Continuity and

Differentiability
Chapter - 5

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Session Objectives
1. Continuity &differentiability

2. Exponential & logarithmic Functions

3.Derivatives of functions in parametric Forms
4.Second Order Derivative
5. Mean value Theorem
In this chapter, we introduce the very important
concepts of continuity, differentiability and relations
between them. We will also learn differentiation
of inverse trigonometric functions.
Continuity
We start the section with two informal examples to
get a feel of continuity. Consider the function
Using the language of left and right hand limits, we
may say that the left (respectively right) hand limit of
f at 0 is 1 (respectively 2). In particular the left and
right hand limits do not coincide. We also observe
that the value of the function at x = 0 concides with
the left hand limit.
Note that when we try to draw the graph, we cannot
draw it in one stroke, i.e., without lifting pen from the
plane of the paper, we can not draw the graph of this
function. In fact, we need to lift the pen when we
come to 0 from left. This is one instance of function
being not continuous at x = 0.
Consider the function defined as

This function is also defined at every point. Left and

the right hand limits at x = 0 are both equal to 1. But
the value of the function at x = 0 equals 2 which does
not coincide with the common value of the left and
right hand limits.
We may say that a function is continuous at a fixed
point if we can draw the graph of the function around
that point without lifting the pen from the plane of the
paper.
Definition 1 Suppose f is a real function on a subset of
the real numbers and let c be a point in the domain of
f. Then f is continuous at c if

More elaborately, if the left hand limit, right hand limit

and the value of the function at x = c exist and equal to
each other, then f is said to be continuous at x = c.
Recall that if the right hand and left hand limits at x = c
coincide, then we say that the common value is the
limit of the function at x = c. Hence we may also
rephrase the definition of continuity as follows:
a function is continuous at x = c if the function is
defined at x = c and if the value of the function at x = c
equals the limit of the function at x = c. If f is not
continuous at c, we say f is discontinuous at c and c is
called a point of discontinuity of f.
Example 1 Check the continuity of the function f
given by f (x) = 2x + 3 at x = 1.
Example 2 Examine whether the function f given by
f (x) = x2 is continuous at x = 0.
Example 3 Discuss the continuity of the function
f given by f(x) = | x | at x = 0.
Example 4 Show that the function f given by

is not continuous at x = 0.
Example 5 Check the points where the constant
function f (x) = k is continuous.
Example 6 Prove that the identity function on real
numbers given by f (x) = x is continuous at every real
number.
Definition 2
A real function f is said to be
continuous if it is continuous at every point in the
domain of f.
This definition requires a bit of elaboration. Suppose f
is a function defined on a closed interval [a, b], then
for f to be continuous, it needs to be continuous at
every point in [a, b] including the end points a and b.
Continuity of f at a means
Observe that do not make sense. As a
consequence of this definition, if f is defined only at
one point, it is continuous there, i.e., if the domain of f
is a singleton, f is a continuous function
Example 7 Is the function defined by f (x) = | x |, a
continuous function ?
Example 8 Discuss the continuity of the function f
given by f (x) = x3 + x2 – 1.
Example 9 Discuss the continuity of the function f
defined by
We take this opportunity to explain the concept of
infinity. This we do by analysing the function
near x = 0.
We observe that as x gets closer to 0 from the right,
the value of f (x) shoots up higher. This may be
rephrased as: the value of f (x) may be made larger
than any given number by choosing a positive real
number very close to 0. In symbols, we write
The left hand limit of f at 0 may be found. The
following table is self explanatory.

From the Table , we deduce that the value of f (x) may

be made smaller than any given number by choosing a
negative real number very close to 0. In symbols,
we write
Example 10 Discuss the continuity of the function f
defined by
Example 11 Find all the points of discontinuity of the
function f defined by
Example 12 Discuss the continuity of the function
defined by
Example 13 Discuss the continuity of the function f
given by
Example 14 Show that every polynomial function is
continuous.
Example 15 Find all the points of discontinuity of the
greatest integer function defined by f (x) = [x], where [x]
denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
Algebra of continuous functions
In the previous class, after having understood the
concept of limits, we learnt some algebra of limits.
Analogously, now we will study some algebra of
continuous functions. Since continuity of a function at
a point is entirely dictated by the limit of the function
at that point, it is reasonable to expect results
analogous to the case of limits.
Theorem 1 Suppose f and g be two real functions
continuous at a real number c.
Then
(1) f + g is continuous at x = c.
(2) f – g is continuous at x = c.
(3) f . g is continuous at x = c.

