Chemistry for CSE Stream (BCHES102/202)

Module-1

Sensors and Energy Systems

Sensors: Introduction, working, principle and applications of Conductometric sensors, Electrochemical
sensors, Thermometric sensors (Flame photometry) and Optical sensors (colorimetry). Sensors for the
measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO). Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals.
Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx. Disposable sensors in the detection of biomolecules and
pesticides.
Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working and applications of Lithium ion and
Sodium ion batteries. Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s)- Principle, Properties and
Applications.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Introduction: A sensor is a device that measures or detects a physical quantity, such as temperature,
pressure, humidity, light, sound, motion, or position. Sensors are used to convert the physical quantity
into an electrical signal that can be processed by a computer or other electronic system.
Sensors are found in a wide range of applications, from industrial automation andcontrol to
consumer electronics and healthcare. For example, sensors are used in automobiles to monitor
engine performance, in smart phones to detect user inputand orientation, and in medical devices
to monitor vital signs.

Sensors: Sensors are electronic devices or modules that detect and measure physical/chemical
phenomena into an electrical signal.

Physical/Chemical phenomena: Temperature, pressure, motion, light, or sound/ concentration.

Fig: Function of a Sensor

Transducer: is a device that is capable of converting a physical quantity or non-electrical signal
into an electrical signal.

Actuator: An actuator is a device that receives a signal or input and produces a physical output.

Measurement process for the instrumentation model

▪ Sensor input- The physical value or measurand (X) is observed by the sensor device.
▪ Sensor output – The sensor generates a signal variable (S) output which is normally
electrical.
▪ Signal conditioning- The signal is transmitted and conditioned if needed (amplified,
converted, filtered, etc.)
▪ Display of measurement – the measurement is then displayed by the output device.

Electrochemical Sensors
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Electrochemical sensors are devices that detect and measure the concentration of a target
analyte by converting a chemical reaction into an electrical signal.
Electrochemical sensors use electrodes as the transducer component. Transducer of an
electro chemical sensor consists of working or sensing electrode, electrolyte, counter electrode,
and reference electrode. The sensing electrode has a chemically modified surface. This
modification ensures the selectivity, facilitating the reduction or oxidation of the analyte. The
electrolyte is part of the electric circuit of an electrochemical sensor system. The role of the
electrolyte is to transport charge within the sensor, contact all electrodes effectively, solubilize
the reactants and products for efficient transport, and be stable chemically and physically under
all conditions of sensor operation.

The main steps involved in working of an electrochemical sensor are:

1. Diffusion of the analyte to the electrode/electrolyte interface (in the liquid phase).
2. Adsorption onto the electrode surface.
3. Electrochemical reaction with electron transfer.
4. Desorption of the products.
5. Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to the bulk of electrolyte or gas phase.

Applications of Electrochemical Sensors

Varieties of electrochemical sensors in unique geometries or structures for large number

of chemicals are available. They are used in diverse areas as industrial safety, biochemistry,
clinical chemistry, health and medicine, agriculture, food safety, environmental protection,
automotive technology, space exploration, military threat detection, and process control. Few
applications are given below:
1. The oxygen sensor is used for detection of dissolved oxygen in water boiler and to monitor
dissolved oxygen concentration in metal melts, glasses and in hydrogen fuel.
2. They are used in security and defence applications like detection of toxic gases, warfare
agents etc.
3. They are used in water analysis and environmental monitoring, like measurement of toxic
metal concentration in water, detection of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, CO, pH of water etc.
4. They are used in diagnostic and health-care applications, like in situ monitoring of glucose
serum uric acid, blood Ca2+, Fe2+, acetylcholine etc.
5. They are used in soil parameter analysis, evaluation, and in agriculture applications.
6. They are used for the monitoring of toxic levels of different substances in food quality.

Electrochemical sensors divided into several types based ontheir mechanism of operation and
the type of reaction involved.

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▪ Potentiometric (measure voltage)

▪ Amperometric (measure current)
▪ Conductometric (measure conductivity)
▪ Impedimetric sensors: measure impedance or resistance of an electrode.
▪ Coulometric sensors: measure the amount of charge required to oxidize orreduce the
analyte at an electrode surface.

