INTEGRALS

Chapter - 7

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Session Objectives
1. Integration as an inverse Process of
Differentiation
2. Methods of integrations
3. Integrations by partial Fractions
4. Definite Integral
5. Fundamental theorem of
Calculus
 Introduction
If a function f is differentiable in an interval I, i.e., its
derivative f ′exists at each point of I, then a natural
question arises that given f ′at each point of I, can we
determine the function ?
The functions that could possibly have given function
as a derivative are called anti derivatives (or primitive)
of the function. Further, the formula that gives all
these anti derivatives is called the indefinite integral
of the function and such process of finding anti
derivatives is called integration.
The development of integral calculus arises out of the
efforts of solving the problems of the following types :
(a) the problem of finding a function whenever its
derivative is given,
(b) the problem of finding the area bounded by the
graph of a function under certain conditions.
These two problems lead to the two forms of the
integrals, e.g., indefinite and definite integrals, which
together constitute the Integral Calculus.
In this Chapter, we shall confine ourselves to the study
of indefinite and definite integrals and their elementary
properties including some techniques of integration.
Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation
Integration is the inverse process of differentiation.
Instead of differentiating a function, we are given the
derivative of a function and asked to find its primitive,
i.e., the original function. Such a process is called
integration or anti differentiation.
Let us consider the following examples:
We observe that in (1), the function cos x is the
derived function of sin x. We say that sin x is an anti
derivative (or an integral) of cos x. Similarly, in (2)
and (3),

and ex are the anti derivatives (or integrals) of x2 and

ex, respectively. Again, we note that for any real
number C, treated as constant function, its derivative
is zero and hence, we can write (1), (2) and (3) as
follows :
Thus, anti derivatives (or integrals) of the above cited
functions are not unique. Actually, there exist infinitely
many anti derivatives of each of these functions which
can be obtained by choosing C arbitrarily from the set of
real numbers. For this reason C is customarily referred
to as arbitrary constant. In fact, C is the parameter by
varying which one gets different anti derivatives (or
integrals) of the given function.
If there is a function F such that

(Interval), then for any arbitrary real number C, (also

called constant of integration)

Thus, {F + C, C ∈ R} denotes a family of anti

derivatives of f.
Remark Functions with same derivatives differ by a
constant. To show this, let g and h be two functions
having the same derivatives on an interval I.
We introduce a new symbol, namely,
which will represent the entire class of anti
derivatives read as the indefinite integral of f with
respect to x. Symbolically, we write
Note In practice, we normally do not mention the
interval over which the various functions are defined.
However, in any specific problem one has to keep it in
mind.
Geometrical interpretation of indefinite integral

For different values of C, we get different integrals.

But these integrals are very similar geometrically.
Clearly, for C = 0, we obtain y = x2, a parabola with its
vertex on the origin. The curve y = x2 + 1 for C = 1 is
obtained by shifting the parabola y = x2 one unit along
y-axis in positive direction. For C = – 1, y = x2 – 1 is
obtained by shifting the parabola y = x2 one unit along
y-axis in the negative direction.
Thus, for each positive value of C, each parabola of the
family has its vertex on the positive side of the y-axis
and for negative values of C, each has its vertex along
the negative side of the y-axis. Some of these have
been shown in the Fig 7.1.
Let us consider the intersection of all these parabolas
by a line x = a. In the Fig 7.1, we have taken a > 0.
The same is true when a < 0. If the line x = a
intersects the parabolas y = x2, y = x2 + 1, y = x2 + 2,
y = x2 – 1, y = x2 – 2 at P0, P1, P2, P–1, P–2 etc.,

respectively, then at these points equals 2a.