(4) is continuous at x = c, (provided g (c) ≠ 0).

 Remarks
(i) As a special case of (3) above, if f is a constant
function, i.e., f (x) = λ for some real number λ, then
the function (λ . g) defined by (λ . g) (x) = λ . g(x) is
also continuous. In particular if λ = – 1, the continuity
of f implies continuity of – f.
 Remarks
(ii) As a special case of (4) above, if f is the constant
function f (x) = λ, then the function defined by

is also continuous wherever g (x) ≠ 0.

In particular, the continuity of g implies continuity of

Example 16 Prove that every rational function is
continuous.
Example 17 Discuss the continuity of sine function.
Remark A similar proof may be given for the continuity
of cosine function.
Example 18 Prove that the function defined by
f (x) = tan x is a continuous function.
Theorem 2
Suppose f and g are real valued
functions such that (f o g) is defined at c.
If g is continuous at c and if f is continuous at g (c),
then (f o g) is continuous at c.
Example 19 Show that the function defined by
f(x) = sin (x2) is a continuous function.
Example 20 Show that the function f defined by
f (x) = |1 – x + | x| |,
where x is any real number, is a continuous function.
Continuity and
Differentiability
Exercise 5.1

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01. Prove that the function f(x) = 5x – 3 is continuous at
x = 0, at x = – 3 and at x = 5.
02. Examine the continuity of the function f(x) = 2x2 – 1 at
x = 3.
03. Examine the following functions for continuity.
04. Prove that the function f (x) = xn is continuous at
x = n, where n is a positive integer.
05. Is the function f defined by

Continuous at x = 0 ? At x = 1 ? At x = 2 ?
 Find all points of discontinuity of f, where f is defined
by

06.
07.
08.
09.
10.
11.
12.
13. Is the function defined by

a continuous function ?
Discuss the continuity of the function f, where f is
defined by
14.
15.
16.
17. Find the relationship between a and b so that the
function f defined by

is continuous at x = 3.
18. For what value of λ is the function defined by

continuous at x = 0 ? What about continuity at x = 1 ?

19. Show that the function defined by g (x) = x – [x] is
discontinuous at all integral points. Here [x] denotes
the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
20. Is the function defined by f(x) = x2 – sin x + 5
continuous at x = π ?
21. Discuss the continuity of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = sin x + cos x
(b) f (x) = sin x – cos x
(c) f (x) = sin x . cos x
22. Discuss the continuity of the cosine, cosecant, secant
and cotangent functions.
23. Find all points of discontinuity of f, where
24. Determine if f defined by

is a continuous function ?
25. Examine the continuity of f, where f is defined by
Find the values of k so that the function f is continuous
at the indicated point in Exercises 26 to 29.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30. Find the values of a and b such that the function
defined by

is a continuous function.
31. Show that the function defined by f (x) = cos (x2) is a
continuous function.
32. Show that the function defined by f(x) = | cos x | is a
continuous function.
33. Examine that sin | x | is a continuous function
34. Find all the points of discontinuity of f defined by
f (x) = | x | – |x + 1 |.
Differentiability
Recall the following facts from previous class. We had
defined the derivative of a real function as follows:
Suppose f is a real function and c is a point in its
domain. The derivative of f at c is defined by
Derivative of f at c is denoted by f ‘(c)
The function defined by
If y = f (x) by The process of finding
derivative of a function is called differentiation. We
also use the phrase differentiate f (x) with respect to x
to mean find f ‘(x).
The following rules were established as a part of
algebra of derivatives:
The following table gives a list of derivatives of certain
standard functions:
Whenever we defined derivative, we had put a
caution provided the limit exists. Now the natural
question is; what if it doesn’t ? The question is quite
pertinent and so is its answer.

