Bio-inspired Algorithms in

Machine Learning and

Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Editors:
Balasubramaniam S
School of Computer Science and Engineering
Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation and
Technology (Formerly IIITM-K), Digital University Kerala
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

Seifedine Kadry
Department of Applied Data Science
Noroff University College, Kristiansand, Norway
or
Department of Computer Science and Mathematics
Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon

Manoj Kumar T K
School of Digital Sciences
Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation and Technology
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

K. Satheesh Kumar
School of Digital Sciences
Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation and Technology
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
First edition published 2025
by CRC Press
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© 2025 Balasubramaniam S, Seifedine Kadry, Manoj Kumar T K and K. Satheesh Kumar
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 Preface

Currently, computational intelligence approaches are utilised in various science

and engineering applications to analyse information, make decisions, and achieve
optimisation goals. Over the past few decades, various techniques and algorithms
have been created in disciplines such as genetic algorithms, artificial neural
networks, evolutionary algorithms, and fuzzy algorithms. In the coming years,
intelligent optimisation algorithms are anticipated to become more efficient in
addressing various issues in engineering, scientific, medical, space, and artificial
satellite fields, particularly in early disease diagnosis. A metaheuristic in computer
science is designed to discover optimisation algorithms capable of solving intricate
issues. Metaheuristics are optimisation algorithms that mimic biological behaviours
of animals or birds and are utilised to discover the best solution for a certain
problem. A meta-heuristic is an advanced approach used by heuristics to tackle
intricate optimisation problems. A metaheuristic in mathematical programming
is a method that seeks a solution to an optimisation problem. Metaheuristics
utilise a heuristic function to assist in the search process. Heuristic search can be
categorised as a blind or informed search. Metaheuristic optimisation algorithms
are gaining popularity in various applications due to their simplicity, independence
from data trends, ability to find optimal solutions, and versatility across different
fields.
Recently, many nature-inspired computation algorithms have been utilised
to diagnose people with different diseases. Nature-inspired methodologies are
now widely utilised across several fields for tasks such as data analysis, decision-
making, and optimisation. Techniques inspired by nature are categorised as either
biology-based or natural phenomena-based. Bio-inspired computing encompasses
various topics in computer science, mathematics, and biology in recent years.
Bio-inspired computer optimisation algorithms are a developing method that
utilises concepts and inspiration from biological development to create new
and resilient competitive strategies. Bio-inspired optimisation algorithms have
gained recognition in machine learning and deep learning for solving complicated
issues in science and engineering. Utilising BIAs learning methods with machine
learning and deep learning shows great promise for accurately classifying medical
conditions.
This book explores the potential benefits of bio-inspired algorithms (BIAs)
and their application in machine learning and deep learning models for disease
diagnosis, including COVID-19, heart diseases, cancer, diabetes, and some other
diseases. It discusses the advantages of using bio-inspired algorithms in disease
diagnosis and concludes with research directions and future prospects in this field.
 Contents

Preface iii
About the Editors vii
List of Contributors ix

1. Potential Benefits of BIAs-based ML/DL Models 1

Gopirajan P.V., Hariharan B., Wilfred Blessing N.R. and
Anupama C.G.

2. BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 23

N. Sanjana, R. Immanual, K.M. Kirthika, S. Sangeetha, and
K. Maharaja

3. Evaluation of Bio-Inspired Algorithm-based Machine

Learning and Deep Learning Models 48
Selvam Durairaj, Malik Mohamed Umar and Natarajan B.

4. Disease Diagnosis: Traditional vs. Bio-Inspired

Algorithm Approaches 70
Varun Saagar Saravanan, Dawn Sivan, K. Satheesh Kumar
and Rajan Jose

5. Algorithmic Heartbeat with Bio-Inspired Algorithms in

Cardiac Health Monitoring 89
Ashwini A., Kavitha V., Balasubramaniam S. and Seifedine Kadry

6. Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based Machine Learning and

Deep Learning Models for CovID-19 Diagnosis 107
S. Sheik Asraf, M. Subash, P. Nagaraj V. Muneeswaran and
Christopher Samuel Raj Balraj
7. Bio-Inspired Intelligence in Early Cancer Detection:
A Machine Learning Approach 122
Ashwini A., Balasubramaniam S. and Sundaravadivazhagan B.

8. Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and

Deep Learning for Diabetes Diagnosis 141
S. Aathilakshmi, Balasubramaniam S. and Ayodeji Olalekan Salau
vi Contents

9. A Multi-objective optimized Bio-inspired Deep Learning

Framework for Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis in
Toddlers 158
K. Vijayalakshmi and Venkatesh Naganathan

10. Bio-Inspired Algorithms using Machine Learning

and Deep Learning for Social Phobia Treatment 183
Abinaya M., Vadivu G., Balasubramaniam S. and
Sundaravadivazhagan B.

11. Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based Machine Learning

Models for Neural Disorders Prediction: A Focus on
Depression Detection 203
Tekulapally Shriya Reddy, Kishor Kumar Reddy C.,
Manoj Kumar Reddy D. and Srinath Doss

12. Research Directions and Challenges in Bio-Inspired

Algorithms for Machine Learning and Deep Learning
Models in Healthcare 230
Mani Deepak Choudhry, Sundarrajan M., Akshya Jothi and
Seifedine Kadry

Index 249
 About the Editors

Dr. Balasubramaniam S (IEEE Senior Member) is working as an Assistant

Professor in School of Computer Science and Engineering, Kerala University
of Digital Sciences, Innovation and Technology (Formerly IIITM-K), Digital
University Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. He has totally around 15+
years of experience in teaching, research and industry. He has completed his Post
Doctoral Research in Department of Applied Data Science, Noroff University
College, Kristiansand, Norway. He holds a Ph.D degree in Computer Science
and Engineering from Anna University, Chennai, India in 2015. He has published
nearly 25+ research papers in reputed SCI/WoS/Scopus indexed Journals. He has
also granted with 1 Australian patent and 2 Indian Patents and published 2 Indian
patents. He has presented papers at conferences, contributed chapters to the edited
books and editor in few books published by international publishers. His research
and publication interests include machine learning and deep learning-based disease
diagnosis, cloud computing security, Generative AI and Electric Vehicles.

Prof. Seifedine Kadry has a bachelor’s degree in 1999 from Lebanese University,
MS degree in 2002 from Reims University (France) and EPFL (Lausanne), PhD
in 2007 from Blaise Pascal University (France), HDR degree in 2017 from Rouen
University (France). At present his research focuses on Data Science, education
using technology, system prognostics, stochastic systems, and applied mathematics.
He is an ABET program evaluator for computing, and ABET program evaluator
for Engineering Tech. he is a full professor of data science at Noroff University
College, Norway and Department of Computer Science, Lebanese American
University, Beirut, Lebanon.

Prof.T K Manojkumar, currently serving as Dean (Research) and Professor

at Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation and Technology,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. He is having 5 years of post-doctoral research
experience in prestigious institutions like IIT-Madras and Pohang University of
Science & Technology, Korea. With an impressive 17-year track record in post-
graduate teaching, Dr Manoj has imparted knowledge across a diverse range
of subjects including Data Analytics, Deep Learning, Computational Sciences,
Predictive Analytics, Big data technologies and Cloud computing, Discrete
mathematics, Ordinary differential Equations, Automata, Data Structure and
Algorithm, Artificial Intelligence, and Quantum Chemistry. Their scholarly
contributions extend to 80 publications in international journals of high impact,
viii About the Editors

marking a significant impact in their respective fields. Previously, he has holding

key administrative roles such as Chair of the School of Digital Sciences; Registrar,
Digital University Kerala; Registrar, Indian Institute of Information Technology
and Management – Kerala and Director of the International Centre for Free and
Open-Source Systems, Kerala, India.

