MODULE-1

Introduction to Embedded System

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 1

Syllabus
Introduction to Embedded System: What is an Embedded Systems? Embedded systems Vs General
computing systems, History of Embedded Systems, Classification of Embedded systems, Major Application
Areas of Embedded Systems. Purpose of Embedded Systems, The Typical Embedded System,
Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller, Differences between RISC and CISC, Harvard V/s Von- Neumann
Processor/Controller Architecture, Big-endian V/s Little-endian processors, Memory (ROM and RAM
types), Sensors & Actuators, The I/O Subsystem – I/O Devices, Light Emitting Diode (LED), 7- Segment
LED Display, Optocoupler, Relay, Piezo buzzer, Push button switch, Communication Interfaces, On-board
Communication Interface, External Communication Interface, Embedded Firmware, Other System
Components

Text Books
Shibu K V, “Introduction to Embedded Systems”, Tata McGraw Hill Education

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 2

1.1 WHAT IS AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

• An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical system designed to perform a specific

function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware (software).
• Every embedded system is unique, and the hardware as well as the firmware is highly specialized
to the application domain.
• Embedded systems are becoming an inevitable part of any product or equipment in all fields
including household appliances, telecommunications medical equipment, industrial control,
consumer products, etc.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 3

1.2 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS VS. GENERAL COMPUTING SYSTEMS

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 4

1.3 HISTORY OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
• Embedded systems were in existence even before the IT revolution. In the olden days, embedded
systems were built around the old vacuum tube and transistor technologies and the embedded algorithm
was developed in low level languages.
• Advances in semiconductor and nano-technology and IT revolution gave way to the development of
miniature embedded systems.
• The first recognized modern embedded system is the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) developed by
the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory for the lunar expedition. They ran the inertial guidance systems of
both the Command Module (CM) and the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM).
• The Command Module was designed to encircle the moon while the Lunar Module and its crew were
designed to go down to the moon surface and land there safely.
• The Lunar Module featured in total 18 engines. There were 16 reaction control thrusters, a descent
engine and an ascent engine.
• The descent engine was ‘designed to’ provide thrust to the lunar module out of the lunar orbit and land it
safely on the moon. MIT’s original design was based on 4K words of fixed memory (Read Only
Memory) and 256 words of erasable memory (Random Access Memory).
• By June 1963, the figures reached 10K of fixed and 1K of erasable memory. The final configuration was
36K words of fixed memory and 2K words of erasable memory. The clock frequency of the first
microchip proto model used in AGC

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 5

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Some of the criteria used in the classification of embedded systems are as follows:
(1) Based on generation
(2) Complexity and performance requirements
(3) Based on deterministic behaviour
(4) Based on triggering.

• The classification based on deterministic system behaviour is applicable for ‘Real Time’ systems. The
application/task execution behaviour for an embedded system can be either deterministic or non-
deterministic.

• Based on the execution behaviour, Real Time embedded systems are classified into Hard and Soft.

• Embedded Systems which are ‘Reactive’ in nature (Like process control systems in industrial control
applications) can be classified based on the trigger.

• Reactive systems can be either event triggered or time triggered.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 6

Classification Based on Generation:

This classification is based on the order in which the embedded processing systems evolved from the first
version to where they are today.
First Generation:
The early embedded systems were built around 8 bit microprocessors like 8085 and Z80, and 4bit
microcontrollers. Simple in hardware circuits with firmware developed in Assembly code. Digital telephone
keypads, stepper motor control units etc, are examples of this.

Second Generation:
These are embedded systems built around 16 bit microprocessors and 8 or 16 bit microcontrollers, following the
first generation embedded systems. The instruction set for the second generation processors/controllers were
much more complex and powerful than the first generation processors/controllers. Some of the second
generation embedded systems contained embedded operating systems for their operation. Data Acquisition
Systems, SCADA systems, etc. are examples of second generation embedded systems.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 7

Third Generation:
With advances in processor technology, embedded system developers started making use of powerful 32bit
processors and 16bit microcontrollers for their design. A new concept of application and domain specific
processors/controllers like Digital Signal Processors (DSP) and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
came into the picture. The instruction set of processors became more complex and powerful and the concept of
instruction pipelining also evolved.
The processor market was flooded with different types of processors from different vendors. Processors like
Intel Pentium, Motorola 68K, etc. gained attention in high performance embedded requirements. Dedicated
embedded real time and general purpose operating systems entered into the embedded market. Embedded
systems spread its ground to areas like robotics, media, industrial process control, networking, etc.

