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Question 1: Define an algorithm. Discuss the characteristics of an algorithm.

●​ Definition: An algorithm is a well-defined, step-by-step procedure or a set of rules
designed to perform a specific task or solve a particular problem. It's a finite sequence of
instructions that, when executed, achieves a desired outcome.
●​ Characteristics of an Algorithm:
1.​ Finiteness: An algorithm must always terminate after a finite number of steps. It
cannot be an infinite loop. Each step must be executable in a finite amount of time.
2.​ Definiteness: Each step of an algorithm must be precisely defined and
unambiguous. Instructions should be clear and leave no room for interpretation.
3.​ Input: An algorithm may have zero or more inputs. These are the values provided
to the algorithm before it begins execution.
4.​ Output: An algorithm must produce at least one output. This is the result of the
algorithm's computation. The output can be a value, a list, a change in state, or any
other measurable result.
5.​ Effectiveness: Each step of an algorithm must be basic enough to be carried out,
in principle, by a person using pencil and paper. It means that each operation must
be feasible.
6.​ Generality: An algorithm should be general enough to solve all problems of a
particular type. It should be adaptable to handle different inputs.
Question 2: Write an algorithm to find the maximum element in an array of n elements.
Give the mathematical analysis of this non-recursive algorithm.
●​ Algorithm:​
ALGORITHM FindMax(A[0...n-1])​
//Input: An array A of n real numbers​
//Output: The value of the largest element in A​
max ← A[0]​
for i ← 1 to n-1 do​
if A[i] > max​
max ← A[i]​
return max​

●​ Mathematical Analysis:
○​ Basic Operation: The basic operation is the comparison A[i] > max within the loop.
○​ Number of Basic Operations: The loop runs from 1 to n-1, which means it iterates
n-1 times. Therefore, the comparison A[i] > max is executed n-1 times.
○​ Time Complexity: The time complexity of this algorithm is determined by how
many times the basic operation is executed. Since it's n-1, the time complexity is
linear, or O(n). This means the time taken by the algorithm increases in direct
proportion to the size of the input array.
Question 3: Explain the general plan for analyzing the efficiency of a recursive algorithm.
Write the algorithm to find a factorial of a given number. Derive its efficiency.
●​ General Plan for Analyzing Recursive Algorithm Efficiency:
1.​ Decide on Input Size: Determine the parameter that indicates the size of the input
(e.g., 'n' for factorial, number of elements in a list).
2.​ Identify Basic Operation: Pinpoint the operation that is executed most frequently
within the recursion (e.g., the multiplication in factorial).
3.​ Set Up a Recurrence Relation: Create an equation (recurrence relation) that
 expresses the number of times the basic operation is executed as a function of the
input size. This relation will have two parts:
■​ Base Case: Defines the number of operations for the smallest input(s).
■​ Recursive Case: Relates the number of operations for an input of size 'n' to
the number of operations for smaller inputs (e.g., 'n-1').
4.​ Solve the Recurrence Relation: Use mathematical techniques (like backward
substitution, master theorem, etc.) to find a closed-form solution for the recurrence
relation. This solution will give you the efficiency class (e.g., O(n), O(log n), O(n^2)).
●​ Algorithm for Factorial:​
ALGORITHM Factorial(n)​
//Input: A non-negative integer n​
//Output: n! (the factorial of n)​
if n = 0​
return 1​
else​
return n * Factorial(n-1)​