This indicates that the tangents to the curves at these

points are parallel.
 the tangents
to all the curves y = F C (x), C ∈ R, at the points of
intersection of the curves by the line x = a, (a ∈ R), are
parallel.
Some properties of indefinite integral
In this sub section, we shall derive some properties of
indefinite integrals.
(I) The process of differentiation and integration are
inverses of each other in the sense of the following
results :

and
where C is any arbitrary constant.
(II) Two indefinite integrals with the same derivative lead
to the same family of curves and so they are equivalent.
(III)
(IV) For any real number k,
(V) Properties (III) and (IV) can be generalised to a finite
number of functions f1, f2, ..., fn and the real numbers,
k1, k2, ..., kn giving
 Example 1 Write an anti derivative for each of the
following functions using the method of inspection :
(i) cos 2x (ii) 3x2 + 4x3

(iii)
Example 2 Find the following integrals :
Note From now onwards, we shall write only one
constant of integration in the final answer.
Example 3 Find the following integrals:
Example 4 Find the anti derivative F of f defined by
f (x) = 4x3 – 6, where F (0) = 3
 Remarks
(i) We see that if F is an anti derivative of f, then so is
F + C, where C is any constant. Thus, if we know one
anti derivative F of a function f, we can write down an
infinite number of anti derivatives of f by adding any
constant to F expressed by F(x) + C, C ∈ R. In
applications, it is often necessary to satisfy an
additional condition which then determines a specific
value of C giving unique anti derivative of the given
function.
(ii) Sometimes, F is not expressible in terms of elementary
functions viz., polynomial, logarithmic, exponential,
trigonometric functions and their inverses etc. We are
therefore blocked for finding For example,
it is not possible to find by inspection since
we can not find a function whose derivative is
(iii) When the variable of integration is denoted by a
variable other than x, the integral formulae are
modified accordingly. For instance
 Comparison between differentiation and integration
1. Both are operations on functions.
2. Both satisfy the property of linearity, i.e.,

Here k1 and k2 are constants.

3. We have already seen that all functions are not
differentiable. Similarly, all functions are not
integrable. We will learn more about non-differentiable
functions and non-integrable functions in higher
classes.
4. The derivative of a function, when it exists, is a
unique function. The integral of a function is not so.
However, they are unique upto an additive constant,
i.e., any two integrals of a function differ by a
constant.
5. When a polynomial function P is differentiated, the
result is a polynomial whose degree is 1 less than the
degree of P. When a polynomial function P is
integrated, the result is a polynomial whose degree is 1
more than that of P.
6. We can speak of the derivative at a point. We never
speak of the integral at a point, we speak of the
integral of a function over an interval on which the
integral is defined as will be seen in Section 7.7.
7. The derivative of a function has a geometrical meaning,
namely, the slope of the tangent to the corresponding
curve at a point. Similarly, the indefinite integral of a
function represents geometrically, a family of curves
placed parallel to each other having parallel tangents at
the points of intersection of the curves of the family
with the lines orthogonal (perpendicular) to the axis
representing the variable of integration.
8. The derivative is used for finding some physical
quantities like the velocity of a moving particle, when
the distance traversed at any time t is known.
Similarly, the integral is used in calculating the
distance traversed when the velocity at time t is
known.
9. Differentiation is a process involving limits. So is
integration, as will be seen in Section 7.7.

10. The process of differentiation and integration are

inverses of each other as discussed in Section 7.2.2 (i).
INTEGRALS
Exercise 7.1

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 Find an anti derivative (or integral) of the following
functions by the method of inspection.
01. sin 2x 02. cos 3x

03. e2x
04. (ax + b)2 05. sin 2x – 4 e3x
Find the following integrals in Exercises 6 to 20:
06.
07.
08.
09.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.
21.
22.
Methods of Integration
In previous section, we discussed integrals of those
functions which were readily obtainable from derivatives
of some functions. It was based on inspection, i.e., on the
search of a function F whose derivative is f which led us
to the integral of f. However, this method, which depends
on inspection, is not very suitable for many functions.
Hence, we need to develop additional techniques or
methods for finding the integrals by reducing them into
standard forms. Prominent among them are methods
based on:
1. Integration by Substitution
2. Integration using Partial Fractions
3. Integration by Parts
Integration by substitution
In this section, we consider the method of integration
by substitution.
The given integral can be transformed into
another form by changing the independent variable x
to t by substituting x = g (t).
 Example 5 Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x:
(i) sin mx (ii) 2x sin (x2 + 1)
(iii)
(iv)
 Example 6 Find the following integrals :

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
INTEGRALS
Exercise 7.2

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01. 02.
03. 04.
05. 06.
07. 08.
09. 10.
11. 12.
13. 14.
15. 16.
17. 18.
19. 20.
21. 22.
23. 24.
25. 26.
27. 28.
29. 30.
31. 32.
33. 34.
35. 36.
37.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 38 and 39.
38.