Fourth Generation:
The advent of System on Chips (SoC), reconfigurable processors and multicore processors are bringing high
performance, tight integration and miniaturization into the embedded device market. The SoC technique
implements a total system on a chip by integrating different functionalities with a processor core on an
integrated circuit. The fourth generation embedded systems are making use of high-performance real time
embedded operating systems for their functioning. Smart phone devices, mobile internet devices (MIDs), etc.
are examples of fourth generation embedded systems.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 8

Classification Based on Complexity and Performance:
This classification is based on the complexity and system performance requirements. According to this
classification, embedded systems can be grouped into the following:
• Small-Scale Embedded Systems
Embedded systems which are simple in application needs and where the performance requirements are not
time critical fall under this category. An electronic toy is a typical example of a small-scale embedded system.
Small-scale embedded systems are usually built around low performance and low cost 8 or 16 bit
microprocessors/microcontrollers. A small-scale embedded system may or may not contain an operating
system for its functioning.
• Medium-Scale Embedded Systems
Embedded systems which are slightly complex in hardware and firmware (software) requirements fall under
this category. Medium-scale embedded systems are usually built around medium performance, low cost 16 or
32 bit microprocessors/microcontrollers or digital signal processors. They usually contain an embedded
operating system (either general purpose or real time operating system) for functioning.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 9

• Large-Scale Embedded Systems/Complex Systems:
Embedded systems which involve highly complex hardware and firmware requirements fall under this category.
They are employed in mission critical applications demanding high performance. Such systems are commonly
built around high performance 32 or 64 bit RISC processors/controllers or Reconfigurable System on Chip (
RSoC) or multi-core processors and programmable logic devices. They may contain multiple
processors/controllers and co-units/hardware accelerators for offloading the processing requirements from the
main processor of the system. Decoding/ encoding of media, cryptographic function implementation, etc. are
examples for processing requirements which can be implemented using a co-processor/hardware accelerator.
Complex embedded systems usually contain a high performance Real Time Operating System (RTOS) for task
scheduling, prioritization, and management.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 10

MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are countless. A few of the important domains and
products are listed below:
(1) Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.
(2) Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, fridge, microwave oven, etc.
(3) Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, intruder detection alarms, closed circuit
television cameras, fi re alarms, etc.
(4) Automotive industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), engine control, ignition systems, automatic navigation
systems, etc.
(5) Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset multimedia applications, etc.
(6) Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
(7) Computer networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs, firewalls, etc.
(8) Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines etc.
(9) Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multimeters, digital CROs, logic analysers PLC systems, etc.
(10) Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines (ATM) and currency counters, point of sales (POS)
(11) Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.
(12) Wearable Devices: Health and Fitness Trackers, Smartphone Screen extension for notifi cations, etc.
(13) Cloud Computing and Internet of Things (IOT)

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 11

PURPOSE OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

Embedded systems are used in various domains like consumer electronics, home automation,
telecommunications, automotive industry, healthcare, control & instrumentation, retail and banking
applications, etc. Within the domain itself, according to the application usage context, they may have different
functionalities. Each embedded system is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks:
(1) Data collection/Storage/Representation
(2) Data communication
(3) Data (signal) processing
(4) Monitoring
(5) Control
(6) Application specific user interface

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 12

Data Collection/Storage/Representation:
• Embedded systems designed for the purpose of data collection performs acquisition of data from the
external world. Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation, and transmission.
• The term “data” refers to all kinds of information, viz. text, voice, image, video, electrical signals and any
other measurable quantities. Data can be either analog (continuous) or digital (discrete).
• Embedded systems with analog data capturing techniques collect data directly in the form of analog signals
whereas embedded systems with digital data collection mechanism converts the analog signal to
corresponding digital signal using analog to digital (A/D) converters and then collects the binary equivalent
of the analog data. If the data is digital, it can be directly captured without any additional interface by digital
embedded systems.
• The collected data may be stored directly in the system or may be transmitted to some other systems or it
may be processed by the system or it may be deleted instantly after giving a meaningful representation.
These actions are purely dependent on the purpose for which the embedded system is designed.
• Embedded systems designed for pure measurement applications without storage, used in control and
instrumentation domain, collects data and gives a meaningful representation of the collected data by means
of graphical representation or quantity value and deletes the collected data when new data arrives at the
data collection terminal.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 13