●​ Efficiency Derivation:
1.​ Input Size: The input size is n, the number for which we're calculating the factorial.
2.​ Basic Operation: The basic operation is the multiplication (n * Factorial(n-1)).
3.​ Recurrence Relation:
■​ Let T(n) be the number of multiplications to compute n!.
■​ Base case: T(0) = 0 (no multiplication needed when n=0)
■​ Recursive case: T(n) = T(n-1) + 1 (one multiplication is done, plus the
multiplications needed for (n-1) !)
4.​ Solving the Recurrence:
■​ We can expand the recurrence:
■​ T(n) = T(n-1) + 1
■​ T(n-1) = T(n-2) + 1
■​ T(n-2) = T(n-3) + 1
■​ ...
■​ T(1) = T(0) + 1
■​ Substituting back:
■​ T(n) = (T(n-2) + 1) + 1 = T(n-2) + 2
■​ T(n) = (T(n-3) + 1) + 2 = T(n-3) + 3
■​ ...
■​ T(n) = T(0) + n
■​ Since T(0) = 0, we have T(n) = n.
5.​ Efficiency Class: The algorithm makes n multiplications. Therefore, the time
complexity is O(n), which is linear.
Question 4: Apply a quick sort algorithm to sort the list E, X, A, M, P, L, E in alphabetical
order. Draw the tree of recursive calls made.
●​ Quick Sort Algorithm: Quick sort is a divide-and-conquer algorithm. It works by selecting
a 'pivot' element from the array and partitioning the other elements into two sub-arrays,
according to whether they are less than or greater than the pivot. The sub-arrays are then
recursively sorted.
●​ Sorting the List E, X, A, M, P, L, E:
1.​ Initial List: E, X, A, M, P, L, E
 2.​ Pivot Selection: Let's choose the first element, E, as the pivot.
3.​ Partitioning:
■​ Elements less than E: A, E, E, L
■​ Elements greater than E: X, M, P
4.​ Recursive Calls:
■​ Left Sub-array (A, E, E, L):
■​ Pivot: A
■​ Less than A: [ ]
■​ Greater than A: E, E, L
■​ Recursive call on [ ] (base case, already sorted)
■​ Recursive call on (E, E, L):
■​ Pivot: E
■​ Less than E: E, E
■​ Greater than E: L
■​ Recursive call on (E, E) (base case or further partitioning if
needed)
■​ Recursive call on (L) (base case, already sorted)
■​ Right Sub-array (X, M, P):
■​ Pivot: X
■​ Less than X: M, P
■​ Greater than X: [ ]
■​ Recursive call on (M, P):
■​ Pivot: M
■​ Less than M: [ ]
■​ Greater than M: P
■​ Recursive call on [ ] (base case)
■​ Recursive call on (P) (base case)
■​ Recursive call on [ ] (base case)
5.​ Concatenation: The sorted sub-arrays and the pivot are combined at each step.
●​ Tree of Recursive Calls:​
E, X, A, M, P, L, E​
/ \​
A, E, E, L X, M, P​
/ \ / \​
A E, E, L M, P X​
/ \ / \​
E, E L M P​
/ \​
E E​

●​ Sorted List: A, E, E, L, M, P, X
Question 5: List out the advantages and disadvantages of the divide and conquer
approach.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Solves Difficult Problems: Divide and conquer can be very effective for solving
conceptually difficult problems.
○​ Efficiency: Often leads to more efficient algorithms. For example, merge sort and
quicksort have better time complexities (O(n log n)) compared to some simpler
 sorting algorithms (O(n^2)).
○​ Parallelism: Divide and conquer algorithms are naturally suited for parallel
execution. Since the subproblems are independent, they can be solved
concurrently on multiple processors.
○​ Cache Performance: Can improve cache performance by working on smaller
subproblems that fit more easily into cache memory.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Recursion Overhead: Recursive implementations can have overhead due to
function calls, which can sometimes make them slower than iterative solutions for
small problem sizes.
○​ Complexity: Divide and conquer algorithms can sometimes be more complex to
design and implement compared to simpler algorithms.
○​ Space Complexity: Can sometimes have higher space complexity due to the
storage of intermediate subproblems (e.g., in merge sort).
○​ Not Always Efficient: Not all problems benefit from a divide and conquer
approach. For some problems, simpler algorithms might be more efficient.
Question 6: Write the control abstraction for the divide and conquer technique.
●​ Control Abstraction:​
DAndC(P)​
{​
if (small(P)) // Check if the problem size is small enough to
solve directly​
return S(P); // Solve the small problem directly (base
case)​
else {​
divide P into smaller instances P1, P2, ..., Pk; //
Divide the problem into subproblems​
for (i = 1 to k)​
yi = DAndC(Pi); // Recursively solve each subproblem​
return combine(y1, y2, ..., yk); // Combine the solutions
of the subproblems​
}​
}​