(A) 10x – x10 + C

(B) 10x + x10 + C
(C) (10x – x10)–1 + C
(D) log (10x + x10) + C
39.

(A) tan x + cot x + C

(B) tan x – cot x + C
(C) tan x cot x + C
(D) tan x – cot 2x + C
Integration using trigonometric identities
When the integrand involves some trigonometric
functions, we use some known identities to find the
integral as illustrated through the following example.
 Example 7 Find

(i) (ii)
(iii)
Remark It can be shown using trigonometric identities
that both answers are equivalent.
INTEGRALS
Exercise 7.3

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Find the integrals of the functions in Exercises 1 to 22
01. sin2 (2x + 5) 02. sin 3x cos 4x
03. cos 2x cos 4x cos 6x 04. sin3 (2x + 1)
05. sin3 x cos3 x 06. sin x sin 2x sin 3x
07. sin 4x sin 8x 08.
09. 10. sin4 x
11. cos4 2x 12.
13. 14.
15. tan3 2x sec 2x 16. tan4x
17. 18.
19. 20.
21. sin–1 (cos x) 22.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 23 and 24.
23.

(A) tan x + cot x + C

(B) tan x + cosec x + C
(C) – tan x + cot x + C
(D) tan x + sec x + C
24.

(A) – cot (exx) + C

(B) tan (xex) + C
(C) tan (ex) + C
(D) cot (ex) + C
Integrals of Some Particular Functions
In this section, we mention below some important
formulae of integrals and apply them for integrating
many other related standard integrals:
Note The technique used in (1) will be explained in
Section 7.5.
(8) To find the integral of the type
(9) To find the integral of the type

where p, q, a, b, c are constants.

Example 8 Find the following integrals:
Example 9 Find the following integrals :
Example 10 Find the following integrals:
INTEGRALS
Exercise 7.4

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Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 23.
01. 02.
03. 04.
05. 06.
07. 08.
09. 10.
11. 12.
13. 14.
15. 16.
17. 18.
19. 20.
21. 22.
23.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 24 and 25
24.

(A) x tan–1 (x + 1) + C
(B) tan–1 (x + 1) + C
(C) (x + 1) tan–1 x + C
(D) tan–1 x + C
25.
Integration by Partial Fractions
Recall that a rational function is defined as the ratio of

two polynomials in the form where P (x) and

Q (x) are polynomials in x and Q(x) ≠ 0. If the degree

of P(x) is less than the degree of Q(x), then the
rational function is called proper, otherwise, it is
called improper.
The improper rational functions can be reduced to the
proper rational functions by long division process.

Thus, if

where T(x) is a polynomial in x and is a proper

rational function. As we know how to integrate

polynomials, the integration of any rational function is
reduced to the integration of a proper rational
function.
The rational functions which we shall consider
here for integration purposes will be those whose
denominators can be factorised into linear and
quadratic factors. Assume that we want to evaluate

is proper rational function.

It is always possible to write the integrand as a sum of

simpler rational functions by a method called partial
fraction decomposition. After this, the integration can
be carried out easily using the already known methods.
Example 11 Find
Remark The equation (1) above is an identity, i.e. a
statement true for all (permissible) values of x. Some
authors use the symbol ‘≡’ to indicate that the
statement is an identity and use the symbol ‘=’ to
indicate that the statement is an equation, i.e., to
indicate that the statement is true only for certain
values of x.
Example 12 Find
Example 13 Find
Example 14 Find
Example 15 Find
Example 16 Find
INTEGRALS
Exercise 7.5