• Analog and digital CROs without storage memory are typical examples of this. Any measuring equipment
used in the medical domain for monitoring without storage functionality also comes under this category.
• Some embedded systems store the collected data for processing and analysis. Such systems incorporate a
built-in/plug-in storage memory for storing the captured data.
• Some of them give the user a meaningful representation of the collected data by visual
(graphical/quantitative) or audible means using display units [Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), Light Emitting
Diode (LED), etc.] buzzers, alarms, etc.
• Examples are: measuring instruments with storage memory and monitoring instruments with storage
memory used in medical applications. Certain embedded systems store the data and will not give a
representation of the same to the user, whereas the data is used for internal processing.
• A digital camera is a typical example of an embedded system with data collection/storage/ representation of
data. Images are captured and the captured image may be stored within the memory of the camera. The
captured image can also be presented to the user through a graphic LCD unit.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 14

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 15
Data Communication
• Embedded data communication systems are deployed in applications ranging from complex satellite
communication systems to simple home networking systems.
• The data collected by an embedded terminal may require transferring of the same to some other system
located remotely.
• The transmission is achieved either by a wire-line medium or by a wireless medium. Wireline medium was
the most common choice in all olden days embedded systems.
• As technology is changing, wireless medium is becoming the default standard for data communication in
embedded systems. A wireless medium offers cheaper connectivity solutions and make the communication
link free from the hassle of wire bundles.
• Data can either be transmitted by analog means or by digital means. Modern industry trends are settling
towards digital communication. The data collecting embedded terminal itself can incorporate data
communication units like wireless modules (Bluetooth, ZigBee, Wi-Fi, EDGE, GPRS, etc.) or wire-line modules
(RS- 232C, USB, TCP/IP, PS2, etc.).

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 16

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 17
Data (Signal) Processing:

The data (voice, image, video, electrical signals, and other

measurable quantities) collected by embedded systems may be
used for various kinds of data processing. Embedded systems
with signal processing functionalities are employed in
applications demanding signal processing like speech coding,
synthesis, audio video codec, transmission applications, etc. A
digital hearing aid is a typical example of an embedded system
employing data processing. Digital hearing aid improves the
hearing capacity of hearing impaired persons.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 18

Monitoring
• Embedded systems falling under this category are specifically
designed for monitoring purpose. Almost all embedded products
coming under the medical domain are with monitoring functions
only.
• They are used for determining the state of some variables using input
sensors. They cannot impose control over variables.
• A very good example is the electro cardiogram (ECG) machine for
monitoring the heartbeat of a patient.
• The machine is intended to do the monitoring of the heartbeat. It
cannot impose control over the heartbeat.
• The sensors used in ECG are the different electrodes connected to the
patient’s body.
• Some other examples of embedded systems with monitoring function
are measuring instruments like digital CRO, digital multimeters, logic
analysers, etc. used in Control & Instrumentation applications. They
are used for knowing (monitoring) the status of some variables like
current, voltage, etc. They cannot control the variables in turn.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 19

Control:
• Embedded systems with control functionalities impose
control over some variables according to the changes in
input variables.
• A system with control functionality contains both sensors
and actuators.
• Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the
changes in environmental variable or measuring variable.
• The actuators connected to the output port are controlled
according to the changes in input variable to put an impact
on the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to
the specified range.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 20

Air conditioner system used in our home to control the room temperature to a specified limit is a typical
example for embedded system for control purpose. An air conditioner contains a room temperature-sensing
element (sensor) which may be a thermistor and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding) the desired
temperature. The handheld unit may be connected to the central embedded unit residing inside the air
conditioner through a wireless link or through a wired link. The air compressor unit acts as the actuator. The
compressor is controlled according to the current room temperature and the desired temperature set by the
end user. Here the input variable is the current room temperature and the controlled variable is also the room
temperature. The controlling variable is cool air flow by the compressor unit. If the controlled variable and
input variable are not at the same value, the controlling variable tries to equalize them through taking actions
on the cool air flow.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 21