does not exist, we say that f

is not differentiable at c.
In other words, we say that a function f is
differentiable at a pointc in its domain if both

are finite and equal

A function is said to be differentiable in an interval
[a, b] if it is differentiable at every point of [a, b]. As
in case of continuity, at the end points a and b, we take
the right hand limit and left hand limit, which are
nothing but left hand derivative and right hand
derivative of the function at a and b respectively.
Similarly, a function is said to be differentiable in an
interval (a, b) if it is differentiable at every point of
(a, b).
Theorem 3 If a function f is differentiable at a point c,
then it is also continuous at that point.
Corollary 1 Every differentiable function is continuous.
Derivatives of composite functions
To study derivative of composite functions, we start
with an illustrative example. Say, we want to find the
derivative of f, where
The advantage with such observation is that it
simplifies the calculation in finding the derivative of,
say, (2x + 1)100. We may formalise this observation in
the following theorem called the chain rule.
Theorem 4 (Chain Rule) Let f be a real valued
function which is a composite of two functions u and
v; i.e., f = v o u. Suppose t = u (x) and if both
Suppose f is a real valued function which is a composite
of three functions u, v and w ; i.e.,
f = (w o u) o v. If t = v (x) and s = u (t), then

provided all the derivatives in the statement exist.

Reader is invited to formulate chain rule for composite
of more functions.
Example 21 Find the derivative of the function given
by f (x) = sin (x2).
Example 22 Find the derivative of tan (2x + 3).
Example 23 Differentiate sin (cos (x2)) with respect to x.
Continuity and
Differentiability
Exercise 5.2

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Differentiate the functions with respect to x in
Exercises 1 to 8.
01. sin (x2 + 5)
02. cos (sin x)
03. sin (ax + b)
04.
05.
06. cos x3 . sin2 (x5)
07.
08.
09. Prove that the function f given by
f (x) = |x – 1|, x ∈ R
is not differentiable at x = 1.
10. Prove that the greatest integer function defined by
f (x) = [x], 0 < x < 3
is not differentiable at x = 1 and x = 2.
Derivatives of implicit functions
Until now we have been differentiating various
functions given in the form y = f (x). But it is not
necessary that functions are always expressed in this
form.
For example, consider one of the following relationships
between x and y :
x–y–π=0
x + sin xy – y = 0
In the first case, we can solve for y and rewrite the
relationship as y = x – π. In the second case, it does
not seem that there is an easy way to solve for y.
Nevertheless, there is no doubt about the dependence
of y on x in either of the cases. When a relationship
between x and y is expressed in a way that it is easy to
solve for y and write y = f (x), we say that y is given as
an explicit function of x.
In the latter case it is implicit that y is a function of x
and we say that the relationship of the second type,
above, gives function implicitly. In this subsection, we
learn to differentiate implicit functions.
Example 24 Find
Example 25 Find if y + sin y = cos x.
Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
We remark that inverse trigonometric functions are
continuous functions, but we will not prove this. Now
we use chain rule to find derivatives of these
functions.
Example 26 Find the derivative of f given by
f (x) = sin–1 x assuming it exists.
Example 27 Find the derivative of f given by
f (x) = tan–1 x assuming it exists.
The following table gives the derivatives of the
remaining inverse trigonometric functions
Continuity and
Differentiability
Exercise 5.3

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01. 2x + 3y = sin x
02. 2x + 3y = sin y
03. ax + by2 = cos y
04. xy + y2 = tan x + y
05. x2 + xy + y2 = 100
06. x3 + x2y + xy2 + y3 = 81
07. sin2 y + cos xy = κ
08. sin2 x + cos2 y = 1
09.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Till now we have learnt some aspects of different
classes of functions like polynomial functions,
rational functions and trigonometric functions. In this
section, we shall learn about a new class of (related)
functions called exponential functions and logarithmic
functions.
Gives a sketch of y = f1(x) = x, y = f2(x) = x2, y = f3(x)
= x3 and y = f4(x) = x4. Observe that the curves
get steeper as the power of x increases. Steeper the
curve, faster is the rate of growth. What this means is
that for a fixed increment in the value of x (> 1), the
increment in the value of y = fn (x) increases as n
increases for n = 1, 2, 3, 4. It is conceivable that such
a statement is true for all positive values of n, where
fn(x) = xn.
Essentially, this means that the graph of y = fn (x) leans
more towards the y-axis as n increases.
For example, consider f10(x) = x10 and f15(x) = x15. If x
increases from 1 to 2, f10 increases from 1 to 210
whereas f15 increases from 1 to 215. Thus, for the same
increment in x, f15 grow faster than f10.
Upshot of the above discussion is that the growth of
polynomial functions is dependent on the degree of
the polynomial function – higher the degree, greater
is the growth. The next natural question is: Is there a
function which grows faster than any polynomial
function.
Definition 3 The exponential function with positive
base b > 1 is the function y = f (x) = bx
It is advised that the reader plots this graph for
particular values of b like 2, 3 and 4.
Following are some of the salient features of the
exponential functions:
(1) Domain of the exponential function is R, the set of
all real numbers.
(2) Range of the exponential function is the set of all
positive real numbers.
(3) The point (0, 1) is always on the graph of the
exponential function (this is a restatement of the
fact that b0 = 1 for any real b > 1).
(4) Exponential function is ever increasing; i.e., as we
move from left to right, the graph rises above.
(5) For very large negative values of x, the exponential
function is very close to 0. In other words, in the
second quadrant, the graph approaches x-axis (but
never meets it).
Exponential function with base 10 is called the
common exponential function. In the Appendix A.1.4
of Class XI, it was observed that the sum of the series