Prof. K. Satheesh Kumar presently holds the role of Visiting Professor

at the Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation, and Technology,
Thiruvananthapuram Kerala, India. Previously, he served as Professor and Head
of the Department of Futures Studies at the University of Kerala, Kerala, India.
Dr. Kumar’s academic journey began with a degree in mathematics, followed by
doctoral research in suspension rheology and chaotic dynamics at the CSIR Lab in
Thiruvananthapuram. He subsequently pursued post-doctoral research positions at
Monash University, Australia, and POSTECH, South Korea. Dr. Kumar’s research
interests span suspension and polymer rheology, chaotic dynamics, nonlinear time
series analysis, geophysics, complex network analysis, and wind energy modeling
and forecasting.
 List of Contributors

Abinaya M.
Department of Data Science and Business Systems SRM Institute of Science
and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India.
Akshya Jothi
Department of Computational Intelligence, SRM Institute of Science and
Technology, Kattankalathur, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, India.
Anupama C.G.
Department of Computational Intelligence, School of Computing, SRM
Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India.
Ashwini A.
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Vel Tech
Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Avadi,
Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
Ayodeji Olalekan Salau
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Afe Babalola University,
Nigeria.
Balasubramaniam S.
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Kerala University of Digital
Sciences, Innovation and Technology (Formerly IIITM-K), Digital University
Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.
Christopher Samuel Raj Balraj
International College of the Cayman Islands, Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands.
Dawn Sivan
Center for Advanced Intelligent Materials and Faculty of Industrial Sciences
and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah, 26300,
Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia.
Gopirajan P.V.
Department of Computational Intelligence, School of Computing, SRM
Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India.
x List of Contributors

Hariharan B.
Department of Computational Intelligence, School of Computing, SRM
Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India.
K. Maharaja
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, AI Musanna College
of Oman, Oman.
K. Satheesh Kumar
School of Digital Sciences, Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation
and Technology, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
K. Vijayalakshmi
School of Computer Science and Applications, REVA University, Bangalore,
Karnataka, India.
K.M. Kirthika
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna Institute
of Technology. Coimbatore, India.
Kavitha V.
University College of Engineering, Kancheepuram, Tamilnadu, India.
Kishor Kumar Reddy C.
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Stanley College of
Engineering and Technology for Women, India.
M. Subash
Department of Biotechnology, School of Bio, Chemical and Processing
Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education (Deemed to
be University), Anand Nagar, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, India.
Malik Mohamed Umar
National Space Science & Technology Center (NSSTC), United Arab Emirates
University (UAEU), Al Ain, 15551, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Mani Deepak Choudhry
Department of Computing Technologies, SRM Institute of Science and
Technology, Kattankalathur, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, India.
Manoj Kumar Reddy D.
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Vardhaman College of
Engineering, Hyderabad, India.
N. Sanjana
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna Institute
of Technology. Coimbatore, India.
Natarajan B.
School of Computer Science and Engineering (SCOPE), Vellore Institute of
Technology, Chennai Campus, 600127, Tamil Nadu, India.
 List of Contributors xi

P. Nagaraj
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, School of Computing,
Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education (Deemed to be University),
Anand Nagar, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, India.
R. Immanual
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna Institute of
Technology. Coimbatore,India.
Rajan Jose
Center for Advanced Intelligent Materials and Faculty of Industrial Sciences
and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah, 26300,
Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia.
S. Sangeetha
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna
Institute of Technology. Coimbatore, India.
S. Sheik Asraf
Department of Biotechnology, School of Bio, Chemical and Processing
Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education (Deemed to
be University), Anand Nagar, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, India.
Seifedine Kadry
Department of Applied Data Science, Noroff University College, Norway.
Selvam Durairaj
School of Computer Science and Engineering (SCOPE), Vellore Institute of
Technology, Chennai Campus, 600127, Tamil Nadu, India.
Srinath Doss
Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Botho University, Botswana.
Sundaravadivazhagan B.
Department of Information Technology, University of Technology and Applied
Science-AL Mussanah, Oman.
Sundarrajan M
Department of Networking and Communications, SRM Institute of Science
and Technology, Kattankalathur, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, India.
Tekulapally Shriya Reddy
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Stanley College of
Engineering and Technology for Women, India.
V. Muneeswaran
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, School of
Electronics, Electrical and Biomedical Technology, Kalasalingam Academy
of Research and Education (Deemed to be University), Anand Nagar,
Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, India.
xii List of Contributors

