a range without centering
Unmerge Cells: Splits the cell that has been merged

Align Cell Contents

To align cell contents, click the cell or cells you want to align and click on theoptions
within the Alignment group on the Home tab.
There are several options foralignment of cell contents:

Top Align: Aligns text to the top of the cell

Middle Align: Aligns text between the top and bottom of the cell
Bottom Align: Aligns text to the bottom of the cell
Align Text Left: Aligns text to the left of the cell
Center: Centers the text from left to right in the cell
Align Text Right: Aligns text to the right of the cell
Decrease Indent: Decreases the indent between the left border and the text
Increase Indent: Increase the indent between the left border and the text
Orientation: Rotate the text diagonally or vertically

Fig 2.11 (A) Merge and (B) Alignment

Copy and Paste Worksheets

To copy and paste a worksheet:

 Click the tab of the worksheet to be copied

 Right click and choose Move or Copy
 Choose the desired position of the sheet
 Click the check box next to Create a Copy
 Click OK
 Fig 2.12 Copy and Paste Worksheets

Freeze Rows and Columns

You can select a particular portion of a worksheet to stay static while you workon other
parts of the sheet. This is accomplished through the Freeze Rows and ColumnsFunction.
To Freeze a row or column:
 Click the Freeze Panes button on the View tab
 Either select a section to be frozen or click the defaults of top row or left column
 To unfreeze, click the Freeze Panes button
 Click Unfreeze
 Fig 2.13 Freeze Rows and Columns

Statistical Analysis Through Analysis Tool Pak

Microsoft Excel provides a set of data analysis tool called the Analysis Tool Pak that
canuse to save steps when one develops complex statistical analysis. One should provide the data
and parameters for each analysis.Some of the statistical functions are built-in and othersbecome
available after installing the Add-insi.e., Analysis ToolPak, which is the built inadd-in functions
available in MS Excel.

Steps to load and activate the Analysis ToolPak in MS Excel

1. Click the File tab, click Options and then click the Add-Inscategory.
2. In the Managebox, select Excel Add-insand then click Go.
3. In the Add-Insbox, check the Analysis ToolPakcheck box, and then click Ok.
Data Analysis Tools

• ANOVA: Single factor

• ANOVA: Two factor with replication
• ANOVA: Two factor without replication
• Correlation
• Covariance
• Descriptive Statistics
• F-Test two sample for Variances
• Histogram
• Regression
• t-Test: Paired Two sample for Means
• t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances
• t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances
• Z-Test: Two Sample for Means
There are so many other Add-ins which are developed for Microsoft Excel to enhance
the analytical ability of the Excel worksheets and make excel further more user friendly
software.
Fig 2.14 Add-in Dialog boxes
 Microsoft Power Point

PowerPoint is a computer program that allows you to create and show slides to support a
presentation. You can combine text, graphics and multi-media content to create professional
presentations.

Presentations
A presentation is a collection of data and information that is to be delivered to aspecific
audience. A PowerPoint presentation is a collection of electronic slides that canhave text,
pictures, graphics, tables, sound and video. This collection can runautomatically or can be
controlled by a presenter.

Microsoft Office Button

The Microsoft Office Button performs many of the functions that were located inthe File
menu of older versions of PowerPoint. This button allows you to create a newpresentation, Open
an existing presentation, save and save as, print, send, or close.

Fig 2.14 Office Button

Ribbon
The ribbon is the panel at the top portion of the document It has seven tabs: Home, Insert,
Design, Animations, Slide Show, Review and View. Each tab is divided into groups. Thegroups
are logical collections of features designed to perform functionthat you will utilize in developing
or editing your PowerPoint slides.

Commonly utilized features are displayed on the Ribbon. To view additional

featureswithin each group, click the arrow at the bottom right corner of each group.
 Fig 2.15 Ribbon

Home: Clipboard, Slides, Font, Paragraph, Drawing, and Editing

Insert: Tables, Illustrations, Links, Text, and Media Clips
Design: Page Setup, Themes, Background
Animations: Preview, Animations, Transition to this Slide
Slide Show: Start Slide Show, Set Up, Monitors
Review: Proofing, Comments, Protect
View: Presentation Views, Show/Hide, Zoom, Window, Macros

Quick Access Toolbar

The quick access toolbar is a customizable toolbar that contains commands thatyou may
want to use. You can place the quick access toolbar above or below the ribbon.To change the
location of the quick access toolbar, click on the arrow at the end of thetoolbar and click Show
Below the Ribbon.