is a number between 2 and 3 and is denoted by e. Using

thise as the base we obtain an extremely important
exponential function y = ex.
This is called natural exponential function.
It would be interesting to know if the inverse of the
exponential function exists and has nice interpretation.
This search motivates the following definition.
Definition 4 Let b > 1 be a real number. Then we say
logarithm of a to base b is x if bx = a.
On a slightly more mature note, fixing a base b > 1,
we may look at logarithm as a function from positive
real numbers to all real numbers. This function,
called the logarithmic function, is defined by
As before if the base b = 10, we say it is common
logarithms and if b = e, then we say it is natural
logarithms. Often natural logarithm is denoted by ln.
In this chapter, log x denotes the logarithm function to
base e, i.e., ln x will be written as simplylog x.
 Some of the important observations about the logarithm
function to any base b > 1 are listed below:
(1) We cannot make a meaningful definition of
logarithm of non-positive numbers and hence the
domain of log function is R+.
(2) The range of log function is the set of all real
numbers.
(3) The point (1, 0) is always on the graph of the log
function.
(4) The log function is ever increasing, i.e., as we
move from left to right the graph rises above.
(5) For x very near to zero, the value of log x can be
made lesser than any given real number. In other
words in the fourth quadrant the graph approaches
y-axis (but never meets it).
(6) Fig 5.11 gives the plot of y = ex and y = ln x. It is of
interest to observe that the two curves are the mirror
images of each other reflected in the line y = x
 Two properties of ‘log’ functions are proved below:
(1) There is a standard change of base rule to obtain
loga p in terms of logb p.
(2) Another interesting property of the log function is its
effect on products. Let logb pq = α. Then bα = pq. If
logb p = β and logb q = γ, then bβ = p and bγ = q.
But then bα = pq = bβbγ = bβ + γ which implies α = β + γ,
i.e.,
logb pq = logb p + logb q
A particularly interesting and important consequence
of this is when p = q. In this case the above may be
rewritten as

An easy generalisation of this (left as an exercise!) is

for any positive integer n. In fact this is true for any

real number n, but we will not attempt to prove this.
On the similar lines the reader is invited to verify
Example 28 Is it true that x = elog x for all real x ?
Theorem 5
(1) The derivative of ex w.r.t., x is ex ; i.e.,

(2) The derivative of log x w.r.t., x is

Example 29 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
(i) e–x (ii) sin (log x), x > 0
(iii) cos–1 (ex) (iv) ecos x
Continuity and
Differentiability
Exercise 5.4

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Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:
01.
02.
03.
04. sin (tan–1 e–x)
05. log (cos ex)
06.
07.
08. log (log x), x > 1
09.
10. cos (log x + ex), x > 0
Logarithmic Differentiation
In this section, we will learn to differentiate certain
special class of functions given in the form
By taking logarithm (to base e) the above may be
rewritten as log y = v(x) log [u(x)]
Using chain rule we may differentiate this to get

which implies that

The main point to be noted in this method is that f (x)
and u(x) must always be positive as otherwise their
logarithms are not defined. This process of
differentiation is known as logarithms differentiation
Example 30 Differentiate
Example 31 Differentiate ax w.r.t. x, where a is a
positive constant.
Example 32 Differentiate xsin x, x > 0 w.r.t. x.
Example 33 Find
Continuity and
Differentiability
Exercise 5.5

