The Higher Institute of Engineering

El-Shorouk City

Electronic Devices (ECE 120)

Lecture (9)
First year-communications and computer Engineering
Dept.
1
 Collector characteristic curves
➢ These curves give a graphical illustration
of the relationship between collector
current (IC) and VCE with specified
amounts of base current.
➢ With greater increases of VCC , VCE
continues to increase until it reaches
breakdown.
➢ When VCE exceeds 0.7 V, the base-
collector junction becomes reverse-
biased and the transistor goes into the
active or linear region. In this region,
the current approximately remains
constant from 0.7 V to the breakdown
Collector characteristic curves.
voltage.
 Cutoff
➢ Cutoff is a non-conducting state of a transistor.
➢ This occurs when the base lead opens and the base current is zero.
➢ There is only a very small amount of collector leakage current , ICEO, caused
by thermally produced carriers. However, it will usually be neglected so that
VCE = VCC.

➢ In the cutoff, neither the base-emitter

nor the base-collector junctions are
forward-biased.

➢ The subscript CEO represents collector-

to- emitter with the base open.
 Saturation
➢ Saturation is the state of a BJT in which the collector current has reached a
maximum and is independent of the base current.
➢ Note that saturation value of IC can be determined by application of Ohm’s law.
When VCE reaches its saturation value (VCE(sat)) = 0.2 V, we obtain,

V CC −V CE ( sat )
I C sat =
RC
 DC Load Line
➢ DC load line graphically illustrates IC(sat) and cutoff for a transistor.

➢ The bottom of the load line is at ideal

cutoff where IC = 0 and VCE = VCC.

➢ The top of the load line is at saturation

where IC = IC(sat) and VCE = VCE(sat).

➢ Along the load line is the active region

of the transistor’s operation.
 The BJT As An Amplifier
➢ Amplification is the process of increasing the amplitude of an electrical signal. The
circuits used to provide the amplification are referred to as amplifiers.

VT
rel =
IE
V T is the thermal voltage 25mV
Basic transistor amplifier circuit.
 '
If the internal ac emitter resistance designated re is in series with RB, the
ac base voltage can be written as

Vb = I e re'
The ac collector voltage, Vc, equals the Ic
ac voltage drop across RC.

V c = −I c RC
Since I c  Ie , the ac collector voltage is

V c  −I e RC

The ratio of Vc to Vb is the ac voltage

gain, Av, of the transistor.

V c −I e RC RC
Av =   −
Vb I e re' re'
'
Because RC is always larger than re , the output voltage is greater than
input voltage.
 The BJT As A Switch
➢ A BJT can be used as a switching device. If the base-emitter junction is not forward-biased,
the BJT is in the cutoff (switched off) and there is an open circuit between collector and
emitter, as shown in Fig. (a).
➢ If the base-emitter junction and base-collector junction are forward-biased, the BJT is in the
saturation (switched on). There is an short circuit between collector and emitter, as shown in
Fig. (b).

Switching action of an ideal transistor.

❑ Conditions in Cutoff
All of the currents are zero, and VCE is equal to VCC.

VCE ( cut ) = VCC

❑ Conditions in Saturation
The formula for collector saturation current is

VCC − VCE ( sat )

I C ( sat ) =
RC

The minimum value of base current needed to produce saturation is

I C ( sat )
I B (min) =
 DC
 Transistor Bias Circuits
➢The term biasing is used for application of dc voltages to establish a fixed level of
current and voltage.

➢Transistor must be properly biased with dc voltage to operate as a linear amplifier.

➢If amplifier is not biased with correct dc voltages on input and output, it can go into
saturation or cutoff when the input signal applied.

➢There are several methods to establish DC operating point.

➢We will discuss some of the methods used for biasing transistors.
 The DC Operating Point
• The goal of amplification in most cases is to increase the amplitude of an ac
signal without altering it.
• Improper biasing can cause distortion in the output signal.
 The DC Operating Point
The purpose of biasing a circuit is to establish a proper stable dc operating point
(Q-point). The dc operating point between saturation and cutoff is called the Q-
point. The goal is to set the Q-point such that that it does not go into saturation or
cutoff when an ac signal is applied.
• Q-point of a circuit: dc operating point of amplifier specified by
voltage and current values (VCE and IC). These values are called the
coordinates of Q-point.
• Refer to figure a, given IB = 200μA and βDC=100. IC=βDCIB so IC=20mA and
VCE = VCC − I C RC = 10V − ( 20mA )( 220) = 10 − 4.4 = 5.6V

• Figure b, VBB is increased to produce IB of 300μA and IC of 30mA.

VCE = VCC − I C RC = 10V − ( 30mA )( 220) = 10 − 6.6 = 3.4V

• Figure c, VBB is increased to produce IB of 400μA and IC=40mA. So, VCE is:
VCE = VCC − I C RC = 10V − (40mA )( 220) = 10 − 8.8 = 1.2V
 DC Operating Point-DC load line
•Recall that the collector characteristic curves graphically show the relationship of
collector current and VCE for different base currents.
• When IB increases, IC increases and VCE decreases or vice-versa. Each separate Q-
point is connected through dc load line. At any point along line, values of IB, IC and
VCE can be picked off the graph.
•Dc load line intersect VCE axis at 10V, where VCE=VCC. This is cutoff point because IB
and IC zero. Dc load line also intersect IC axis at 45.5mA ideally. This is saturation
point because IC is max and VCE=0.
 DC Operating Point-Linear operation
•Region between saturation and cutoff is linear region of transistor’s
operation. The output voltage is ideally linear reproduction of input if
transistor is operated in linear region.
•Let’s look at the effect a superimposed ac voltage has on the circuit. IB vary
sinusoidally 100μA above and below Q-point of 300μA. IC vary up and down
10mA of its Q-point(30mA). VCE varies 2.2V above and below its Q-point of
3.4V.
•However, as you might already know, applying too much ac voltage to the
base would result in driving the collector current into saturation or cutoff
resulting in a distorted or clipped waveform.
•When +ve peak is limited, transistor is in cutoff. When –ve peak is limited,
transistor is in saturation.
Variations in IC and VCE as a result of variation in IB.
Graphical load line illustration of transistor being driven into
saturation or cutoff
Graphical load line for transistor in saturation and cutoff