You can also add items to the quick access toolbar. Right click on any item in the
OfficeButton or the Ribbon and click Add to Quick Access Toolbar and a shortcut will beadded.

Navigation
Navigation through the slides can be accomplished through the Slide Navigationmenu on
the left side of the screen. Also, an outline appears from materials that havebeen entered in the
presentation. To access the outline, click the outline tab.
 Fig 2.16 Navigation

Slide Views
Presentations can be viewed in a variety of manners. On the View tab, thePresentation
Views group allows you to view the slides as Normal, Slide Sorter, NotesPage, Slide Show,
Slide Master, Handout Master, and Notes Master.

Fig 2.17 Slide Views

New Presentation
You can start a new presentation from a blank slide, a template, existingpresentations, or
a Word outline.

To create a new presentation from a blank slide:

 Click the Microsoft Office Button

 Click New
 Click Blank Presentation
To create a new presentation from a template:
 Click the Microsoft Office Button
 Click New
 Click Installed Templates or Browse through Microsoft Office Online Templates
 Click the template you choose

To create a new presentation from an existing presentation:

 Click the Microsoft Office Button
 Click New
 Click New from Existing
 Browse to and click the presentation

Save a Presentation
When you save a presentation, you have two choices: Save or Save As.
To save a document:
 Click the Microsoft Office Button
 Click Save

You may need to use the Save As feature when you need to save a presentationunder a
different name or to save it for earlier versions of PowerPoint. Remember thatolder versions of
PowerPoint will not be able to open PowerPoint 2007 presentationunless you save it as a
PowerPoint 97-2003 Format.

To use the Save As feature:

Click the Microsoft Office Button

Click Save As

Type in the name for the Presentation

In the Save as Type box, choose Excel 97-2003 Presentation

Add Slides
There are several choices when you want to add a new slide to the presentation:Office
Themes, Duplicate Selected Slide, or Reuse Slides.

To create a new slide from Office Themes:

Select the slide immediately BEFORE where you want the new slide

Click the New Slide button on the Home tab

Click the slide choice that fits your material
To create a slide as a duplicate of a slide in the presentation:

Select the slide to duplicate

Click the New Slide button on the Home tab

Click Duplicate Selected Slides

Themes
Themes are design templates that can be applied to an entire presentation thatallows for
consistency throughout the presentation.
To add a theme to a presentation:
 Click the Design tab
 Choose one of the displayed Themes or click the Galleries button

Fig 2.18 Themes

To apply new colors to a theme:

 Click the Colors drop down arrow
 Choose a color set or click Create New Theme Colors

To change the background style of a theme

 Click the Background Styles button on the Design tab

Enter Text

To enter text:
 Select the slide where you want the text
 Click in a Textbox to add text

To add a text box:

Select the slide where you want to place the text box

On the Insert tab, click Text Box

Click on the slide and drag the cursor to expand the text box

Type in the text
 Fig 2.19 Text Box

Change Text Color

To change the text color:

Select the text and click the Colors button included on the Font Group of the Ribbon, or

Highlight the text and right click and choose the colors tool.

Select the color by clicking the down arrow next to the font color button.

Fig 2.20 Text Color

Adding Picture

To add a picture:
 Click the Insert Tab
 Click the Picture Button
 Browse to the picture from your files
 Click the name of the picture
  Click insert
 To move the graphic, click it and drag it to where you want it

Slide Effects

Slide Transitions
Transitions are effects that are in place when you switch from one slide to thenext. To
add slide transitions:
 Select the slide that you want to transition
 Click the Animations tab
 Choose the appropriate animation or click the Transition dialog box

Fig 2.21 Animations

To adjust slide transitions:

 Add sound by clicking the arrow next to Transition Sound
 Modify the transition speed by clicking the arrow next to Transition Speed

