UNIT - III: Radiation

 Kirchhoff’s Law
 Planck’s Distribution Law
 Wein’s Displacement Law
 Stefan-Boltzmann’s Relation and Configuration Factor
 Radiant Heat Interchange between Black & Grey Surfaces
 Solar Radiation
 Radiation Shielding

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 INTRODUCTION
• Radiation: Does not require a material medium to take place.

• Energy transfer: By electro magnetic waves at the speed of light and no attenuation in a vacuum.

• Radiation heat transfer can occur between two bodies separated by a medium colder than both bodies.

• Solar radiation reaches the surface of the earth after passing through cold air layers at high altitudes

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 HISTORY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
• James Clerk Maxwell (Physicist):
 Postulated in 1864 that accelerated charges or changing electric currents give rise to electric and magnetic fields.

 These rapidly moving fields are called electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic (EM) radiation,

 EM waves represent the energy emitted by matter as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of
the atoms or molecules.

• Heinrich Hertz (1887)

 Experimentally demonstrated the existence of EM waves.

 EM waves transport energy just like other waves, and all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a

vacuum, which is C0 = 2.9979 x 108 m/s.

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 HISTORY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

• Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency ν or wavelength λ. These two properties
in a medium are related by

• The speed of propagation in a medium is related to the speed of light in a vacuum by c = c 0/n, where
n is the index of refraction of that medium.
• The refractive index is essentially unity for air and most gases, about 1.5 for glass, and about 1.33
for water.
• The commonly used unit of wavelength is the micrometer (μm) or micron, where 1 μm = 10-6 m.
• The frequency of an electromagnetic wave depends only on the source and is independent of the
medium through which the wave travels.
• The frequency (the number of oscillations per second) of an electromagnetic wave can range from
less than a million Hz to a septillion Hz or higher, depending on the source.

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 HISTORY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
•

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 THERMAL RADIATION
• The electromagnetic radiation encountered in practice covers a wide
range of wavelengths, varying from less than 10-10 μm for cosmic rays to
more than 1010 μm for electrical power waves.
• The electromagnetic spectrum also includes gamma rays, X-rays,
ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, thermal radiation,
microwaves, and radio waves.
• The type of electromagnetic radiation that is pertinent to heat transfer is
the thermal radiation emitted as a result of energy transitions of
molecules, atoms, and electrons of a substance.
• Temperature is a measure of the strength of these activities at the
microscopic level, and the rate of thermal radiation emission increases
with increasing temperature.
• Thermal radiation is continuously emitted by all matter whose
temperature is above absolute zero.
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 THERMAL RADIATION
• Thermal radiation is also defined as the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
that extends from about 0.1 to 100 μm, since the radiation emitted by bodies due
to their temperature falls almost entirely into this wavelength range.
• Thermal radiation includes the entire visible and infrared (IR) radiation as well
as a portion of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
• Visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum lies between 0.40 and 0.76 μm.
• Light is characteristically no different than other electromagnetic radiation, except
that it happens to trigger the sensation of seeing in the human eye.
• Light, or the visible spectrum, consists of narrow bands of color from violet (0.40–
0.44 μm) to red (0.63–0.76 μm).
• A body that emits some radiation in the visible range is called a light source.
• The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun is known as solar radiation, and
nearly all of it falls into the wavelength band 0.3–3 μm.
• Almost half of solar radiation is light (i.e., it falls into the visible range), with
the remaining being ultraviolet and infrared.
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 THERMAL RADIATION
• The radiation emitted by bodies at room temperature falls into the
infrared region of the spectrum, which extends from 0.76 to 100 μm.
• Bodies start emitting noticeable visible radiation at temperatures above
800 K.
• The tungsten filament of a lightbulb must be heated to temperatures
above 2000 K before it can emit any significant amount of radiation in
the visible range.
• The ultraviolet radiation includes the low-wavelength end of the
thermal radiation spectrum and lies between the wavelengths 0.01 and
0.40 μm.
• Ultraviolet rays are to be avoided since they can kill microorganisms
and cause serious damage to humans and other living organisms.
• About 12% of solar radiation is in the ultraviolet range, and it would
be devastating if it were to reach the surface of the earth.
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 HEAT TRANSFER DUE TO RADIATION
• An idealized body which emits the maximum amount
of radiation from the surface at a given temperature,
is called Blackbody.
• A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and
absorber of radiation.
• At a specified temperature and wavelength, no
surface can emit more energy than a blackbody.
• A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation,
regardless of wavelength and direction.
• Also, a blackbody emits radiation energy uniformly
in all directions per unit area normal to direction of
emission.
• That is, a blackbody is a diffuse emitter. The term
diffuse means “independent of direction.”
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 BLACKBODY RADIATION: STEFAN-BOLTZMANN’S LAW
•