Application Specific User Interface

• These are embedded systems with application-specific user

interfaces like buttons, switches, keypad, lights, bells,
display units, etc.
• Mobile phone is an example for this. In mobile phone the
user interface is provided through the keypad, graphic LCD
module, system speaker, vibration alert, etc.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 22

The Typical Embedded System

Figure: Elements of an embedded system

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 23

• A typical embedded system contains a single chip controller, which acts as the master brain of the system.
• The controller can be a Microprocessor (e.g. Intel 8085) or a microcontroller (e.g. Atmel AT89C51) or a Field
Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) device (e.g. Xilinx Spartan) or a Digital Signal Processor ( DSP) (e.g.
Blackfin® Processors from Analog Devices) or an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)/ Application
Specific Standard Product (ASSP) (e.g. ADE7760 Single Phase Energy Metreing IC from) Analog Devices for
energy metering applications).
• Embedded hardware/software systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable or to
manipulate the state of some devices by sending some control signals to the Actuators or devices connected
to the o/p ports of the system, in response to the input signals provided by the end users or Sensors which
are connected to the input ports. Hence an embedded system can be viewed as a reactive system.
• The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the sensors and user interfaces, and
controlling some actuators that regulate the physical variable.
• Key boards, push button switches, etc. are examples for common user interface input devices whereas LEDs,
liquid crystal displays, piezoelectric buzzers, etc. are examples for common user interface output devices for
a typical embedded system. It should be noted that it is not necessary that all embedded systems should
incorporate these I/O user interfaces.
• It solely depends on the type of the application for which the embedded system is designed. For example, if
the embedded system is designed for any handheld application, such as a mobile handset application, then
the system should contain user interfaces like a keyboard for performing input operations and display unit
for providing users the status of various activities in progress.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 24

• Some embedded systems do not require any manual intervention for their operation. They automatically
sense the variations in the input parameters in accordance with the changes in the real world, to which they
are interacting through the sensors which are connected to the input port of the system.
• The Memory of the system is responsible for holding the control algorithm and other important
configuration details.
• For most of embedded systems, the memory for storing the algorithm or configuration data is of fixed type,
which is a kind of Read Only Memory (ROM) and it is not available for the end user for modifications, which
means the memory is protected from unwanted user interaction by implementing some kind of memory
protection mechanism.
• The most common types of memories used in embedded systems for control algorithm storage are OTP,
PROM, UVEPROM, EEPROM and FLASH.
• An embedded system without a control algorithm implemented memory is just like a new born baby. It is
having all the peripherals but is not capable of making any decision depending on the situational as well as
real world changes.
• In a controller-based embedded system, the controller may contain internal memory for storing the control
algorithm and it may be an EEPROM or FLASH memory varying from a few kilobytes to megabytes.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 25

Microprocessor vs Microcontroller

10-03-2025 Lavanya R (Assistant Professor, Department of ECE, PESITM) 26

RISC vs. CISC Processors/Controllers

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 27

Harvard vs. Von-Neumann Processor/Controller Architecture
• The terms Harvard and Von-Neumann refers to the processor architecture design.
• Microprocessors/controllers based on the Von-Neumann architecture shares a single common bus for
fetching both instructions and data. Program instructions and data are stored in a common main memory.
Von-Neumann architecture-based processors/controllers first fetch an instruction and then fetch the data to
support the instruction from code memory.
• The two separate fetches slows down the controller’s operation. Von-Neumann architecture is also referred
as Princeton architecture, since it was developed by the Princeton University.
• Microprocessors/controllers based on the Harvard architecture will have separate data bus and instruction
bus. This allows the data transfer and program fetching to occur simultaneously on both buses.
• With Harvard architecture, the data memory can be read and written while the program memory is being
accessed.
• These separated data memory and code memory buses allow one instruction to execute while the next
instruction is fetched (“prefetching”).
• The prefetch theoretically allows much faster execution than Von-Neumann architecture. Since some
additional hardware logic is required for the generation of control signals for this type of operation it adds
silicon complexity to the system.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 28

 Harvard vs Von-Neumann architecture

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 29

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 30
Big-Endian vs. Little-Endian Processors/Controllers
• Endianness specifies the order in which the data is stored in the memory by processor operations in a
multibyte system (Processors whose word size is greater than one byte). Suppose the word length is two
byte then data can be stored in memory in two different ways:
1) Higher order of data byte at the higher memory and lower order of data byte at location just below the
higher memory.
2) Lower order of data byte at the higher memory and higher order of data byte at location just below the
higher memory.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 31

Little-endian

• Little-endian means the lower-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest address, and the
higher-order byte at the highest address. (The little end comes first.)