To select how to advance a slide

 Choose to Advance on Mouse Click, or
 Automatically after a set number of seconds

Slide Animation
Slide animation effects are predefined special effects that you can add to objectson a
slide.
To apply an animation effect:

Select the object

Click the Animations tab on the Ribbon

Click Custom Animation

Click Add Effect

Choose the appropriate effect

Animation Preview
To preview the animation on a slide:

Click the Preview button on the Animations tab

Slide Show Options

The Slide Show tab of the ribbon contains many options for the slide show.
Theseoptions include:
o Preview the slide show from the beginning
o Preview the slide show from the current slide
o Set up Slide Show
 Database Management System
Database is a collection of related data and data is a collection of facts and figures that
can be processed to produce information.

Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data aids in producing information, which is
based on facts. For example, if we have data about marks obtained by all students, we can then
conclude about toppers and average marks.

A database management system stores data in such a way that it becomes easier to
retrieve, manipulate, and produce information.

A database-management system (DBMS) is a collection of interrelated data and a set of

programs to access those data. This is a collection of related data with an implicit meaning and
hence is a database.
The collection of data, usually referred to as the database, contains information relevant
to an enterprise. The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve database
information that is both convenient and efficient. By data, we mean known facts that can be
recorded and that have implicit meaning.
For example, consider the names, telephone numbers, and addresses of the people you
know. You may have recorded this data in an indexed address book, or you may have stored it in
a personal computer and software such as DBASE IV or V, Microsoft ACCESS, or EXCEL.

Database Management System (DBMS)

A database management system is a collection of programs that enables users to create,

maintain and use a database. It enables creation of a repository of data that is defined once and
then accessed by different users as per their requirements. Thus there is a single repository of
data which is accessed by all the application program.

The various operations that need to be performed on a database are as follows:

1. Defining the Database: It involves specifying the data type of data that will be stored in
the database and also any constraints on that data.
2. Populating the Database: It involves storing the data on some storage medium that is
controlled by DBMS.
3. Manipulating the Database: It involves modifying the database, retrieving data or
querying the database, generating reports from the database etc.
4. Sharing the Database: Allow multiple users to access the database at the same time.
5. Protecting the Database: It enables protection of the database from software/ hardware
failures and unauthorized access.
6. Maintaining the Database: It is easy to adapt to the changing requirements.
Some examples of DBMS are – MySQL, Oracle, DB2, IMS, IDS etc.
Advantages of using DBMS Approach

The need of DBMS itself explains the advantages of using a DBMS. Following are the
advantages of using a DBMS:

1.Reduction in Redundancy: Data in a DBMS is more concise because of the centralrepository

of data. All the data is stored at one place. There is no repetition of the samedata. This also
reduces the cost of storing data on hard disks or other memory devices.
2.Improved Consistency: The chances of data inconsistencies in a database are also reducedas
there is a single copy of data that is accessed or updated by all the users.
3.Improved Availability: Same information is made available to different users. This
helpssharing of information by various users of the database.
4.Improved Security: Though there is improvement in the availability of information tousers, it
may also be required to restrict the access to confidential information. By makinguse of
passwords and controlling users' database access rights, the DBA can providesecurity to the
database.
5.User Friendly: Using a DBMS, it becomes very easy to access, modify and delete data.
Itreduces the dependency of users on computer specialists to perform various data
relatedoperations in a DBMS because of its user friendly interface.

Limitations of using DBMS Approach

The two main disadvantages of using a DBMS:

1. High Cost: The cost of implementing a DBMS system is very high. It is also a very
timeconsuming process which involves analyzing user requirements, designing the database
specifications, writing application programs and then also providing training.

2. Security and Recovery Overheads: Unauthorized access to a database can lead tothreat to
the individual or organization depending on the data stored. Also the data must be regularly
backed up to prevent its loss due to fire, earthquakes, etc. Hence the DBMS approach is usually
not preferred when the database is small, well defined, less frequently changed and used by few
users.