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Integrate the rational functions in Exercises 1 to 21.
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
09.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Choose the correct answer in each of the Exercises
22 and 23.
22.
23.
Integration by Parts
In this section, we describe one more method of
integration, that is found quite useful in integrating
products of functions.
If u and v are any two differentiable functions of a
single variable x (say). Then, by the product rule of
differentiation, we have
Integrating both sides, we get
Therefore, expression (1) can be rewritten as
If we take f as the first function and g as the second
function, then this formula may be stated as follows :
“The integral of the product of two functions
= (first function) × (integral of the second function)
– Integral of [(differential coefficient of the first
function) × (integral of the second function)]”
Example 17 Find
 Remarks
(i) It is worth mentioning that integration by parts is not
applicable to product of functions in all cases. For
instance, the method does not work for
The reason is that there does not exist any function
whose derivative is
(ii) Observe that while finding the integral of the second
function, we did not add any constant of integration. If
we write the integral of the second function cos x as
sin x + k, where k is any constant, then

This shows that adding a constant to the integral of

the second function is superfluous so far as the final
result is concerned while applying the method of
integration by parts.
(iii) Usually, if any function is a power of x or a polynomial
in x, then we take it as the first function. However, in
cases where other function is inverse trigonometric
function or logarithmic function, then we take them as
first function.
Example 18 Find
Example 19 Find
Example 20 Find
Example 21 Find
Integral of the type
Example 22 Find
INTEGRALS
Exercise 7.6

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Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 22.
01. x sin x 02. x sin 3x
03. x2 ex 04. x log x
05. x log 2x 06. x2 log x
07. x sin–1x 08. x tan–1 x
09. x cos–1 x 10. (sin–1x)2
11. 12. x sec2 x
13. tan–1x 14. x (log x)2
15. (x2 + 1) log x
16. ex (sinx + cosx)
17.
18.
19.
20.
21. e2x sin x
22.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 23 and 24.
23.
24.

(A) ex cos x + C (B) ex sec x + C

(C) ex sin x + C (D) ex tan x + C
Integrals of some more types
Here, we discuss some special types of standard
integrals based on the technique of integration by parts
01.
(i)
Example 23 Find
Example 24 Find
INTEGRALS
Exercise 7.7

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Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 9.
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
09.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 10 to 11.
10.
11.
Definite Integral
In the previous sections, we have studied about the
indefinite integrals and discussed few methods of
finding them including integrals of some special
functions. In this section, we shall study what is called
definite integral of a function.
The definite integral has a unique value. A definite
integral is denoted by where a is called the
lower limit of the integral and b is called the upper
limit of the integral. The definite integral is
introduced either as the limit of a sum or if it has an
anti derivative F in the interval [a, b], then its value is
the difference between the values of F at the end
points, i.e., F(b) – F(a).
Definite integral as the limit of a sum
Let f be a continuous function defined on close
interval [a, b]. Assume that all the values taken by the
function are non negative, so the graph of the
function is a curve above the x-axis.
The definite integral is the area bounded by
the curve y = f (x), the ordinates x = a, x = b and the x-
axis. To evaluate this area, consider the region PRSQP
between this curve, x-axis and the ordinates x = a and
x=b
Divide the interval [a, b] into n equal subintervals
denoted by [x0, x1], [x1, x2] ,...,[xr – 1, xr], ..., [xn – 1, xn],
where x0 = a, x1 = a + h, x2 = a + 2h, ... , xr = a + rh
and xn = b = a + nh or We note that as