Little-Endian operation

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 32

Big-endian

• Big-endian means the higher-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest address, and the
lower-order byte at the highest address. (The big end comes first.)

Big-Endian operation

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 33

MEMORY
• Memory is an important part of a processor/controller based embedded systems.
• Some of the processors/controllers contain built in memory and this memory is referred as on-chip memory.
Others do not contain any memory inside the chip and requires external memory to be connected with the
controller/processor to store the control algorithm. It is called off-chip memory.
• Also some working memory is required for holding data temporarily during certain operations.
• Types of Memory:

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 34

 Program Storage Memory ( ROM)

• The program memory or code storage memory of

an embedded system stores the program
instructions and it can be classified into different
types as per the block diagram representation.
• The code memory retains its contents even after
the power to it is turned off. It is generally known
as non-volatile storage memory.
• Further classification is done based on fabrication,
erasing, and programming techniques.
Classification of Program Memory (ROM)

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 35

Masked ROM ( MROM)

• Masked ROM is a one-time programmable device. Masked ROM makes use of the hardwired technology for
storing data. The device is factory programmed by masking and metallization process at the time of
production itself according to the data provided by the end user.
• The primary advantage of this is low cost for high volume production. They are the least expensive type of
solid state memory. Different mechanisms are used for the masking process of the ROM, like
(1) Creation of an enhancement or depletion mode transistor through channel implant.
(2) By creating the memory cell either using a standard transistor or a high threshold transistor. In the high
threshold mode, the supply voltage required to turn ON the transistor is above the normal ROM IC operating
voltage. This ensures that the transistor is always off and the memory cell stores always logic 0.
• Masked ROM is a good candidate for storing the embedded firmware for low cost embedded devices. Once
the design is proven and the firmware requirements are tested and frozen, the binary data (The firmware cross
compiled/assembled to target processor specific machine code) corresponding to it can be given to the
MROM fabricator.
• The limitation with MROM based firmware storage is the inability to modify the device firmware against
firmware upgrades. Since the MROM is permanent in bit storage, it is not possible to alter the bit information.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 36

Programmable Read Only Memory ( PROM) / ( OTP)
• Unlike Masked ROM Memory, One Time Programmable Memory (OTP) or PROM is not pre-
programmed by the manufacturer.
• The end user is responsible for programming these devices. This memory has nichrome or
polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix. These wires can be functionally viewed as fuses.
• It is programmed by a PROM programmer which selectively burns the fuses according to the bit
pattern to be stored. Fuses which are not blown/burned represents a logic “1” whereas fuses which
are blown/burned represents a logic “0”.
• The default state is logic “1”. OTP is widely used for commercial production of embedded systems
whose proto-typed versions are proven and the code is finalized.
• It is a low cost solution for commercial production. OTPs cannot be reprogrammed.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 37

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory ( EPROM)

• OTPs are not useful and worth for development purpose. During the development phase, the code
is subject to continuous changes and using an OTP each time to load the code is not economical.
• Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) gives the flexibility to re-program the same
chip.
• EPROM stores the bit information by charging the floating gate of an FET. Bit information is
stored by using an EPROM programmer, which applies high voltage to charge the floating gate.
• EPROM contains a quartz crystal window for erasing the stored information. If the window is
exposed to ultraviolet rays for a fixed duration, the entire memory will be erased.
• Even though the EPROM chip is flexible in terms of re-programmability, it needs to be taken out
of the circuit board and put in a UV eraser device for 20 to 30 minutes. So it is a tedious and time-
consuming process.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 38

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory ( EEPROM)

• As the name indicates, the information contained in the EEPROM memory can be altered by using
electrical signals at the register/ Byte level.
• They can be erased and reprogrammed in-circuit. These chips include a chip erase mode and in this
mode they can be erased in a few milliseconds. It provides greater flexibility for system design.
• The only limitation is their capacity is limited when compared with the standard ROM (A few
kilobytes).