Relational Database

Various types of databases have been developed. One of them was relational database
developed by E.F Codd at IBM in 1970. It is used to organize collection of data as a collection of
relations where each relation corresponds to a table of values. Each row in the table corresponds
to a unique instance of data and each column name is used to interpret the meaning of that data
in each row.
 For example, consider EMPLOYEE table (Table 3.1). Each row in this table represents
facts about a particular employee. The column names – Name, Employee ID, Gender, Salary and
DateofBirth specify how to interpret the data in each row.

Table 3.1 Employee Table

Name Employee ID Gender Salary Date of Birth
Neha Mehta 1121 Female 20,000 04-03-1990
Laxmi 2134 Female 25,000 19-10-1993
H Verma 3145 Male 20,000 23-01-1992

In relational model,
Arow is called a Tuple.
Acolumn is called an Attribute.
Atable is called as a Relation.
The data type of values in each column is called the Domain.
The number of attributes in a relation is called the Degree of a relation.
The number of rows in a relation is called the Cardinality of a relation.

Hence in Table 3.1

Employee table is a relation.

There are three tuples in Employee relation.

Name, Employee ID, Gender, Salary, DateofBirth are attributes.

The domain is a set of atomic (or indivisible) values. The domain of a database attribute
is the set of all the possible values that attribute may contain. In order to specify a
domain, we specify the data type of that attribute. Following are the domain of attributes
of the Employee relation:
(a) Name:– Set of character strings representing names of persons.
(b) EmployeeID:–Set of 4-digit numbers
(c) Gender:– male or female
(d) Salary: – Number
(e) DateofBirth: – Should have a valid date, month and year. The birth year of the
employee must be greater than 1985. Also the format should be dd-mm-yyyy.

The degree of the EMPLOYEE relation is 5 as there are five attributes in this relation.

The cardinality of the EMPLOYEE relation is 3 as there are three tuples in this relation.

Answer the following questions:

1. What is DBMS?
2. Write the advantages and limitations of DBMS.
 Internet and World Wide Web (WWW)
Internet
The Internet is a network of computers, which links many different types of computers all
over the world. It is a network of networks sharing a common mechanism for addressing
(identifying) computers, and a common set of communication protocols for communications
between two computers on the network.

Brief History
The Internet has its root in the ARPANET system of the Advanced Research Project
Agency of the U.S. Department of Defense. ARPANET was the first WAN and had only four
sites in 1969. The Internet evolved from basic ideas of ARPANET for interconnecting
computers. In 1989, the U.S. Government lifted restrictions on the use of the Internet, and
allowed its usage for commercial purposes as well. Since then, the internet has grown rapidly to
become the world’s largest network.

Its Basic Services

The Internet provides the following four types of basic services to its users.
I. Electronic Mail
An electronic mail service (known as e-mail in short) enables an Internet user to send a
mail (message) to another Internet user in any part of the world in a near-real-time manner. An e-
mail message takes a few seconds to several minutes to research its destination, because it travels
from one network to another, until it reaches its destination.
Messages in e-mail service can contain not only text documents but also image, audio
and video data. Only restriction is that the data must be in computer readable format.

II. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP service enables an Internet user to move a file from one computer to another on the
internet. A file may contain any type of digital information- text document, image, artwork,
movie, sound, software etc.
Downloading is the process of moving a file from a remote computer to one’s own
computer, and uploading is the process of moving a file from one’s own computer to a remote
computer.

III. Telnet
Telnet service enables an Internet user to log in to another computer on the Internet from
his/her local computer. That is, a user can execute the telnet command on his/her local computer
to start a login session on a remote computer. This action is also called “remote login”.
IV. Usenet News
Usenet service enables a group of Internet users to exchange their
views/ideas/information on some common topic of interest with all members belonging to the
group. Several such groups exist on the Internet and are called newsgroups. For example, a
newsgroup named comp.security.miscconsists of users having interest in computer security
issues. A newsgroup is like a large notice board accessible to all members belonging to the
group.

The World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web (called WWW) is the most popular and promising method of
organizing and accessing information on the Internet. Main reason for its popularity is use of a
concept called hypertext.
• Hypertext is a new way of information storage and retrieval that enables authors to
structure information in novel ways. A properly designed hypertext document can help
users locate desired type of information rapidly from vast amount of information on the
internet. Hypertext documents enable this by using a series of links.
• A link is a special type of item in a hypertext document connecting the document to
another document that provides more information about the linked item.