Conductometric Sensors:
Conductometric sensors are chemical sensors that measure changes in electrical
conductivity when a specific analyte interacts between the electrodes.
Conductometric sensor is based on measurements of physical properties of a homogeneous
bulk solution like electrolytic conductance by aqueous electrolyte solutions. Conductance of a
solution is based on:
i)The concentration (number) of ions contributing to conductivity of solution
ii) Mobility of each type of ion. Mobility of an ion depends on its size. Smaller the size higher
is mobility and higher is electrolytic conductance.
Electrode used in conductivity sensor is called as conductivity cell. It is used to measure
the change in electrolytic conductance of the solution during replacement of ions of a
particular conductivity by ions of different conductivity. It is made of two platinum foils with
unit cross sectional area and unit distance between them. Volume between two electrode is
1cm3. Conductance of unit volume of the solution is called as specific conductance. There will
be change in specific conductance of solution when there is change in number of ions or type
of ion. This change is measured using conductivity cell.
Specific conductance (k) is given by, k = 1/R x l/a , where l/a is known as cell constant and
‘R’ is the resistance of the solution.
The conductivity cell is dipped in the electrolyte solution taken in a beaker and it is connected
to a conductance measuring device called as conductivity meter.

Applications of Conductometric sensors

1. Conductometric sensor can be used to monitor any chemical which can change the
electrolytic conductance of solution on chemical reaction.
2. It is used to estimate acids, bases and their mixtures in a sample.
3. It is used to check the amount of ionic impurities in water samples.
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4. It is used in measuring acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water.

5. Conductometric biosensors are used in biomedicine, environment monitoring, bio
technology and agriculture related applications.

Thermometric Sensors
Thermometric sensor is based on the measurement of thermal changes during the interaction
between analyte and receptor. Thermal changes are converted to measurable change in the
temperature or potential.
Thermometric transduction is feasible only in those processes which generate sufficient heat
to produce a measurable change of temperature. Chemical or biological species which undergo
catalytic chemical reactions and enzyme-catalyzed reactions liberating heat (exothermic
reactions) can be determined by thermometric sensors.

Working Principle of Thermometric sensors

Main component of a thermometric sensor is a small tubular catalytic reactor fitted with a
temperature transducer. Analyte (reactant) is fed in to the reactor. The wall of the reactor is
coated with a catalyst or enzyme capable of catalysing the reaction, liberating heat energy. Heat
liberated is quantified by means of a temperature transducer. The change in temperature is
converted to the output voltage by transducer which is amplified and fed to the data storage and
processing unit.
In order to convert change in temperature into an electric signal, two main kinds of
transducers which exhibit thermoelectric effect are used:
1. Resistive transducer: Most commonly used resistive transducer is the thermistor. It is a
ceramic semiconductor device made of oxides of transition metals. Most thermistors have a
negative temperature coefficient. That is, their resistance decreases with increasing
temperature. The decrease in resistance is converted to output voltage using a Wheatstone
bridge resistor.

2. Thermocouple: A thermocouple is a device that converts the temperature difference directly

into an electrical voltage. It consists of a loop formed by two different materials (metals or
semiconductors). The output voltage is proportional to the temperature difference between the
two junctions.

Applications of thermometric sensors

1. Thermal biosensors are based on the temperature change induced by a simple enzymatic
reaction. They are used in the determination of metabolites, bioprocess monitoring, and
environmental control. An example is the determination of glucose using the glucose
oxidase-catalysed reaction.
2. Thermometric chemical sensors are used for the determination of combustible gases that
react with oxygen at the surface of a suitable catalyst.

Optical Sensors:
Optical sensors are devices that use light and converts into electric signals for detecting
and measuring physical or chemical properties of a sample.

Example: (Photometric) Colorimetric Sensors

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Principle: When a sample solution is interacted with a light of suitable wavelength, certain
quantity of light is absorbed by the analyte solution, a chemical or physical change occur. This
change in the sensing material's properties observed by a sensor and transducer converts
intensity of absorbed light into electrical signal. The change in intensity at certain wavelength
within visible (400–800mm) range can be determined using special instrumentation.

