BGS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Mahalakshmi layout, Bengaluru- 560086

RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT

(BME654B)

MODULE - 02
 RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT (BME654B)

Syllabus: Module – 2
Solar Power Plants:
Measurement of Solar Radiation: Pyrometer, shading ring Pyrheliometer, sunshine recorder,
schematic diagrams and principle of working. Solar Thermal Conversion: Collection and
storage, thermal collection devices.
Fundamentals of solar energy and photovoltaic (PV) technology, Types of solar power plants:
grid tied, off grid, and hybrid systems, Design considerations for solar power plants: site
selection, orientation, and shading analysis, PV system components and their functionalities,
Operation, maintenance, and performance monitoring of solar power plants.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

Thermocouple: Principle and Working

A thermocouple is a simple yet effective device used to measure temperature differences. It consists
of two wires made of different conductive materials, joined together at two junctions. These junctions
are referred to as Junction A and Junction B in the setup.

Working Principle

When a heat source, such as a candle, is brought near junction A, its temperature increases, while
junction B remains at room temperature. This difference in temperature between the two junctions
creates a potential difference (voltage) due to the.

Since the circuit is closed, this potential difference drives an electric current (I) through the loop. The
magnitude of this current is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the two
junctions.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT (BME654B)

Measurement and Application

To measure the current, an ammeter is connected in series with the circuit. By analyzing the
ammeter reading, the temperature difference between the two junctions can be determined. The
greater the temperature difference, the higher the current flow.

This principle allows thermocouples to be widely used in temperature measurement applications,

particularly in industrial and scientific settings.

Measurement of Solar Radiation

Solar radiation is primarily measured using the following instruments:

1. Pyranometer: A Pyranometer measures global solar radiation, typically on a horizontal

surface but can also be used on an inclined surface. When equipped with a shading ring, it
measures only diffuse radiation by blocking direct sunlight.
2. Pyrheliometer: This instrument measures direct beam radiation. It uses a long, narrow tube
to focus only on the sunlight coming from a specific direction at normal incidence.
3. Sunshine Recorder: This device records the total duration of sunshine throughout the day,
providing data on the number of sunshine hours.

These instruments help in understanding solar energy availability, which is crucial for applications
like solar power generation and climate studies.

Pyranometer: Construction and Working

A Pyranometer is a device used to measure solar radiation. It is widely used in meteorology,

climatology, and solar energy applications. The key components and working principles of a
Pyranometer are described below.

A Pyranometer is an instrument that measures either global or diffuse radiation falling on a

horizontal surface over a hemispherical field of view. A sketch of one type of Pyranometer as installed
for the measurement of global radiation is shown in Figure. The Pyranometer consists of a 'black'
surface that heats up when exposed to solar radiation. Its temperature increases until the rate of heat
gain by solar radiation equals the rate of heat loss by convection, conduction, and reradiating. The hot
junctions of the thermopile are attached to the black surface, while the cold junctions are located
under a guard plate so that they do not receive the radiation directly. As a result, an emf is generated.
This emf which is usually in the range of 0 to 10 mV can be read, recorded, or integrated over a while
and is a measure of the global radiation.

The Pyranometer shown in the figure is used commonly in India it has its hot junctions arranged in
the form of a circular disc of diameter 25 mm and is coated with a special black lacquer having a very
high absorptivity in the solar wavelength region.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT (BME654B)

Two concentric hemispheres, 30 and 50 mm in diameter respectively made of optical glass having
excellent transmission characteristics are used to protect the disc surface from the weather. An
accuracy of about ±2 percent can be obtained with the Instrument.

Construction of a Pyranometer

1. Glass Dome: The glass dome limits the spectral response from 300 nm to 2800 nm while
allowing a 180-degree field of view. It also protects the thermopile sensor from environmental
factors such as rain and wind.
2. Black Absorber Plate: This plate absorbs all global solar radiation that passes through the
glass dome.
3. Thermopile: The thermopile consists of thermocouples that detect temperature differences
between two surfaces and generate a corresponding voltage.