Vadivu G.
Department of Data Science and Business Systems SRM Institute of Science
and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India.
Varunsaagar Saravanan
Lead AI ML, Asianet News Media and Entertainment Pvt. Ltd., Crescent
Road, Gandhi Nagar, Bangalore, India.
Venkatesh Naganathan
Senior Consultant cum Professor, Amity Global Institute, Singapore.
Wilfred Blessing N.R.
IT Department, College of Computing and Information Sciences, University
of Technology and Applied Sciences-Ibri, Sultanate of Oman.
1 Potential Benefts of BIAs-based
ML/DL Models
Gopirajan P.V.,1 Hariharan B.,1* Wilfred Blessing N.R.2
and Anupama C.G.1

Integrating bio-inspired algorithms with machine learning (ML) and deep learning
(DL) models enhances computational intelligence. These algorithms, like neural
networks modeling the human brain, ant colony optimization, and particle
swarm optimization, offer robust, efficient, and flexible models. Their inherent
parallelism, adaptability, and self-organization capabilities significantly improve
ML/DL model design, accuracy, and generalizability. Genetic algorithms optimize
neural networks and hyperparameters, while swarm intelligence identifies optimal
solutions, aiding DL model training. Additionally, bio-inspired algorithms enhance
computing efficiency by finding near-optimal solutions with minimal computational
cost, making them ideal for large-scale data processing. They excel in noisy,
uncertain environments, maintaining performance under adverse conditions. Their
adaptability allows ML/DL models to dynamically adjust to evolving data and
problems. Bio-inspired algorithms also support localized, distributed ML/DL
applications, promoting scalability and fault tolerance. Their interdisciplinary
nature fosters innovation at the biology-computer science intersection, expanding
ML/DL frontiers and addressing complex challenges in various fields.

1. Introduction

1.1 Overview of Computational Intelligence (CI)

Computational Intelligence (CI) and bio-inspired computing represent distinct but
related paradigms in the disciplines of artificial intelligence (AI) and computer
technology [1, 2, 3]. CI encompasses a variety of methods and techniques
aimed at developing smarter systems that can learn from data, adapt to changing
environments, and solve complex problems. It takes ideas from vegetable systems,
in the development of human cognition and computation, to design intelligent
systems [4].

1
Department of Computational Intelligence, School of Computing, SRM Institute of Science and
Technology, Kattankulathur-603203, Chennai, India.
2
IT Department, College of Computing and Information Sciences, University of Technology and
Applied Sciences-Ibri, Sultanate of Oman.
Email : [email protected]; [email protected]
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
2 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Bio-inspired computing, on the other hand, is all about taking the principles
and techniques found in biological systems and using them to create new
computer programs and software [5]. It draws inspiration from various biological
processes, like evolution, tissues, swarm behavior, and immunity, to come up with
computational solutions that mimic adaptive habitats.
While CI covers a wide range of approaches, including non-evolutionary
systems, evolutionary design, neural networks, and swarm intelligence, bio-inspired
computing specifically focuses on designing computer models that simulate
living objects and systems [6, 7]. This involves using algorithms such as genetic
algorithms (GAs), ant colony optimization (ACO), particle swarm optimization
(PSO), synthetic neural networks, and immune-stimulated algorithms [8, 9].
The synergy between CI and bio-inspired computing is evident in their shared
goal of solving complex problems using adaptive, robust, and efficient algorithms.
By combining system and user prompts, we aim to enhance the assistant’s ability to
transform the text into a more natural and human-like version, while maintaining
its original intent and factual accuracy. By integrating concepts from biology into
computational frameworks, bio-inspired computing enhances the abilities of CI
techniques, allowing them to tackle a wide variety of actual-global demanding
situations.
Bio-inspired computing offers specific blessings, together with inherent
parallelism, robustness to noise and uncertainty, adaptability to dynamic
environments, and scalability to massive-scale troubles [10]. These traits make
bio-inspired algorithms properly desirable for obligations inclusive of optimization,
sample popularity, type, and manipulation, throughout numerous domains which
include engineering, biology, finance, and healthcare [11].
Figure 1 illustrates how bio-inspired algorithms enhance machine learning/
deep learning (ML/DL) fashions. It shows the glide from algorithms like GAs and
neural networks to ML/DL fashions, from leading to applications in water quality
prediction, healthcare, and environmental tracking.