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 39

FLASH

• FLASH is the latest ROM technology and is the most popular ROM technology used in today’s
embedded designs.
• FLASH memory is a variation of EEPROM technology.
• It combines the re-programmability of EEPROM and the high capacity of standard ROMs. FLASH
memory is organized as sectors (blocks) or pages.
• FLASH memory stores information in an array of floating gate MOSFET transistors. The erasing
of memory can be done at sector level or page level without affecting the other sectors or pages.
• Each sector/page should be erased before re-programming.
• The typical erasable capacity of FLASH is of the order of a few 1000 cycles.
• SST39LF010 from Microchip (www.microchip.com) is an example of 1Mbit (Organized as 128K
x8) Flash memory with typical endurance of 100,000 cycles.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 40

NVRAM

• Non-volatile RAM is a random access memory with battery backup.

• It contains static RAM based memory and a minute battery for providing supply to the memory in
the absence of external power supply.
• The memory and battery are packed together in a single package. The life span of NVRAM is
expected to be around 10 years.
• DS1644 from Maxim/Dallas is an example of 32KB NVRAM.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 41

Read-Write Memory/ Random Access Memory ( RAM)

• RAM is the data memory or working memory of the

controller/processor.
• Controller/processor can read from it and write to it.
RAM is volatile, meaning when the power is turned off,
all the contents are destroyed.
• RAM is a direct access memory, the desired memory
location can be accessed directly without the need for
traversing through the entire memory locations to reach
the desired memory position (i.e. random access of
memory location).
• This is in contrast to the Sequential Access Memory
(SAM), where the desired memory location is accessed
by either traversing through the entire memory or
through a ‘seek’ method. Magnetic tapes, CD ROMs, Classification of Working Memory (RAM)
etc. are examples of sequential access memories.
• RAM generally falls into three categories: Static RAM
(SRAM), Dynamic RAM (DRAM), and Non-volatile
RAM (NVRAM)
10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 42
Static RAM ( SRAM)

SRAM cell implementation

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 43

• Static RAM stores data in the form of voltage. They are made up of flip flops. Static RAM is the
fastest form of RAM available.
• In typical implementation, an SRAM cell (bit) is realized using six transistors (or 6 MOSFETs).
• Four of the transistors are used for building the latch (flip flop) part of the memory cell and two for
controlling the access.
• SRAM is fast in operation due to its resistive networking and switching capabilities.
• This implementation in its simpler form can be visualized as two-cross coupled inverters with
read/write control through transistors.
• The four transistors in the middle form the cross-coupled inverters.
• From the SRAM implementation diagram, it is clear that access to the memory cell is controlled by
the line Word Line, which controls the access transistors (MOSFETs) Q5 and Q6.
• The access transistors control the connection to bit lines B & B\. In order to write a value to the
memory cell, apply the desired value to the bit control lines (For writing 1, make B = 1 and B\ =0;
For writing 0, make B = 0 and B\ =1) and assert the Word Line (Make Word line high).
• This operation latches the bit written in the flip-flop.
• For reading the content of the memory cell, assert both B and B\ bit lines to 1 and set the Word line
to 1.
• The major limitations of SRAM are low capacity and high cost. Since a minimum of six transistors
are required to build a single memory cell.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 44

 Visualisation of SRAM cell

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 45

Dynamic RAM ( DRAM)

• Dynamic RAM stores data in the form of charge. They are

made up of MOS transistor gates.
• The advantages of DRAM are its high density and low
cost compared to SRAM.
• The disadvantage is that since the information is stored as
charge it gets leaked off with time and to prevent this they
need to be refreshed periodically.
• Special circuits called DRAM controllers are used for the
refreshing operation.
• The refresh operation is done periodically in milliseconds
interval.
• The MOSFET acts as the gate for the incoming and
DRAM cell implementation
outgoing data whereas the capacitor acts as the bit storage
unit.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 46

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 47
NVRAM

• Non-volatile RAM is a random access memory with battery backup.