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 BLACKBODY RADIATION:PLANK’S LAW
•

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 BLACKBODY RADIATION: Wien’s Displacement Law
•

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 BLACKBODY RADIATION
• The Stefan–Boltzmann law Eb(T) = σT4 gives the total radiation emitted by a blackbody
at all wavelengths from λ = 0 to λ = ∞. But we are often interested in the amount of
radiation emitted over some wavelength band.
• The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit
area over a wavelength band from λ = 0 to λ is
determined from

• The function fλ represents the fraction of radiation

emitted from a blackbody at temperature T in the
wavelength band from λ = 0 to λ. 18
 RADIATION INTENSITY
• The intensity of radiation (I) is defined as the rate of energy leaving a surface in a given
direction per unit solid angle per unit area of the emitting surface normal to the mean direction
in space.
• The direction of radiation passing through a point is best described in spherical coordinates in
terms of the zenith angle θ and the azimuth angle ϕ.

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 SOLID ANGLE
• This can be shown easily by considering a differential surface area on a sphere dS = r 2sinθ
dθdϕ, and integrating it from θ = 0 to θ = π and ϕ = 0 to ϕ = 2π, We get

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 INTENSITY OF EMITTED RADIATION
• Radiation is emitted in all directions into the hemispherical space,
and the radiation streaming though the surface area dS is
proportional to the solid angle dω subtended by dS.
• It is also proportional to the radiating area dA as seen by an
observer on dS, which varies from a maximum of dA when dS is at
the top directly above dA (θ = 0˚) to a minimum of zero when dS is
at the bottom (θ = 90˚).
• The radiation intensity for emitted radiation Ie(θ, ϕ) is defined as the
rate at which radiation energy dQe is emitted in the (θ, ϕ) direction
per unit area normal to this direction and per unit solid angle about
this direction.

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 RADIOSITY AND EMISSIVITY
• Surfaces emit radiation as well as reflecting it, and thus the radiation
leaving a surface consists of emitted and reflected components.

• The calculation of radiation heat transfer between surfaces involves the

total radiation energy streaming away from a surface, with no regard for
its origin. Radiosity (J) is defined as a quantity that represents the rate at
which radiation energy leaves a unit area of a surface in all directions.

• Most materials encountered in practice, such as metals, wood, and bricks,

are opaque to thermal radiation, and radiation is considered to be a
surface phenomenon for such materials.

• The emissivity of a surface represents the ratio of the radiation emitted

by the surface at a given temperature to the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature. The emissivity of a surface is
denoted by ε, and it varies between zero and one. Emissivity is a measure
of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody, for which ε = 1.

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ABSORPTIVITY, REFLECTIVITY & TRANSMISSIVITY

The first law of thermodynamics requires that the sum of the

absorbed, reflected, and transmitted radiation energy be
equal to the incident radiation

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Absorptivity, Reflectivity & Transmissivity

• These definitions are for total hemispherical

properties, since G represents the radiation flux
incident on the surface from all directions over the
hemispherical space and over all wavelengths.
• Thus, α, ρ, and τ are the average properties of a
medium for all directions and all wavelengths.
• However, like emissivity, these properties can also
be defined for a specific wavelength and/or
direction.

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 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
• A large isothermal enclosure forms a blackbody cavity regardless of the radiative properties of the enclosure
surface, and the body in the enclosure is too small to interfere with the blackbody nature of the cavity.