Working:

Sensors based on the transduction of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the

chemical species are called as optical sensors.

Optical transduction can be based on emission, absorption, reflectance and scattering of light
by the analyte. The optical signal arises from the interaction of the analyte with an incident
radiation. The interaction could result in absorption, emission, scattering, or reflection of light.
The type of interaction depends on the wavelength of the probing radiation and on the structure
of the molecules in the analyte. The intensity of the radiation emanating from the analyte carries
information on the concentration of the analyte. It is measured by the optoelectronic
instrumentation.

In a simple optical sensor used to measure absorption of light, main components used are a
light source, a wavelength selector, a photodetector, and a display of the output.

Simple optical sensors are used to determine the concentration of coloured chemical species in
solution. They are based on measurement of absorbance or transmittance of light of particular
wavelength by coloured chemical species in the solution. They are governed by Beer-Lambert’s
law.

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Applications of optical sensors

1. Optical sensors can be used in the determination of any chemical species which can interact
with electromagnetic radiation.

2. Optical sensors have been developed for a number of different types of chemical and
biochemical molecules and ions. For example, ions in anions), gases (e.g., CO 2, O2, organic
compounds etc), and molecules (e.g., glucose, pesticides, DNA, bacteria, etc) can be
determined using optical sensors.

3. Optical sensors find important and varied uses in environmental, biotechnological, food,
pharmaceutical, medical, and related applications.

4. Optical fiber based (bio)sensors are used in screening of drugs, detection of food-borne
pathogens, detection of explosives and environmental monitoring.

Electrochemical Sensor for the measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Introduction: There are several types of electrochemical sensors for DO measurement,
including amperometric, polarographic, galvanic sensors and optical sensors like
luminescence-based, fluorescence-based, and absorption-based sensors.

Fig: Galvanic sensor for DO measurement

Working:
In an electrochemical DO sensor, two electrodes used are of dissimilar metals. Zinc or lead
is used as anode and silver metal is used as inert cathode. The electrolyte solution used is KOH
or any other inert electrolyte.
The electrochemical DO sensor is immersed in the solution tobe measured, and the working
electrode is polarized at a positive potential with respect to the reference electrode. Anode
undergoes oxidation liberating electrons. At cathode, DO undergoes reduction. Ag cathode is
inert, it only passes electrons to oxygen for reduction. The current produced by the reduction
of oxygen at cathode is proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen in the water sample. The
DO concentration in the solution can be calculated from the calibration curve.

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Electrochemical sensors for the detection of Pharmaceuticals (diclofenac)

Several electrochemical sensors are available for the detection of pharmaceuticals in lower
concentration. These sensors are fast, low cost and sensitive and use disposable strips.

Diclofenac with chemical name 2-(2-((2,6-dichlorophenyl) amino) phenyl) acetic acid, is

one of the most frequently prescribed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with antipyretic
and analgesic effects. Due to wide usage and poor biodegradability, it can have serious effects
on the ecosystems. Electrochemical sensor can be used to detect diclofenac in lower
concentration.

The electrochemical detection of diclofenac (or any other analyte) typically occurs at the
interface between the analyte and the working electrode, where a potential is applied with
respect to the reference electrode, and the corresponding current is measured.
Different sensors are developed for the detection of Diclofenac such as

• Potentiometric sensor (low sensitivity)

• Electrochemical sensor with unmodified carbon electrode
• Electrochemical sensor with modified carbon electrode
• Biosensor
Working:
In the electrochemical sensor used to detect diclofenac, the sensing (working) electrode is
graphite carbon coated with multi walled carbon nano tubes and gold nanoparticles. Along with
the sensing electrode, counter electrode and reference electrodes are used. When the sample
containing diclofenac is put in the sensor, oxidation reaction of diclofenac occurs on the surface
of the sensing electrode. The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of
diclofenac.

Electrochemical sensors for the detection of hydrocarbons (hydroxypyrene)

Among the dangerous hydrocarbon pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
are widely found in the air, water and soil. PAHs are known carcinogenic and mutagenic
compounds. After entering the body, some PAHs are metabolized into hydroxyl PAHs (OH-
PAHs), which are excreted with urine. 1-hydroxypyrene is a commonly found hydroxyl PAH
in urine sample.