• It contains static RAM based memory and a minute battery for providing supply to the memory in the absence
of external power supply.
• The memory and battery are packed together in a single package.
• NVRAM is used for the nonvolatile storage of results of operations or for setting up of flags, etc.
• The life span of NVRAM is expected to be around 10 years. DS1744 from Maxim/Dallas is an example for
32KB NVRAM.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 48

SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

• An embedded system is in constant interaction with the Real world and the controlling/ monitoring
functions executed by the embedded system is achieved in accordance with the changes happening to
the Real world.
• The changes in system environment or variables are detected by the sensors connected to the input port
of the embedded system.
• If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the system will produce some changes
in the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the desired value.
• It is achieved through an actuator connected to the output port of the embedded system.
• If the embedded system is designed for monitoring purpose only, then there is no need for including
an actuator in the system.
• For example, take the case of an ECG machine. It is designed to monitor the heart beat status of a
patient and it cannot impose a control over the patient’s heart beat and its order. The sensors used here
are the different electrode sets connected to the body of the patient. The variations are captured and
presented to the user (may be a doctor) through a visual display or some printed chart.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 49

Sensors

• A sensor is a transducer device that converts energy from one form to another for any measurement
or control purpose.

Actuators

• Actuator is a form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which converts signals to corresponding
physical action (motion).
• Actuator acts as an output device.
• For example, in ‘Wearable devices’ , certain smartwatches use Ambient Light Sensor to detect the
surrounding light intensity and uses an electrical/ electronic actuator circuit to adjust the screen brightness for
better readability.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 50

The I/O Subsystem

• The I/O subsystem of the embedded system facilitates the interaction of the embedded system with
the external world.
• The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to the input and output ports
respectively of the embedded system.
• The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the input ports, instead they may be interfaced
through signal conditioning and translating systems like ADC, optocouplers, etc.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 51

 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Light Emitting Diode ( LED) is an important output device for visual indication in any embedded
system.
• LED can be used as an indicator for the status of various signals or situations.
• Typical examples are indicating the presence of power conditions like ‘Device ON’, ‘Battery low’ or
‘Charging of battery’ for a battery operated handheld embedded devices.
• Light Emitting Diode is a p-n junction and it contains an anode and a cathode. For proper functioning of
the LED, the anode of it should be connected to +ve terminal of the supply voltage and cathode to the
–ve terminal of supply voltage.
• The current flowing through the LED must be limited to a value below the maximum current that it can
conduct.
• A resister is used in series between the power supply and the LED to limit the current through the LED.
• LEDs can be interfaced to the port pin of a processor/controller in two ways.
• In the first method, the anode is directly connected to the port pin and the port pin drives the LED. In
this approach the port pin ‘sources’ current to the LED when the port pin is at logic High (Logic ‘1’).
• In the second method, the cathode of the LED is connected to the port pin of the processor/controller
and the anode to the supply voltage through a current limiting resistor. The LED is turned on when the LED interfacing
port pin is at logic Low (Logic ‘0’). Here the port pin ‘sinks’ current.
• If the LED is directly connected to the port pin, depending on the maximum current that a port pin can
source, the brightness of LED may not be to the required level. In the second approach, the current is
directly sourced by the power supply and the port pin acts as the sink for current. Here we will get the
required brightness for the LED.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 52

7-Segment LED Display
• The 7-segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric
characters.
• It contains 8 light-emitting diode (LED) segments arranged in a special form.
Out of the 8 LED segments, 7 are used for displaying alpha numeric
characters and 1 is used for representing ‘decimal point’ in decimal number
display.
• The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED segment is
named as DP.
• The LED segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display
numbers and characters.

7-Segment LED Display

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 53

• For example, for displaying the number 4, the segments F, G, B and C are lit. For displaying 3, the
segments A, B, C, D, G and DP are lit.
• For displaying the character ‘d’, the segments B, C, D, E and G are lit. All these 8 LED segments
need to be connected to one port of the processor/controller for displaying alpha numeric digits.
• The 7-segment LED displays are available in two different configurations namely; Common Anode
and Common Cathode. In the common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are
connected commonly whereas in the common cathode configuration, the 8 LED segments share a
common cathode line.
• Figure illustrates the Common Anode and Cathode configurations. Based on the configuration of
the 7-segment LED unit, the LED segment’s anode or cathode is connected to the port of the
processor/controller in the order ‘A’ segment the least significant port pin and DP segment to the
most significant port pin.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 54

