Antiderivatives

To find a function F whose derivative is f(x) = 3x2, you might use your knowledge of
derivatives to conclude that

The function F is an antiderivative of f.

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 Antiderivatives

Note that F is called an antiderivative of f rather than the antiderivative of f. To see

why, observe that

are all derivatives of f (x) = 3x2. In fact, for any constant C, the function F(x)= x3 + C
is an antiderivative of f.

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 Antiderivatives

The family of functions represented by G is the general antiderivative of f, and

G(x) = x2 + C is the general solution of the differential equation

G'(x) = 2x. Differential equation

A differential equation in x and y is an equation that involves x, y, and

derivatives of y.

For instance, y' = 3x and y' = x2 + 1 are examples of differential equations.

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 Antiderivatives
The graphs of several functions of the form y = 2x + C are shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1

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 Antiderivatives
When solving a differential equation of the form

it is convenient to write it in the equivalent differential form

The operation of finding all solutions of this equation is called

antidifferentiation (or indefinite integration) and is denoted by an
integral sign ∫.

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 Antiderivatives

The general solution is denoted by

The expression ∫f(x)dx is read as the antiderivative of f with respect to x. So, the
differential dx serves to identify x as the variable of integration. The term
indefinite integral is a synonym for antiderivative.

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 Basic Integration Rules

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 Basic Integration Rules

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 Initial Conditions and Particular Solutions
▪ You have already seen that the equation y = ∫f(x)dx has
many solutions (each differing from the others by a
constant).
▪ This means that the graphs of any two antiderivatives of f
are vertical translations of each other.
For example, Figure 4.2 shows the graphs of several
antiderivatives of the form

for various integer values of C.

Each of these antiderivatives is a solution of the differential
equation
Figure 4.2

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 Initial Conditions and Particular Solutions
In many applications of integration, you are given enough information to determine
a particular solution. To do this, you need only know the value of y = F(x) for
one value of x. This information is called an initial condition.

For example, in Figure 4.2, only one curve passes through the point (2, 4).

To find this curve, you can use the general solution

F(x) = x3 – x + C General solution

and the initial condition

F(2) = 4. Initial condition

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 Initial Conditions and Particular Solutions
By using the initial condition in the general solution, you
can determine that

F(2) = 8 – 2 + C = 4

which implies that C = –2.

So, you obtain

F(x) = x3 – x – 2. Particular solution

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 Example 1 – Finding a Particular Solution
Find the general solution of and find the particular solution that satisfies the
initial condition F(1) = 0.
Solution:
To find the general solution, integrate to obtain

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 Example 1 – Finding a Particular Solution

Using the initial condition F(1) = 0, you can solve for C as

follows.

So, the particular solution, as shown in Figure 4.3, is

Figure 4.3

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 Area
For example, to determine the area of a triangle, you can form a rectangle whose
area is twice that of the triangle, as shown in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5

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 Area
Once you know how to find the area of a triangle, you can determine the area of any
polygon by subdividing the polygon into triangular regions, as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6

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 Area
For instance, in Figure 4.7, the area of a circular region is approximated by an n-
sided inscribed polygon and an n-sided circumscribed polygon.

Figure 4.7

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 Example 1 – Approximating the Area of a Plane
Region
Use the five rectangles in Figure 4.8(a) and (b) to find two approximations of the
area of the region lying between the graph of f(x) = –x2 + 5 and the x-axis between x
=0 and x = 2.

Figure 4.8

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 Example 3(a) – Solution

The right endpoints of the five intervals are

where i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

The width of each rectangle is , and the height of each

rectangle can be obtained by evaluating f at the right endpoint of each interval.

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 Example 3(a) – Solution

The sum of the areas of the five rectangles is

Because each of the five rectangles lies inside the parabolic region, you can
conclude that the area of the parabolic region is greater than 6.48.

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 Example 3(b) – Solution
The left endpoints of the five intervals are

where i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

The width of each rectangle is , and the height of each rectangle can be obtained by
evaluating f at the left endpoint of each interval. So, the sum is

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 Finding Area by the Limit Definition
Consider a plane region bounded above by the graph of a nonnegative, continuous
function y = f (x) as shown in Figure 4.9.

The region is bounded below by the x-axis, and the left and right boundaries of the
region are the vertical lines x = a and x = b.

Figure 4.9

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 Finding Area by the Limit Definition
To approximate the area of the region, begin by subdividing the interval [a, b] into
n subintervals, each of width

as shown in Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10

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 Finding Area by the Limit Definition
The endpoints of the intervals are

Because f is continuous, the Extreme Value Theorem guarantees the existence

of a minimum and a maximum value of f (x) in each subinterval.

f (mi) = Minimum value of f (x) in ith subinterval

f (Mi) = Maximum value of f (x) in ith subinterval

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 Finding Area by the Limit Definition
Next, define an inscribed rectangle lying inside the ith subregion and a
circumscribed rectangle extending outside the ith subregion. The height of
the ith inscribed rectangle is f(mi) and the height of the ith circumscribed
rectangle is f(Mi).

For each i, the area of the inscribed rectangle is less than or equal to the area of
the circumscribed rectangle.

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 Finding Area by the Limit Definition
The sum of the areas of the inscribed rectangles is called a lower sum, and the
sum of the areas of the circumscribed rectangles is called an upper sum.

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 Finding Area by the Limit Definition
From Figure 4.11, you can see that the lower sum s(n) is less than or equal to the
upper sum S(n). Moreover, the actual area of the region lies between these two
sums.

Figure 4.11

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 Example 3 – Finding Upper and Lower Sums for a Region
Find the upper and lower sums for the region bounded by the graph of f(x) = x2
and the x-axis between x = 0 and x = 2.

Solution:
To begin, partition the interval [0, 2] into n subintervals, each of width

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 Example 4 – Solution
Figure 4.12 shows the endpoints of the subintervals and several inscribed and
circumscribed rectangles.

Figure 4.12

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 Example 4 – Solution
Because f is increasing on the interval [0, 2], the minimum value on each
subinterval occurs at the left endpoint, and the maximum value occurs at the right
endpoint.

Using the left endpoints, the lower sum is

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 Example 4 – Solution

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 Example 4 – Solution

Using the right endpoints, the upper sum is

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 Finding Area by the Limit Definition
In Theorem 4.3, the same limit is attained for both the minimum value f(mi) and
the maximum value f(Mi).

So, it follows from the Squeeze Theorem (Theorem 1.8) that the choice of x in the
ith subinterval does not affect
the limit.

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 Thanks a lot …

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