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In the electrochemical sensor used to detect 1-hydroxypyrene,

Working electrode: Graphite carbon coated with chromium containing metal organic
framework and graphene oxide {PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO (Composite)},
Counter Electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl Operating
Voltage: +0.7 to −0.5 V
PAMAM: Dendrimer poly amido amine
Cr-MOF: Chromium-centred metal–organic framework GO: Graphene Oxide

The 1-hydroxypyrene structure contains electrochemically active hydroxyl groups, which

can be oxidized by the anode active material. The electrochemical oxidation of 1-
hydroxypyrene can be used as the basis for an electrochemical sensor.
When the sample containing 1-hydroxypyrene is put in the sensor, the oxidation of 1-
hydroxypyrene occurs on the surface of sensing electrode to form pyrene-1,8-dione, which
generates an electrical current that is proportional to the concentration of 1-hydroxypyrene in
the sample. Concentration of 1-hydroxypyrene is determined from the change in potential of
the reaction.

Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx

Definition: Electrochemical gas sensors are devices that detect the presence of certain gases in
the environment by converting the gas molecules into an electrical signal through
electrochemical reactions.
Electrochemical gas sensor is used in monitoring of concentration of gaseous analytes.
They are used mainly to monitor the concentration of air pollutants, detection of leakage of
chemicals in industries and in defense, military and space applications.

Fig: Construction of electrochemical gas sensor

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The following are the main components of an electrochemical gas sensor.

1. Filter: The filter is used to prevent unwanted contaminants, mainly particulate matter from
entering into sensor.
2. Membrane: A gas permeable membrane is used to regulate the gas flow into the sensor. It
selectively allows only the analyte gas to pass and also acts as a barrier to prevent leakage
of the electrolyte from the interior of the sensor. Hydrophobic porous membranes are used
with aqueous electrolytes.
3. Electrodes: Two or three electrode system is used based on the requirement. Working or
sensing electrode, counter electrode and reference electrodes are used.
4. Electrolyte: Electrolyte used should be a good ionic conductor and chemically and
physically stable under operation conditions of sensor. Main role of the electrolyte is to
transport charge within the sensor, contact all electrodes effectively, solubilize the reactants
and products for efficient transport.

Working Principle of electrochemical gas sensor:

The following steps are involved in the working of a typical electrochemical gas sensor.
1. The diffusion of gas analyte through filter, membrane and then finally through electrolyte
on to the surface of sensing electrode.
2. Adsorption of analyte gas molecule on the surface of sensing electrode.
3. Oxidation of analyte on the surface of sensing electrode, liberating electrons. Transfer of
liberated electrons from anode to cathode through external circuit. The surface of sensing
electrode is the active part of the electrode. It is modified by coating with appropriate
catalysts which can selectively interact with analyte gas and carry out its chemical change.
4. Desorption of the products from the electrode surface.
5. Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to the bulk of electrolyte or gas
phase.

Sensors for NOx

Principle:
• Electrochemical gas sensors for NOx detection are based on the principle of
electrochemical reactions that occur at the surface of the sensor electrodes.
• The working electrode is coated with a material that catalyzes the reductionof NOx to
NO, while the reference electrode provides a stable potential.
• When NOx gas encounters the working electrode, it undergoes reduction to produce
NO, which generates an electrical current proportional to the concentration of NOx in
the environment.

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Working: The sensor uses a working electrode coated with a metal oxide catalyst, which
facilitates the reduction of NOx to NO. The reference electrode is made of gold, and an
electrolyte solution is used to facilitate ion transport between the electrodes. When NOx gas
comes into contact with the working electrode, it undergoes reduction to produce NO, which
generates an electrical current proportional to the concentration of NOx in the environment.
NOx + e- → NO
Sensors for SOx
When SO2 gas enters the sensor, it undergoes oxidation to produce oxygen free radicals,
which are highly reactive species. The free radicals then react with other oxygen molecules in
the sensor to produce molecular oxygen.