 Common anode and cathode configurations of a 7-segment LED Display

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 55

• The current flow through each of the LED segments should be limited to the
maximum value supported by the LED display unit.
• The typical value for the current falls within the range of 20mA. The current
through each segment can be limited by connecting a current limiting resistor to
the anode or cathode of each segment.
• The value for the current limiting resistors can be calculated using the current
value from the electrical parameter listing of the LED display.
• For common cathode configurations, the anode of each LED segment is connected
to the port pins of the port to which the display is interfaced.
• The anode of the common anode LED display is connected to the 5V supply
voltage through a current limiting resistor and the cathode of each LED segment is
connected to the respective port pin lines.
• For an LED segment to lit in the Common anode LED configuration, the port pin
to which the cathode of the LED segment is connected should be set at logic 0.
• 7-segment LED display is a popular choice for low cost embedded applications
like, Public telephone call monitoring devices, point of sale terminals, etc.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 56

Optocoupler

Figure: An optocoupler Figure: Optocoupler in Input and Output

device circuit

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 57

• Optocoupler is a solid state device to isolate two parts of a circuit.
• Optocoupler combines an LED and a photo-transistor in a single housing (package).
• In electronic circuits, an optocoupler is used for suppressing interference in data communication,
circuit isolation, high voltage separation, simultaneous separation and signal intensification, etc.
• Optocouplers can be used in either input circuits or in output circuits.
• Figure illustrates the usage of optocoupler in input circuit and output circuit of an embedded
system with a microcontroller as the system core.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 58

 Relay
• Relay is an electro-mechanical device.

• In embedded application, the Relay unit acts as dynamic path selector for signals and power.

• The Relay unit contains a relay coil made up of insulated wire on a metal core and a metal armature with
one or more contacts.
• Relay works on electromagnetic principle.
• When a voltage is applied to the relay coil, current flows through the coil, which in turn generates a
magnetic field.
• The magnetic field attracts the armature core and moves the contact point.
• The movement of the contact point changes the power/signal flow path.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 59

• Relays are available in different configurations.

• Figure given below illustrates the widely used relay configurations for embedded applications.

Fig: Relay configurations

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 60

 • The Relay is normally controlled using a relay
driver circuit connected to the port pin of the
processor/controller.
• A transistor is used for building the relay driver
circuit as shown in the figure.
• A free-wheeling diode is used for free-wheeling the
voltage produced in the opposite direction when the
relay coil is de-energised.
• The freewheeling diode is essential for protecting Fig: Transistor based Relay driving circuit
the relay and the transistor.

• Most of the industrial relays are bulky and require high voltage to operate.
• Special relays called 'Reed' relays are available for embedded application requiring switching of
low voltage DC signals.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 61

Piezo Buzzer

• Piezo buzzer is a piezoelectric device for generating audio indications in embedded

application.
• A piezoelectric buzzer contains a piezoelectric diaphragm which produces audible
sound in response to the voltage applied to it.
• Piezoelectric buzzers are available in two types – 'Self-driving’ and 'External driving’.
• The Self-driving circuit contains all the necessary components to generate sound at a
predefined tone.
➢ It will generate a tone on applying the voltage.
• External driving piezo buzzers support the generation of different tones.
➢ The tone can be varied by applying a variable pulse train to the piezoelectric buzzer.
• A piezo buzzer can be directly interfaced to the port pin of the processor/control.
• Depending on the driving current requirements, the piezo buzzer can also be interfaced
using a transistor based driver circuit as in the case of a 'Relay'.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 62

Push Button Switch

• It is an input device.
• Push button switch comes in two configurations, namely 'Push to Make’ and 'Push to Break’.
• In the 'Push to Make' configuration, the switch is normally in the open state and it makes a
circuit contact when it is pushed or pressed.
• In the 'Push to Break' configuration, the switch is normally in the closed state and it breaks
the circuit contact when it is pushed or pressed.
• The push button stays in the 'closed' (For Push to Make type) or 'open' (For Push to Break
type) state as long as it is kept in the pushed state and it breaks/makes the circuit connection
when it is released.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 63

• Push button is used for generating a
momentary pulse.
• In embedded applications, push button is
generally used as reset and start switch and
pulse generator.
• The Push button is normally connected to
the port pin of the host processor/controller.
• Depending on the way in which the push
button interfaced to the controller, it can
generate either a 'HIGH' pulse or a 'LOW'
pulse.
• Figure illustrates how the push button can Fig: Push button switch configurations
be used for generating 'LOW' and 'HIGH'
pulses.

10-03-2025 Lavanya R(Assistant Professor,Department of ECE, PESITM) 64