Hypertext documents on the internet are known as Web Pages. Web Page designers
create Web Pages by using a special language called Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML).
HTML is a subset of a more generalized language called Standard Generalized Markup
Language (SGML)that is a powerful language for linking documents for easier electronic access
and manipulation.

The WWW uses client-server model and an Internet Protocol called Hyper Text
Transport Protocol (HTTP) for interaction between computers on the internet. Any computer on
the internet using the HTTP protocol is called a Web Server, and any computer accessing that
server is called a Web Client. Use of client-server model and the HTTP allows different kinds of
computers on the internet to interact with each other.

WWW Browsers
A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application for
accessing information on the World Wide Web. When a user requests a particular website, the
web browser retrieves the necessary content from a web server and then displays the
resulting web page on the user's device.
A web browser is not the same thing as a search engine, though the two are often
confused. For a user, a search engine is just a website, such as Google Search and Bing that
stores searchable data about other websites. However, to connect to a website's server and
display its web pages, a user must have a web browser installed.
 There are many browsers available today such as Internet Explorer, Google Chrome,
Mozilla FireFox, Apple Safari, NetScape and MacWeb.

Internet Search Engines

An Internet search engine is an application, which helps users locate web sites containing
useful information and references to such information on the WWW. To search information on
the WWW, a user types the description of the information using the user interface of the search
engine. The search engine then searches the requested information quickly from the vast ocean
of information available on the Internet.
Some Popular Internet Search Engines: Google (www.google.com), Yahoo (www.yahoo.com),
HotBot (www.hotbot.com), Inference Find (www.infind.com)

XML
XML stands for Extensible Markup Language. It is a text-based markup language derived
from Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML).
XML tags identify the data and are used to store and organize the data, rather than
specifying how to display it like HTML tags, which are used to display the data. XML is not
going to replace HTML in the near future, but it introduces new possibilities by adopting many
successful features of HTML.

Answer the following questions:

1. Define the terms Internet, WWW, HTTP, URL and FTP
2. Write the difference between Web browser and Web Search Engine
3. Write the uses of Internet.
4. Write a note on HTML and XML
 e – Agriculture

E-Agriculture is an emerging field focusing on the enhancement of agricultural and rural

development through improved information and communication processes. It is evolving in
scope as new Information Communication Technology (ICT) applications continue to be
harnessed in the agriculture sector. In this context, ICT is used as an umbrella term
encompassing all ICTs including devices, networks, services and applications; these range from
innovative Internet-era technologies and sensors to other pre-existing aids such as telephones,
mobiles, television, radio and satellites. More specifically it involves the conceptualization,
design, development, evaluation and application of innovative ways to use ICTs in the rural
domain, with a primary focus on agriculture, fisheries, forests and livestock.

Although ICT activities and other related initiatives to bridge the rural digital divide
existed around the world, the e-Agriculture Community (and the term "e-agriculture") came into
being after the World Summit on the Information Society in 2003 and 2005.

An important area for follow up is the recent developments and emerging trends in the
sector of ICTs for agriculture and rural development. The main recent developments and
emerging trends are the following:

 Mobile telephony: The increase in mobile telephony penetration in the past ten years has led
to an increase in mobile applications specifically designed for agricultural development. The
number of mobile platforms developed and used in the market to bridge the digital divide with
smallholder farmers has also increased tremendously, bringing a more diverse range of
information sources for farmers (e.g. Internet, radio, TV, newspaper and extension agents) than a
few years ago. Mobile-based information delivery holds great promise and is either being
considered or is in use as an important channel for agricultural advisory services, financial
services and other essential information in rural communities, especially in enhancing access to
markets, information on market prices and demand.
From mobile phones to smart phones: Five years ago, Short Message Service (SMS)
dominated, now there are SMS, IVR (Interactive Voice Response), smartphone apps, and
integration with social media. The development of mobile applications (apps) for agricultural
development has been driven partially by young people. Apps alone may not cater for the needs
of farmers, but they are a huge step towards integrating agriculture and ICTs.