• Therefore, the radiation incident on any part of the surface of the small body is equal to the radiation emitted by
a blackbody at temperature T.

• That is, G = Eb(T) = σT4, and the radiation absorbed by the small body per unit of its surface area is

• The radiation emitted by the small body is

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Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the orientation of
the surfaces relative to each other as well as their radiation properties SHAPE FACTOR
and temperatures.
• To account for the effects of orientation on radiation heat transfer
between two surfaces, consider a new parameter called the view
factor.
• It is a purely geometric quantity and is independent of the surface
properties and temperature.
• It is also called the shape factor, configuration factor, and angle
factor.
• The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is denoted by F i → j or
just Fij, and is defined as

• View factor F12 represents the fraction of radiation leaving surface 1 that
strikes surface 2 directly, and F21 represents the fraction of the radiation
leaving surface 2 that strikes surface 1 directly.

• Note that The radiation that strikes a surface does not need to be absorbed by
that surface. Radiation that strikes a surface after being reflected by other
surfaces is not considered in the evaluation of view factors. 28
 SHAPE FACTOR
• Surface 1 emits and reflects radiation diffusely in all directions with a constant intensity of I 1,
and the solid angle subtended by dA2 when viewed by dA1 is dω21.

• The rate at which radiation leaves dA1 in the direction of θ1 is I1.cos θ1.dA1.

• The portion of this radiation that strikes dA2 is

• The total rate at which radiation leaves dA1 (via emission and
reflection) in all directions is the radiosity (which is J 1 = πI1)
times the surface area,

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 SHAPE FACTOR
Then the differential view factor dFdA1 → dA2 , which is the fraction of radiation leaving dA1 that strikes dA2 directly,
becomes

The view factor from a differential area dA1 to a finite area A2 can be determined from the fact that the fraction of
radiation leaving dA1 that strikes A2 is the sum of the fractions of radiation striking the differential areas dA2.
Therefore, the view factor FdA1 → A2 is determined by integrating FdA1 → dA2 over A2,

• Multiplying the former by A1 and the latter by A2 gives.

• This equation is known as the reciprocity relation for view factors. It allows the
calculation of a view factor from a knowledge of the other.
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 SHAPE FACTOR RELATIONS
1. Reciprocity Relation: The view factors Fi → j and Fj → i are not equal to each other unless
the areas of the two surfaces are.

2. Summation Rule: The conservation of energy principle

requires that the entire radiation leaving any surface i of an
enclosure be intercepted by the surfaces of the enclosure. Therefore,
the sum of the view factors from surface i of an enclosure to all
surfaces of the enclosure, including to itself, must equal unity. This
is known as the summation rule for an enclosure and is expressed
as

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Shape Factor Relations
2. Summation Rule:
The conservation of energy principle requires that the entire
radiation leaving any surface i of an enclosure be intercepted by the
surfaces of the enclosure.
Therefore, the sum of the view factors from surface i of an
enclosure to all surfaces of the enclosure, including to itself, must
equal unity.
This is known as the summation rule for an enclosure and is
expressed as

For a 3-surface enclosure,

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Determine the view factors associated with an enclosure formed by two spheres?

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 SHAPE FACTOR RELATIONS
3. Superposition Rule: Sometimes the view factor associated with a given geometry is not
available in standard tables and charts. In such cases, it is desirable to express the given geometry
as the sum or difference of some geometries with known view factors.

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 SHAPE FACTOR RELATIONS
4. Symmetry Rule:
• Identical surfaces that are oriented in an identical manner with respect to
another surface will intercept identical amounts of radiation leaving that surface.
• Therefore, the symmetry rule can be expressed as two (or more) surfaces that
possess symmetry about a third surface will have identical view factors from that
surface.

• The symmetry rule can also be expressed as if the surfaces j and k are symmetric
about the surface i then Fi → j = Fi → k.
• Using the reciprocity rule, the relation F j → i = Fk → i is also true in this case.

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 SHAPE FACTOR RELATIONS
Determine the view factors from the base of the pyramid to each of its four side surfaces. The base
of the pyramid is a square, and its side surfaces are isosceles triangles?