During this process, electrons are consumed from the sensor's electrode for the reduction of
oxygen, and the number of electrons on the electrode surface decreases. This change in the
number of electrons creates an electrical signal that can be measured and used to determine the
concentration of SO2 gas in the environment.

Reactions:

Fig: SO2 gas sensor

Disposable sensors
Disposable sensors are typically made of low-cost materials and easy-to-use sensing
devices designed for short term or rapid single-point measurements.

Advantages of Disposable Sensors over Classical Sensors:

• Cost-effective: Disposable sensors are typically cheaper than classicalsensors.
• Convenient: Disposable sensors do not require calibration or maintenance.
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• Hygienic: Disposable sensors can help reduce the risk of cross

contamination in medical and food safety applications.
• Portable: Because disposable sensors are typically smaller and lighter thanclassical
sensors.
• Rapid testing: Disposable sensors can provide results quickly, allowing forfaster
decision-making.
• Reduced waste: Because disposable sensors are designed to be used once and then
discarded.

Disposable sensor in the detection of biomolecules

Monitoring of levels of biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids,
enzymes, harmones etc, is very essential to maintain a healthy body. Because, any deficiency
or excess of these molecules may result biological disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease,
Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, heart attack etc resulting in decreased average life span of the
humans. Several types of disposable biosensors have been developed for continuous
monitoring of these bioanalytes.

Determination of Ascorbic acid (AA) explain with Oxidation of AA to

Dehydroascorbic acid
Ascorbic acid, also known as Vitamin C, is an essential well-known antioxidant and
essential nutrient in human diets and is also used as a food preservative. The detection of
ascorbic acid can be important in various fields, such as food safety and medical diagnosis. Thus,
the electrochemical biosensors which can detect ascorbic acid in various samples in lower
concentration are developed. These sensors are fast, low cost and sensitive and use disposable
strips. In the disposable strip, active materials of the sensing electrode, counter electrode and
reference electrode are printed on the disposable paper strip using screen printing technology.
Active material coated on sensing electrode must be capable of oxidizing ascorbic acid on its
surface. The ascorbate oxidase enzyme immobilized on a screen-printed carbon electrode with
poly (ethylene glycol) and di glycidyl ether as a crosslinking agent can be used as sensing
(working) electrode in ascorbic acid disposable biosensor. It oxidizes ascorbic acid into
dehydroascorbic acid and electrons are released to the electrode surface. The number of
electrons released is proportional to the concentration of AA in the sample. Concentration of
ascorbic acid is determined from the change in potential of the oxidation process.

Detection of pesticide such as Glyphosate by disposable sensor

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Enzyme modified screen printed disposable paper strip electrodes are playing an important
role in the detection of pesticides. These electrodes are coated with enzymes. Pesticides interact
with the immobilized enzymes and leads to the formation of electroactive species. This results
in decreased enzyme activity which can be measured quantitatively.
Glyphosate [N-(phosphono methyl)glycine] is a broad-spectrum herbicide and has become
a controversial pesticide due to concerns about its potential impact on human health and the
environment. Therefore, there is a need to develop a rapid, reliable and sensitive approach for
analyzing glyphosate in environmental samples.

Various analytical methods based on electrochemical biosensors have been designed and
used for glyphosate determination. Glycine oxidase can catalyze the oxidative determination of
various amines and cleave the C-N bond in glyphosate. The glycine oxidase enzyme
immobilized on a screen-printed carbon electrode can be used as sensing(working) electrode in
glyphosate disposable biosensor. When the glyphosate molecules come into contact with the
electrode surface, it oxidizes glyphosate into amido methyl phosphonic acid (AMPA) and
glyoxylate. Concentration of glyphosate is determined from the change in potential of the
oxidation process. The change in the current is directly proportional to the concentration of
glyphosate in the sample.

Reactions:

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ENERGY SYSTEM
Introduction: Battery is a simple device that stores chemical energy and later release it as
electricity. It is an electrochemical cell, a source of direct electric current at a constant voltage
and operating on the basis of the principle of galvanic cell. An electrical battery is one or more
electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. The size of a
battery can vary from a fraction of cm3 to several dm3. Since the invention of the first battery
(or "voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power source
for many household and industrial applications.