 Mobile financial services: Four kinds of financial services that farmers need in order to
achieve their economic goals have been identified and are becoming more widespread: credit;
savings; money transfers and payment facilities; and insurance. ICTs have created the potential
to deliver diverse financial products to a greater numbers of rural clients than conventional
financial service providers have been able to reach so far. ICTs contribute to economic efficiency
and improved service delivery, as they lower business and transaction costs.

 Use of ICTs in agriculture: ICT innovation plays a key role in improving agricultural
production and the value chain. Food traceability systems using ICTs have become very
important risk management tools that allow food business operators or authorities to contain food
safety problems and promote consumer confidence. ICT-enabled marketing and access to
markets plays a major role, especially for information on market prices and demand. ICT-
enhanced marketing and certification strengthens the capacity of small-scale producers to
increase revenue by improving their position on local and international markets. GIS and agro-
meteorological technologies have been introduced into programmes for various purposes
including land-use planning, crop forecasting and early warning systems. Space technology is
also essential to monitor threats from the growing number of natural disasters. In addition, use of
mobile phones has become more common for exchanging information such as for disease
surveillance and pest tracking. There is also growing prevalence of ICT solutions for the later
stages of the agricultural value chain (e.g. post-harvest, transport, storage).

 e-Agriculture strategies in ICT policies: Even though in many countries there are no
specific ICTs for agriculture strategies, e-agriculture strategy initiatives have been or are being
put in place in a few countries such as Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Mali and Rwanda. Moreover, in
most ICT policies developed with the support of organizations such as UNECA, IICD, ITU, and
UNDP, there are provisions on sectoral strategies for agriculture. However, approaches differ in
different regions and countries.

 Online learning: Open online courses, and their combination with scientific and educational
content which is more widely available (even on social media), enable an increased flow of new
information and learning to smallholder farmers. Online learning also makes it possible to
monitor the capacity of institutions and communities to use this information effectively.

 Growing use of big/open/real-time data collection and analysis: This is leading to

innovative applications for farm management and decision support, but also raising issues of
intellectual asset management, particularly when data are collected at the farm level. Equally
applicable to local adaptation of content is the approach based on content co-generation, which
in turn raises issues of governance of data, information, skills and technology and the
development of open standards and technologies.
 Smartphone mobile apps in agriculture for farm advises, market price, post-harvest
management.

More than half of the Indian population is dependent upon agriculture for their livelihood
and the entire 100 per cent population of the country is dependent upon the farmers for their
daily sustenance.
Agriculture also amounts to almost one fifth of India’s gross GDP. Ironically, the
standard of living of farmers is quite a mess in the country.
To counter act the sorry state of our nourishment providers, the government of India
has launched these mobile apps for the empowerment of rural & urban farmers.

Kisan Suvidha:

It is an omnibus smartphone app that helps farmers by providing them relevant

information.
With a click of a button, farmers can access information regarding weather, dealers’
market prices, plant protection, agro advisories, IPM practices etc.
Other features like extreme weather alerts and market prices of commodities in the
neighbouring area have also been added to help the farmers in the best possible manner.
MKisan App:

This app enables farmers and stakeholders to obtain advisories and other information
being sent by experts and govt. officials through mkisan portal without registering on the portal.

Farm-o-pedia:
 Developed by CDAC Mumbai, this is a multilingual Android app that targets the farmers
of rural Gujrat. It is available in English and all Gujrati languages.
The major functionalities of this app are, it helps farmers get suitable crops as per soil
and season, helps farmers get crop-wise information, weather monitoring and cattle management.

Crop Insurance:

This app is used to calculate Insurance Premium for notified crops based on area,
coverage amount and loan amount.
It can also be used to obtain details of normal sum insured, premium details and subsidy
information of any notified crop in all areas.
Shetkari App

This app helps download Shetkari Masik an Agriculture magazine & there is no
requirement internet to Read it.

Agri Market:
 This app provides information of market price of all crops at the markets located
within 50 kilometre radius of the device’s location.
This app uses GPS to find the location and then fetches the market price of all crops in
the nearby mandis. Download Agri Market

Pusa Krishi

This app provides information about various types of crops.

Download PusaKrishi:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=in.cdac.bharatd.agriapp&hl=en