From the symmetry rule:

From the summation rule:

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RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER: BLACK SURFACE
Consider two black surfaces of arbitrary shape maintained at uniform temperatures T1 and T2.
Recognizing that radiation leaves a black surface at a rate of Eb = σT4 per unit surface area and
that the view factor F1 → 2 represents the fraction of radiation leaving surface 1 that strikes surface
2, the net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface 1 to surface 2 can be expressed as

Applying the reciprocity relation A1F1 → 2 = A2F2 → 1 yields

A negative value for Q1 → 2 indicates that net radiation heat transfer is from surface 2 to surface 1.

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 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER: BLACK SURFACE
Now consider an enclosure consisting of N black surfaces maintained at specified temperatures.
The net radiation heat transfer from any surface i of this enclosure is determined by adding up the
net radiation heat transfers from surface i to each of the surfaces of the enclosure:

Radiation Heat Transfer: Diffuse and Gray Surface

For a surface i that is gray and opaque (εi = αi and αi + ρi = 1), the radiosity can be expressed as:

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NET RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER TO/OR FROM A SURFACE
The net rate of radiation heat transfer from a surface i of surface area Ai is denoted by Qi and is
expressed as:

In an electrical analogy to Ohm’s law, this equation can be rearranged as:

Surface resistance to radiation

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 NET RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN ANY TWO SURFACE
Consider two diffuse, gray, and opaque surfaces of arbitrary shape maintained at uniform
temperatures. The net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface i to surface j can be expressed as

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 NETWORK METHOD
• The application of the method is straightforward: draw a surface resistance associated with
each surface of an enclosure and connect them with space resistances.
• Then solve the radiation problem by treating it as an electrical network problem where the
radiation heat transfer replaces the current and radiosity replaces the potential.
• The network method is not practical for enclosures with more than three or four surfaces,
however, because of the increased complexity of the network.

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 NET RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN ANY TWO SURFACE
Space Resistance to radiation

• In an N-surface enclosure, the conservation of energy principle requires that the net heat
transfer from surface i be equal to the sum of the net heat transfers from surface i to each
of the N surfaces of the enclosure. That is,

• By combining the above equation with the , we get

The net radiation flow from a surface through its surface

resistance is equal to the sum of the radiation flows from that
surface to all other surfaces through the corresponding space
resistances 45
NETWORK METHOD: TWO SURFACE ENCLOSURES

Consider an enclosure consisting of two opaque surfaces at specified

temperatures T1 and T2,

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The foregoing result may be used for any two isothermal diffuse, gray surfaces that
form an enclosure and are each characterized by uniform radiosity and irradiation.

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NETWORK METHOD: TWO SURFACE ENCLOSURES

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 NETWORK METHOD: THREE SURFACE ENCLOSURES
• The three endpoint potentials Eb1, Eb2, and Eb3 are
considered known, since the surface temperatures
are specified.
• Then the radiosities J1, J2, and J3 are need to be
find.
• The three equations for the determination of these
three unknowns are obtained from the
requirement that the algebraic sum of the currents
(net radiation heat transfer) at each node must
equal zero.

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 RADIATION SHIELDS
• Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can be reduced greatly by inserting
a thin, high-reflectivity (low-emissivity) sheet of material between the two
surfaces.

• Such highly reflective thin plates or shells are called radiation shields.

• The role of the radiation shield is to reduce the rate of radiation heat transfer by
placing additional resistances in the path of radiation heat flow.

• The lower the emissivity of the shield, the higher the resistance.

• Multilayer radiation shields constructed of about 20 sheets per cm thickness

separated by evacuated space are commonly used in cryogenic and space
applications.
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 RADIATION SHIELDS
Radiation heat transfer between two large parallel plates of emissivity's ε1 and ε2 maintained at
uniform temperatures T1 and T2 is given by

HT w/o Shield HT withShield

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 RADIATION SHIELDS
• For infinite parallel plate,

For N number of radiation shields

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 RADIATION SHIELDS
If the emissivity's of all the radiation shields are equal

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