●​ Explanation:
○​ DAndC(P): Represents the divide and conquer algorithm for a problem instance P.
○​ small(P): A boolean function that checks if the problem instance P is small enough
to be solved directly. This is the base case of the recursion.
○​ S(P): A function that solves the small problem instance P directly.
○​ divide P into smaller instances P1, P2, ..., Pk: Divides the problem P into k smaller
subproblems P1, P2, ..., Pk. The value of k can vary depending on the problem.
○​ yi = DAndC(Pi): Recursively calls the divide and conquer algorithm on each of the
subproblems Pi to obtain their solutions yi.
○​ combine(y1, y2, ..., yk): Combines the solutions y1, y2, ..., yk of the subproblems to
produce the solution to the original problem P.
Question 7: Give the general plan for analyzing time efficiency of Recursive algorithms
and also analyze the Tower of Hanoi Recursive algorithm.
●​ General Plan for Analyzing Time Efficiency of Recursive Algorithms: (This is the
 same as in Question 3)
1.​ Decide on Input Size: Determine the parameter that indicates the size of the input.
2.​ Identify Basic Operation: Pinpoint the operation that is executed most frequently
within the recursion.
3.​ Set Up a Recurrence Relation: Create an equation (recurrence relation) that
expresses the number of times the basic operation is executed as a function of the
input size. This relation will have two parts:
■​ Base Case: Defines the number of operations for the smallest input(s).
■​ Recursive Case: Relates the number of operations for an input of size 'n' to
the number of operations for smaller inputs.
4.​ Solve the Recurrence Relation: Use mathematical techniques to find a
closed-form solution for the recurrence relation. This solution will give you the
efficiency class.
●​ Analysis of the Tower of Hanoi:
○​ Algorithm:​
ALGORITHM TowerOfHanoi(n, source, dest, aux)​
//Input: n disks, source peg, destination peg, auxiliary peg​
//Output: Moves to transfer n disks from source to dest​
if n = 1​
move disk from source to dest​
else​
TowerOfHanoi(n-1, source, aux, dest) // Move top n-1
disks from source to aux​
move disk from source to dest // Move the
largest disk from source to dest​
TowerOfHanoi(n-1, aux, dest, source) // Move n-1 disks
from aux to dest​

○​ Explanation:
1.​ Base Case: If n = 1, simply move the disk from the source to the destination
peg.
2.​ Recursive Steps:
■​ Move the top n-1 disks from the source peg to the auxiliary peg, using
the destination peg as the auxiliary.
■​ Move the nth (largest) disk from the source peg to the destination peg.
■​ Move the n-1 disks from the auxiliary peg to the destination peg, using
the source peg as the auxiliary.
○​ Efficiency Analysis:
1.​ Input Size: The input size is n, the number of disks.
2.​ Basic Operation: The basic operation is moving a disk from one peg to
another (move disk from source to dest).
3.​ Recurrence Relation:
■​ Let T(n) be the number of moves to solve the Tower of Hanoi problem
with n disks.
■​ Base case: T(1) = 1 (one move is needed to move 1 disk)
■​ Recursive case: T(n) = 2T(n-1) + 1 (moves for n-1 disks to aux, one
move for the nth disk, and moves for n-1 disks to dest)
4.​ Solving the Recurrence:
■​ T(n) = 2T(n-1) + 1
■​ T(n-1) = 2T(n-2) + 1
■​ T(n-2) = 2T(n-3) + 1
■​ ...
■​ T(2) = 2T(1) + 1
■​ Substituting back:
■​ T(n) = 2(2T(n-2) + 1) + 1 = 2^2T(n-2) + 2 + 1
■​ T(n) = 2^2(2T(n-3) + 1) + 2 + 1 = 2^3T(n-3) + 2^2 + 2 + 1
■​ ...
■​ T(n) = 2^(n-1)T(1) + 2^(n-2) + 2^(n-3) + ... + 2 + 1
■​ Since `