n → ∞, h → 0.
The region PRSQP under consideration is the sum of n
subregions, where each subregion is defined on
subintervals [xr – 1, xr], r = 1, 2, 3, …, n.
area of the rectangle (ABLC) < area of the region
(ABDCA) < area of the rectangle (ABDM) …(1)
Evidently as xr – xr–1 → 0, i.e., h → 0 all the three
areas shown in (1) become nearly equal to each other.
Now we form the following sums.
Here, sn and Sn denote the sum of areas of all lower
rectangles and upper rectangles raised over
subintervals [xr–1, xr] for r = 1, 2, 3, …, n, respectively.
In view of the inequality (1) for an arbitrary
subinterval [xr–1, xr], we have sn < area of the region
PRSQP < Sn ... (4)
As n → ∞ strips become narrower and narrower, it is
assumed that the limiting values of (2) and (3) are the
same in both cases and the common limiting value is
the required area under the curve.
Symbolically, we write
area of the region PRSQP
... (5)
It follows that this area is also the limiting value of
any area which is between that of the rectangles
below the curve and that of the rectangles above the
curve. For the sake of convenience, we shall take
rectangles with height equal to that of the curve at
the left hand edge of each subinterval. Thus, we
rewrite (5) as
The above expression (6) is known as the definition of
definite integral as the limit of sum.
Remark The value of the definite integral of a function
over any particular interval depends on the function
and the interval, but not on the variable of integration
that we choose to represent the independent variable.
If the independent variable is denoted by t or u instead
of x, we simply write the integral as
Hence, the variable of
integration is called a dummy variable.
Example 25 Find as the limit of a sum.
Example 26 Evaluate as the limit of a sum.
INTEGRALS
Exercise 7.8

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Evaluate the following definite integrals as limit of
sums.
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Area function
The area of this shaded region depends upon the value
of x.
In other words, the area of this shaded region is a
function of x. We denote this function of x by A(x). We
call the function A(x) as Area function and is given by
First fundamental theorem of integral calculus
Theorem 1 Let f be a continuous function on the
closed interval [a, b] and let A (x) be the area function.
Then A′(x) = f (x), for all x ∈ [a, b].
Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
We state below an important theorem which enables
us to evaluate definite integrals by making use of anti
derivative.
Theorem 2 Let f be continuous function defined on
the closed interval [a, b] and F be an anti derivative of
f. Then
 Remarks
(i) In words, the Theorem 2 tells us that
(value of the anti derivative F of f at the upper limit b
– value of the same anti derivative at the lower limit a).

(ii) This theorem is very useful, because it gives us a

method of calculating the definite integral more
easily, without calculating the limit of a sum.
(iii) The crucial operation in evaluating a definite integral
is that of finding a function whose derivative is equal
to the integrand. This strengthens the relationship
between differentiation and integration.
(iv) the function f needs to be well defined
and continuous in [a, b].

For instance, the consideration of definite integral

since the function f expressed by

is not defined in a portion

– 1 < x < 1 of the closed interval [– 2, 3].
 Steps for calculating
(i) Find the indefinite integral Let this be F(x).
There is no need to keep integration constant C because
if we consider F(x) + C instead of F(x), we get

Thus, the arbitrary constant disappears in evaluating

the value of the definite integral.
(ii) Evaluate which is the value of
We now consider some examples
Example 27 Evaluate the following integrals :
INTEGRALS
Exercise 7.9

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Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 1 to 20.
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
09.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22.
21.
22.
Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution
In the previous sections, we have discussed several
methods for finding the indefinite integral. One of the
important methods for finding the indefinite integral is
the method of substitution.
 To evaluate by substitution, the steps could
be as follows:
1. Consider the integral without limits and substitute,
y = f (x) or x = g(y) to reduce the given integral to a
known form.
2. Integrate the new integrand with respect to the new
variable without mentioning the constant of integration.
3. Resubstitute for the new variable and write the answer
in terms of the original variable.
4. Find the values of answers obtained in (3) at the given
limits of integral and find the difference of the values
at the upper and lower limits.
Note : In order to quicken this method, we can proceed
as follows: After performing steps 1, and 2, there is no
need of step 3. Here, the integral will be kept in the
new variable itself, and the limits of the integral will
accordingly be changed, so that we can perform the
last step.
Example 28 Evaluate
Example 29 Evaluate
INTEGRALS
Exercise 7.10

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Evaluate the integrals in Exercises 1 to 8 using
substitution.
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 9 and 10.
09. The value of the integral
10.
(A) cosx + x sin x (B) x sinx
(C) x cosx (D) sinx + x cosx
Some Properties of Definite Integrals
We list below some important properties of definite
integrals. These will be useful in evaluating the
definite integrals more easily.
 i.e., if f (– x) = f (x).

i.e., if f (– x) = – f (x).
Example 30 Evaluate
Example 31 Evaluate
Example 32 Evaluate
Example 33 Evaluate
Example 34 Evaluate
Example 35 Evaluate
Example 36 Evaluate
INTEGRALS
Exercise 7.11

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By using the properties of definite integrals, evaluate
the integrals in Exercises 1 to 19.
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
09.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19. if f and g are
defined as f(x) = f(a –x) and g(x) + g(a – x) = 4
Choose the correct answer in Exercises 20 and 21.
20.