Working Principle of a Pyranometer

 The glass dome acts as a filter, transmitting solar radiation in the wavelength range of
approximately 0.3 to 3 x 10⁻⁶ m. This includes near-infrared, visible, UV-A, and part of UV-B
radiation.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT (BME654B)

 The filtered radiation is absorbed by the black surface inside the Pyranometer and converted
into heat.
 A temperature gradient is created from the black surface through the thermopile to the
Pyranometer body, which acts as a heat sink.
 The thermopile consists of multiple thermocouples connected in series. Each thermocouple
generates a voltage proportional to the temperature difference between the black surface and
the Pyranometer body.
 The generated voltage is measured using a potentiometer and is used to determine the amount
of solar radiation.

Applications of Pyranometer

1. Climatology and Meteorology: Used to study solar radiation patterns and atmospheric
conditions.
2. Solar Intensity Measurement: Helps in measuring the intensity of solar radiation for
research and analysis.
3. Photovoltaic (PV) Power Plants: Used to monitor the performance and efficiency of solar
panels.

Shading Ring Pyranometer

A Pyranometer can also be used to measure diffuse radiation by incorporating a semicircular shading
ring at its center. This ring is positioned so that its plane remains parallel to the sun’s daily movement
across the sky. By consistently shading the thermopile element and the two glass domes from direct
sunlight, the Pyranometer effectively measures only the diffuse radiation received from the sky.

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Pyrheliometer

A Pyrheliometer is an instrument used for measuring direct beam solar irradiance. It operates with a
tracking mechanism to continuously follow the sun and is responsive to wavelength bands ranging
from 280 nm to 3000 nm. The irradiance is measured in units of W/m².

Applications

1. Scientific meteorological and climate observations

2. Material testing research
3. Efficiency assessment of solar collectors and photovoltaic devices

Construction and Working of Pyrheliometer

Main Components

 Long Collimator Tube: Houses key components such as the absorber plate and
thermocouples while limiting direct beam radiation to specific dimensions.
 Alignment Indicator: Used to set the angle of the device accurately.
 Thermopile: Converts thermal energy into electrical energy based on the thermoelectric
effect. It consists of thermocouples placed beneath the black absorber plate.
 Black Absorber Plate: Located inside the tube to absorb solar radiation.
 Two-Axis Tracking Mechanism: Mounts the entire system and ensures continuous tracking
of the sun throughout the day. The instrument’s direction can be adjusted based on radiation
direction.

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 Protective Lens: A convex lens that directs radiation onto the absorber plate. The acceptance
angle should ideally be close to 0 degrees, typically around 5 degrees, to focus light efficiently
on the black body.

Working Principle

1. The collimator tube captures direct solar irradiance through the protective lens, aligning with
the sun.
2. Solar radiation passes through the lens and tube, reaching the absorber plate.
3. The black absorber plate fully absorbs the incident radiation.
4. The thermopile, in contact with the absorber plate, generates a thermo-electromotive force
(emf) proportional to the absorbed radiation.
5. As radiation is absorbed, the atoms in the absorber plate become excited due to the increase in
temperature. This temperature rise is transferred to thermocouple junction 'A'.
6. A temperature difference between junction 'A' (hot) and junction 'B' (cool) generates an
electric current within the thermopile loop.

Advantages

 Minimal temperature coefficient

 Standardized according to ISO standards
 Provides accurate measurements of performance ratio and performance index
 Longer response time compared to photovoltaic (PV) cells

Disadvantages

 Limited spectral sensitivity, leading to potential measurement errors

 Does not capture the entire solar spectrum

The Pyrheliometer is a vital instrument in solar energy research, meteorology, and photovoltaic
performance assessment, ensuring precise and standardized solar radiation measurements.

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Sunshine Recorder
A sunshine recorder is a device that records the amount of sunshine at a given location or region at
any time.