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Differentiate the functions given in Exercises 1 to 11
w.r.t. x.
01. cos x . cos 2x . cos 3x
02.
03. (log x)cos x
04. xx – 2sin x
05. (x + 3)2 . (x + 4)3 . (x + 5)4
06.
07. (log x)x + xlog x
08.
09. xsin x + (sin x)cos x
10.
11.
Find of the functions given in Exercises 12 to 15.
12. xy + yx = 1
 yx = xy
13.
14. (cos x)y = (cos y)x
15. xy = e(x – y)
16. Find the derivative of the function given by f(x) = (1 + x)
(1 + x2) (1 + x4) (1 + x8) and hence find f ′(1).
17. Differentiate (x2 – 5x + 8) (x3 + 7x + 9) in three ways
mentioned below:
(i) by using product rule
(ii) by expanding the product to obtain a single
polynomial.
(iii) by logarithmic differentiation.
Do they all give the same answer ?
18. If u, v and w are functions of x, then show that

in two ways - first by repeated application of product

rule, second by logarithmic differentiation.
Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms
Sometimes the relation between two variables is
neither explicit nor implicit, but some link of a third
variable with each of the two variables, separately,
establishes a relation between the first two variables.
In such a situation, we say that the relation between
them is expressed via a third variable. The third
variable is called the parameter. More precisely,
a relation expressed between two variables x and y in
the form x = f (t), y = g (t) is said to be parametric
form with t as a parameter.
In order to find derivative of function in such form,
we have by chain rule.
Example 34 Find if x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ.
Example 35 Find if x = at2, y = 2at.
Example 36 Find if x = a (θ + sin θ),

y = a (1 – cos θ).
Note It may be noted here that is expressed in

terms of parameter only without directly involving the

main variables x and y.
Example 37 Find
Note Had we proceeded in implicit way, it would have
been quite tedious.
Continuity and
Differentiability
Exercise 5.6

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If x and y are connected parametrically by the equations
given in Exercises 1 to 10, without eliminating the
parameter, Find
01. x = 2at2, y = at4
02. x = a cos θ, y = b cos θ
03. x = sin t, y = cos 2t
04.
05. x = cos θ – cos 2θ, y = sin θ – sin 2θ
06. x = a (θ – sin θ), y = a (1 + cos θ)
07.
08.
09. x = a sec θ, y = b tan θ
10. x = a (cos θ + θ sin θ), y = a (sin θ – θ cos θ)
11.
Second Order Derivative

If f′(x) is differentiable, we may differentiate (1)

again w.r.t. x. Then, the left hand side becomes

which is called the second order derivative of

y w.r.t. x and is denoted by

The second order derivative of f (x) is denoted by f
″(x). It is also denoted by D2 y or y″ or y2 if y = f (x).
We remark that higher order derivatives may be
defined similarly.
Example 38 Find if y = x3 + tan x.
Example 39 If y = A sin x + B cos x, then prove that
Example 40 If y = 3e2x + 2e3x, prove that
Example 41 If y = sin–1 x, show that

(1-x2)
Continuity and
Differentiability
Exercise 5.7

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Find the second order derivatives of the functions
given in Exercises 1 to 10.
01. x2 + 3x + 2
02. x20
03. x . cos x
04. log x
05. x3 log x
06. ex sin 5x
07. e6x cos 3x
08. tan–1 x
09. log (log x)
10. sin (log x)
11. If y = 5 cos x – 3 sin x, prove that
12. If y = cos–1 x, Find in terms of y alone.
13. If y = 3 cos (log x) + 4 sin (log x), show that
x2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0
14. If y = Aemx + Benx, show that
15. If y = 500e7x + 600e– 7x, show that
16. If ey (x + 1) = 1, show that
17. If y = (tan–1 x)2, show that
(x2 + 1)2 y2 + 2x (x2 + 1) y1 = 2
Mean Value Theorem
In this section, we will state two fundamental results in
Calculus without proof. We shall also learn the
geometric interpretation of these theorems.
Theorem 6 (Rolle’s Theorem) Let f : [a, b] → R be
continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), such
that f(a) = f(b), where a and b are some real numbers.
Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that f ′(c) = 0.
In Fig 5.12 and 5.13, graphs of a few typical
differentiable functions satisfying the hypothesis of
Rolle’s theorem are given.
Observe what happens to the slope of the tangent to the
curve at various points between a and b. In each of the
graphs, the slope becomes zero at least at one point.
That is precisely the claim of the Rolle’s theorem as the
slope of the tangent at any point on the graph of y = f
(x) is nothing but the derivative of f (x) at that point.
Theorem 7 (Mean Value Theorem) Let f : [a, b] → R
be a continuous function on [a, b] and differentiable
on (a, b). Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that