(A) 0 (B) 2 (C) π (D) 1

21.

(A) 2 (B) (C) 0 (D) –2

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 37 Find
Example 38 Find
Example 39 Find
Example 40 Find
Example 41 Find
Example 42 Find
Example 43 Evaluate
Example 44 Evaluate
Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 7
Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 24.
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
09.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 25 to 33.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
Prove the following (Exercises 34 to 39)
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
Choose the correct answers in Exercises 41 to 44.
41.

(A) tan–1 (ex) + C

(B) tan–1 (e–x) + C
(C) log (ex – e–x) + C
(D) log (ex + e–x) + C
42.
43.
44.

(A) 1 (B) 0 (C) –1 (D)

Summary
s Integration is the inverse process of differentiation.
In the differential calculus, we are given a function
and we have to find the derivative or differential of
this function, but in the integral calculus, we are to
find a function whose differential is given.
Thus, integration is a process which is the inverse of
differentiation.
Let Then we write

These integrals are called indefinite integrals or

general integrals, C is called constant of integration.
All these integrals differ by a constant.
s From the geometric point of view, an indefinite integral
is collection of family of curves, each of which is
obtained by translating one of the curves parallel to
itself upwards or downwards along the y-axis.
s Some properties of indefinite integrals are as follows:

More generally, if f1, f2, f3, ... , fn are functions and k1,
k2, ... , kn are real numbers. Then
s Some standard integrals
s
s
s Integration by partial fractions
Recall that a rational function is ratio of two polynomials
of the form where P(x) and Q (x) are polynomials

in x and Q (x) ≠ 0. If degree of the polynomial P (x) is

greater than the degree of the polynomial Q (x), then we

may divide P (x) by Q (x) so that

polynomial in x and degree of P1(x) is less than the
degree of Q(x). T(x) being polynomial can be easily
integrated. can be integrated by expressing
as the sum of partial fractions of the following type:
s

where x2 + bx + c can not be factorised further.

s Integration by substitution
A change in the variable of integration often reduces
an integral to one of the fundamental integrals. The
method in which we change the variable to some
other variable is called the method of substitution.
When the integrand involves some trigonometric
functions, we use some well known identities to find
the integrals. Using substitution technique, we obtain
the following standard integrals.
s Integrals of some special functions
s Integration by parts
For given functions f1 and f2, we have

i.e., the integral of the product of two functions = first

function × integral of the second function – integral of
{differential coefficient of the first function × integral
of the second function}. Care must be taken in
choosing the first function and the second function.
Obviously, we must take that function as the second
function whose integral is well known to us.
s
s Some special types of integrals
(iv) Integrals of the types

can be transformed into standard form by expressing

(v) Integrals of the types

can be transformed into standard form by expressing

where A and B are determined by comparing coefficients

on both sides.
s as the area of the region
bounded by the curve y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b, the x-axis and
the ordinates x = a and x = b. Let x be a given point in
[a, b]. Then represents the Area function
A (x). This concept of area function leads to the
Fundamental Theorems of Integral Calculus.
s First fundamental theorem of integral calculus

Let the area function be defined by

for all x ≥ a, where the function f is assumed to be
continuous on [a, b]. Then A′(x) = f (x) for all
x ∈ [a, b].
s Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus
Let f be a continuous function of x defined on the
closed interval [a, b] and let F be another function

such that for all x in the domain of f,

then
This is called the definite integral of f over the range
[a, b], where a and b are called the limits of
integration, a being the lower limit and b the
upper limit.