The duration of bright sunshine in a day is measured using a sunshine recorder. This instrument
consists of a glass sphere that focuses the sun’s rays onto a calibrated card strip, which is held in a
groove within a spherical bowl. When bright sunshine is present, the concentrated rays burn a mark
on the strip. As the sun moves across the sky, the focused image shifts along the strip, creating a burnt
trace. The length of this trace is directly proportional to the duration of sunshine during the day.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT (BME654B)

Construction and Working of a Sunshine Recorder

Construction

 The sunshine recorder consists of a glass sphere that acts as a burning lens and a metal
bowl arranged concentrically at the focal length of the sphere.
 The glass sphere, typically 96 mm in diameter, is made of non-expanding material and has
a specific refractive index.
 A cardboard or recorder strip with hourly divisions is placed in the grooves inside the
metal bowl to record sunshine duration.

Working

 The glass sphere, functioning as a convex lens, focuses sunlight onto the recorder strip.
 When the sun shines brightly, the focused rays generate enough heat to burn a spot on the
strip.
 As the sun moves across the sky, the burn mark shifts along the strip, creating a continuous
burnt trace.
 The length of the burn marks on the strip is directly proportional to the duration of
sunshine for that day.

Advantages

 Simple and easy to use.

 No moving parts, requiring minimal maintenance.
 Portable and adaptable, usable worldwide with little or no design modification.

Disadvantages

 Measures only bright sunshine and does not account for diffused sunlight.
 Rain can damage the card, making it difficult to read.
 Frost and freezing rain may make the glass sphere hard to clean.
 Inconsistent readings on partly cloudy days, as short sunny intervals may cause burns
similar to longer periods of sunshine, leading to variations in interpretation.

Solar Thermal Systems

Solar thermal systems, also known as solar heating systems, harness the sun's energy to produce
heat. These systems convert solar radiation into usable thermal energy for applications such as space
heating, water heating, and industrial processes. Unlike solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, which
generate electricity directly from sunlight, solar thermal technology focuses on capturing and utilizing
heat efficiently.

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The solar thermal system relies on a collector, typically mounted on the roof, as its primary
component. The collector features specially coated, reinforced glass pipes designed to absorb solar
radiation and convert it into heat. These pipes are housed within an insulated container to minimize
heat loss. A heat transfer fluid, containing eco-friendly antifreeze, circulates through the collector and
the hot water tank. The system is controlled by an automated solar thermal controller. When the
collector’s temperature reaches a specific level above that of the storage tank, the controller activates
the pump, transferring the heated fluid to the hot water tank.

Components of Solar Thermal Systems

Solar thermal systems typically consist of the following key components:

 Solar Collectors: These capture solar radiation and convert it into heat. Common types
include flat-plate and evacuated-tube collectors, which absorb sunlight and transfer the heat to
a fluid medium.
 Heat Transfer Fluid: A liquid, such as water or an antifreeze solution, circulates through the
solar collectors, absorbing and transporting heat energy.
 Heat Storage: Excess thermal energy collected during sunny periods is stored for later use.
Insulated tanks or rock beds help retain heat for use during cloudy conditions or nighttime.
 Distribution System: This system transfers heated fluid to its intended application, such as
radiant floor heating, radiators, or heat exchangers for water heating.

Advantages of Solar Thermal Systems

 Renewable & Clean Energy: Solar thermal systems harness the sun's energy, reducing
dependence on fossil fuels and lowering greenhouse gas emissions.
 Cost Savings: They can significantly cut energy costs, especially for high-demand applications
like water and space heating.

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 Versatility: These systems are adaptable for various uses, from residential and commercial
buildings to industrial processes.
 Long Lifespan: With proper maintenance, solar thermal systems can operate efficiently for
decades.

Flat Plate Collector

A solar flat plate collector is a widely used solar thermal device designed to capture and convert
solar radiation into heat energy. It is commonly utilized in various heating applications, including
residential, commercial, and industrial settings.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT (BME654B)

Components of a Flat Plate Collector

1. Absorber Plate:

The absorber plate is the core component of the flat plate collector. It is a dark-colored,
thermally conductive metal plate—typically made of copper or aluminum—that efficiently
absorbs solar radiation and transfers heat to the circulating fluid.

2. Transparent Cover:

A transparent glazing material, such as glass or plastic, covers the absorber plate. This cover
allows sunlight to pass through while minimizing heat loss due to convection and radiation,
creating a greenhouse effect that enhances heat retention.