Observe that the Mean Value Theorem (MVT) is an

extension of Rolle’s theorem.
Example 42 Verify Rolle’s theorem for the function
y = x2 + 2, a = – 2 and b = 2.
Example 43 Verify Mean Value Theorem for the
function f (x) = x2 in the interval [2, 4].
Continuity and
Differentiability
Exercise 5.8

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01. Verify Rolle’s theorem for the function
f (x) = x2 + 2x – 8, x ∈ [– 4, 2].
02. Examine if Rolle’s theorem is applicable to any of the
following functions. Can you say some thing about
the converse of Rolle’s theorem from these example ?
(i) f(x) = [x] for x ∈ [5, 9]
(ii) f(x) = [x] for x ∈ [– 2, 2]
(iii) f(x) = x2 – 1 for x ∈ [1, 2]
03. If f : [– 5, 5] → R is a differentiable function and if
f ′(x) does not vanish anywhere, then prove that f(– 5)
≠ f(5).
04. Verify Mean Value Theorem, if f (x) = x2 – 4x – 3 in
the interval [a, b], where a = 1 and b = 4.
05. Verify Mean Value Theorem, if f(x) = x3 – 5x2 – 3x in
the interval [a, b], where a = 1 and b = 3. Find all
c ∈ (1, 3) for which f′(c) = 0.
06. Examine the applicability of Mean Value Theorem
for all three functions given in the above exercise 2.
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 44 Differentiate w.r.t. x, the following
function:
Example 45 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.
Example 46 Find f ′(x) if f(x) = (sin x)sin x for all
0 < x < π.
Example 47 For a positive constant a find
Example 48 Differentiate sin2 x w.r.t. ecos x.
Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 5
Differentiate w.r.t. x the function in Exercises 1 to 11.
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08. cos (a cos x + b sin x), for some constant a and b.
09.
10. xx + xa + ax + aa, for some fixed a > 0 and x > 0
11.
12.
13.
14.
15. If (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = c2, for some c > 0, prove that

is a constant independent of a and b.

16. If cos y = x cos (a + y), with cos a ≠ ± 1, prove that
17. If x = a (cos t + t sin t) and y = a (sin t – t cos t), find
18. If f (x) = | x |3, show that f ″(x) exists for all real x and
find it.
19. Using mathematical induction prove that

for all positive integers n.

20. Using the fact that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos
Asin B and the differentiation, obtain the sum
formula for cosines.
21. Does there exist a function which is continuous
everywhere but not differentiable at exactly two
points ? Justify your answer.
22.
23.
Summary
s A real valued function is continuous at a point in its
domain if the limit of the function at that point equals
the value of the function at that point. A function
is continuous if it is continuous on the whole of its
domain.
s Sum, difference, product and quotient of continuous
functions are continuous.
i.e., if f and g are continuous functions, then
(f ± g) (x) = f (x) ± g(x) is continuous.
(f . g) (x) = f (x) . g(x) is continuous.

(wherever g (x) ≠ 0) is continuous.

s Every differentiable function is continuous, but the
converse is not true.
s Chain rule is rule to differentiate composites of
functions. If f = v o u, t = u (x) and if both

exist then
s Following are some of the standard derivatives (in
appropriate domains):
s Logarithmic differentiation is a powerful technique to
differentiate functions of the form f (x) = [u (x)]v (x).
Here both f(x) and u (x) need to be positive for
this technique to make sense.
s Rolle’s Theorem : If f : [a, b] → R is continuous on
[a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) such that f (a) = f (b),
then there exists some c in (a, b) such that f ′(c) = 0.
s Mean Value Theorem : If f : [a, b] → R is continuous
on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then there
exists some c in (a, b) such that
s
s
s
s