Batteries have revolutionized the telecommunication systems and are used as an

alternative source to conventional fuels in automobile industry. They are widely used in
calculators, watches, hearing aids, pace makers, computers, automobile engines, electroplating
industrials, traction and military, space application and stand-by power supplies.

BASIC CONCEPTS

The basic electrochemical unit in a battery is a galvanic cell. The principal components of a
battery are shown schematically in fig.

The principal components of a battery are

1. The anode or –ve electrode: During electrochemical reaction, it undergoes oxidation

and releases electrons to the external circuit.
M Mn+ + ne-
2. The cathode or +ve electrode: It accepts the electrons from the external circuit and
reduces the active species present.
Mn+ + ne- M
3. The electrolyte: It is an ionic conductor. The electrolyte (active mass in the anode and
cathode compartments) is a solution or a slurry of an acid or base or a salt of high
conductivity or solid with appreciable ionic conductivity at the operating temperature.
4. The separator: It is a material which electronically isolates the anode and the cathode
in a battery to prevent internal short circuiting. Its main function is to transport ions from
the anode compartment to the cathode compartment and vice versa to maintain the desired
ionic conductivity.

The following are used as separator:

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1. Fibrous forms of regenerated cellulose

2. Vinyl polymers
3. Polyolefin and
4. Cellophane and nafion membrane.

Classifications of battery:
Batteries are classified into three types.

1. Primary batteries: These are the batteries in which the cell reactions areirreversible.
Hence such batteries are not rechargeable. Such batteries are called as primary batteries.
Ex;- Dry cell.

2. Secondary batteries: These are the batteries in which cell reactions are
reversible. They are also called as storage batteries. Hence such batteries can be recharged for
number of times. Ex: - Lead storage battery, nickel- cadmium battery etc.

3. Reserve batteries: The batteries which can be stored in an inactive state and made ready
for use by activating them prior to the applications (usage)are called as reserve batteries.
The key components of the batteries such as electrolyte or electrode is separated from the
battery. And the battery is stored for a longer time, the electrolyte if filled before its usage.
The advantages of the reserve batteries are,
• Batteries can be stored for a longer period.
• To prevent corrosion at contact points during storage.
• Self-discharging reactions during storage can be eliminated or avoided.
• They can be used whenever they are required.
Ex: Mg-water activated batteries, Zn-Ag2O batteries etc.

Construction and working of Li-Ion battery

Fig: Li ion Battery

Anode: Lithium intercalated in graphite
Cathode: Lithium metal oxides (ex: Li-CoO2)
Electrolyte: Lithium salt such as LiPF6 dissolved in organic solvents like propylene carbonate,
ethylene carbonate etc.
Separator: Microporous polypropylene or polyethylene
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Li ion battery develops a potential of 3.6V

Battery Representation: LixC6 | LiX, Polypropylene | Li(1 - x)CoO2

Working:
During discharging: lithium is oxidized at anode and lithium ions move from the anode to the
cathode.
At anode: 𝐋𝐢𝐂𝟔 𝐋𝐢+ + 𝟔𝐂 + 𝐞−
Electrons flow from anode to cathode through external circuit.
At cathode, lithium ions are reduced to lithium atoms and are inserted in to the layered structure of
cathode.

During charging: Li in cathode electrode material is oxidized and Li+ ion moves from cathode to
anode through the electrolyte solution.
LiCoO2 Li1-xCoO2 + xLi+ + xe-
Electrons flows through the external circuit. At graphite (-ve) electrode, lithium ions are reduced
to lithium atoms and are inserted into the layered structure of graphite.
xLi+ + xe- + C6 LixC6
The net reaction during charging and discharging is
charging
LiCoO2 + C6 Li1-xCoO2 + LixC6
discharging

Uses: Used in cell phone, note PC, portable LCD Tv, portable CD player, semiconductor driven
audio, Electric Vehicles, etc.