3. Insulation:

The sides and back of the collector are insulated to reduce heat loss to the surroundings.
Effective insulation helps maintain a higher temperature gradient within the collector,
improving overall efficiency.

4. Fluid Channels:

Beneath the absorber plate, a network of tubes or channels carries a heat transfer fluid—
commonly water or an antifreeze solution. This fluid absorbs the heat and transports it for
various applications.

Working Principle

1. Solar Radiation Absorption:

Sunlight passes through the transparent cover and is absorbed by the dark surface of the
absorber plate, converting solar energy into heat.

2. Heat Transfer:

The absorbed heat warms the fluid circulating through the channels beneath the absorber
plate.

3. Fluid Circulation:

The heated fluid is circulated to be used for applications such as water heating, space heating,
or industrial processes. The heat can be transferred directly or through a heat exchanger to the
desired medium.

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Advantages of Solar Flat Plate Collectors

 Reliability: A simple and durable design ensures long-term performance with minimal
maintenance.
 Efficiency: High thermal efficiency is achieved, especially when combined with quality
insulation and glazing materials.
 Versatility: Suitable for various heating applications in residential, commercial, and industrial
environments.
 Cost-effectiveness: More affordable compared to other solar thermal technologies, making it
a preferred choice for many users.

Solar flat plate collectors offer an effective and sustainable solution for harnessing solar energy,
contributing to energy savings and environmental sustainability.

Solar Pond Electric Power Plant

A solar pond electric power plant, also known as a solar salt-gradient power plant, is a renewable
energy facility that utilizes a solar pond to capture and store solar thermal energy for electricity
generation. A solar pond is a large, shallow body of saltwater designed to absorb and retain heat from
sunlight.

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT (BME654B)

Working Principle

The operation of a solar pond electric power plant involves several key steps:

 Solar Pond Construction: A solar pond consists of three distinct layers with varying salt
concentrations:
o The storage zone (bottom layer) contains highly concentrated saltwater, which stores
heat.
o The gradient zone (middle layer) has a decreasing salt concentration that prevents
heat loss.
o The surface zone (top layer) consists of freshwater with the lowest salt concentration.
 Solar Radiation Absorption: Sunlight penetrates the transparent surface layer and reaches
the bottom storage zone, where the dense saltwater absorbs and retains heat.
 Salt Gradient and Thermal Storage: The temperature gradient created within the pond
prevents heat from escaping, effectively storing thermal energy in the lower layer.
 Heat Extraction: Heat exchangers placed in the storage zone transfer the retained thermal
energy to a working fluid, such as water or a heat transfer fluid.
 Steam Generation: The heated working fluid is directed to a steam generator, where it
transfers heat to water, producing steam. This steam drives a turbine connected to an electric
generator, producing electricity.
 Condensation and Return: After passing through the turbine, the steam is condensed back
into liquid form and returned to the system, completing the cycle.

Advantages

Solar pond power plants offer several benefits:

 Renewable Energy: They utilize solar energy, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and minimizing
greenhouse gas emissions.

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 Continuous Power Generation: The thermal energy storage allows for power generation
even during low solar radiation periods or at night.
 Scalability: The design allows flexibility in plant size based on energy demand.
 Simplicity and Durability: The system has a relatively simple design, requires low
maintenance, and can have a long operational lifespan with proper upkeep.

Considerations

Despite their advantages, solar pond power plants have certain limitations:

 Land Requirement: They require large surface areas, which can be challenging in densely
populated regions.
 Environmental Impact: Construction and operation may disrupt local habitats, and improper
saltwater management can lead to contamination.
 Efficiency: They have lower energy conversion efficiency compared to other solar
technologies such as photovoltaic (PV) or concentrated solar power (CSP) systems.

Solar pond electric power plants provide a unique and sustainable approach to harnessing solar
energy. While they have some challenges, their ability to store and utilize thermal energy efficiently
makes them a viable renewable energy solution, contributing to cleaner and more sustainable power
generation.

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