Sodium-ion battery (SIB):

Introduction: Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs) were originally developed in the early 1980s,
approximately over the same time period as LIBs. In recent years, NIBs have drawn increasing
attention for large-scale energy storage, because of the natural abundance, low cost, and
environmental friendliness of sodium. Sodium ion batteries had more charge cycles than
lithium ion.
Construction and working of a SIB
Construction and working of a typical SIB is very similar to LIB.
Anode: Hard Carbon
Cathode: Sodium inserted in layered metal oxide such as CoO2 or MnO2. Recently mixed metal
oxides like NaNi0.88Mn0.06Al0.06O2, showing better performance instead of single metal oxide.
Electrolyte: Sodium salt like NaPF6 dissolved in binary organic solvent mixture such as ethylene
carbonate-dimethyl carbonate.
Separator: Polymer membrane

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Working: During discharging

At anode: C-Na Na+ + C + e-
At cathode: Na+ + e- + MO2 Na-MO2
C-Na + MO2 C + Na-MO2 + E
Working: During charging
At cathode: Na+ + C + e- C-Na
At anode: Na-MO2 Na+ + e- + MO2
C + Na-MO2 + E C-Na + MO2

Applications: Sodium ion batteries are used in Electric vehicles, large scale energy storage
technologylike wind, solar and wave.

Quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs)

A quantum dot-sensitized solar cell (QDSSC) is a solar cell design that uses quantum dots
as the absorbing photovoltaic material.

Construction:
Construction of a QDSSC involves several layers of materials, each with a specific purpose:
• Photoanode layer: This layer is made up of a semiconductor material, suchas titanium
dioxide (TiO2), which is coated with quantum dots (QDs). The QDs are typically made
of semiconductor materials such as cadmium sulfide (CdS), cadmium selenide (CdSe),
or lead sulfide (PbS) and are responsible for absorbing the light and converting it into
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electrons.
• Electrolyte layer: This layer is sandwiched between the photoanode and counter
electrode and is typically composed of an organic solvent containing a redox couple,
which acts as a charge transfer medium.
• Counter electrode layer: This layer is made up of a conductive material, such as
platinum (Pt), which is used to regenerate electrolyte and completes the circuit.

Principle: QDSSCs work based on the principle of the photovoltaic effect, which is the
generation of electrical energy from light. The QDs used in QDSSCs are semiconducting
materials that absorb light energy and generate electrons, which are then collected to produce
an electric current. The unique properties of QDs, such as their size-tunable absorption and
emission properties, make them ideal for use in solar cells.

Working:

The following steps are involved in the working of a QDSSC:

1. QD’s present on photo anode is exposed to sunlight.

2. QD’s absorb solar energy and generate charge carriers (electrons) and causes electrons to move
from valence band to conduction band. These ejected electrons are transferred to semiconductor,
leaving holes on the surface of QD’s.
3. Electrolyte takes up holes from the surface of QD’s and gets reduced.
S2- + 2h+ S
S + S2-x-1 S2-x (x= 2 to 5)
4. Electrons flow from photoanode to cathode through external circuit generating an electric current.
5. At cathode, electrolyte is regenerated taking up electrons from cathode.
S2-x S + S2-x-1
S + 2e- S2-
Properties: Here are some key properties of QDSSCs:
1. High efficiency: QDSSCs can achieve high conversion efficiencies due to their ability
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to absorb a broader range of the solar spectrum compared to conventional solar cells.
2. Size tunability: The optical and electronic properties of QDs can be tuned by adjusting
their size, making them highly versatile for use in various applications.

3. Low cost: QDSSCs are relatively low-cost to produce compared to other types of solar
cells, which makes them attractive for large-scale commercialization.

4. Environmental friendliness: Unlike traditional solar cells that use toxic materials,
QDSSCs use non-toxic materials, which makes them environmentally friendly.

Applications:
Here are four potential applications of QDSSCs:

1. Portable devices: QDSSCs can be used to power portable electronic devices.

2. Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV): QDSSCs can be integrated into the
windows and walls of buildings to generate electricity.

3. Military applications: Due to their light weight, flexibility, and ability to operate in
low-light conditions.

4. Space applications: QDSSCs could be used to power space vehicles and satellites.

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Chemistry for CSE Stream (BCHES102/202)

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