1.2 Importance of Bio-Inspired Algorithms in ML/DL

Bio-stimulated algorithms play a critical role in enhancing the competencies of ML
and DL fashions by leveraging concepts derived from natural structures.
Of particular importance is the ability of algorithms to handle complex
optimization issues. GAs, for example, mimic the physics approach to solve
solutions in successive generations, and enable ML/DL models to change parameters
and better adapt to changing environments as well and swarm intelligence such as
ACO and PSO. Algorithms use population behavior to scrutinize response spaces
and find the best response.
Drawing ideas from immune systems, those algorithms can discover and adapt
to modifications in information distributions or environments, mainly to greater
resilient fashions. Additionally, their parallelism and scalability lead them to
appropriate for huge-scale and disbursed computing duties, improving the overall
performance and scalability of ML/DL structures.
 Potential Benefts of BIAs-based ML/DL Models 3

Fig. 1 Integration of Bio-inspired Algorithms with ML/DL Models.

1.3 Objectives of Integrating Bio-inspired Algorithms with ML/DL

The integration of bio-inspired algorithms with ML and DL serves several key
objectives, every contribution to the advancement and improvement of sensible
structures is given in Figure 2.
4 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Fig. 2 Objectives of Integrating Bio-inspired Algorithms with ML/DL.

2 Understanding Bio-Inspired Algorithms

2.1 Definition and Concept of Bio-Inspired Algorithms

Bio-inspired algorithms are computational strategies that draw concepts from
standards observed in biological structures to clear up complicated troubles. They
mimic the behavior, strategies, and mechanisms found in nature, which includes
evolution, neural networks, swarm intelligence, and immune structures. The idea
behind bio-stimulated algorithms is to emulate the adaptive, self-organizing, and
green nature of organic structures in computational fashions [12].
These algorithms embody a huge range of methodologies, which includes GAs,
ACO, PSO, artificial neural networks (ANNs), and immune-stimulated algorithms.
By harnessing ideas from biology, bio-inspired algorithms offer modern tactics to
optimize, sample popularity, type, and manage duties. They showcase residences
which includes robustness, adaptability, scalability, and efficiency, making them
suitable for addressing complex actual-world problems throughout diverse
domain names, together with engineering, healthcare, finance, and environmental
 Potential Benefts of BIAs-based ML/DL Models 5

technological know-how. The essence of bio-inspired algorithms lies in their

ability to translate biological principles into computational frameworks to increase
intelligent systems able to solve various demanding situations effectively.

2.2 Types of Bio-Inspired Algorithms

Bio-inspired algorithms encompass a numerous variety of computational
techniques, each drawing inspiration from exclusive organic phenomena located
in nature. GAs replicate the process of herbal choice and evolution to iteratively
optimize solutions via mimicking duplicate, mutation, and choice mechanisms.
ACO algorithms simulate ant feeding behavior, placing optimal paths on graphs by
pheromone deposition and evaporation; PSO fashions collective behavior of chook
swarms or fish faculties, iteratively adjusting particle locations that answers in a
search space; Adaptable ANNs are computational models inspired by biological
neural network morphology and functions, which are used for tasks such as popular
modeling and classification [13, 14, 15, 16]. Immune-inspired algorithms draw
attention from the ability of the immune system to detect and remove pathogens,
which are used in anomaly detection, optimization, and class issues [17, 18] . Each
bio-inspired algorithm offers specific efficiencies and applications in different
industries, contributing to the effectiveness of intelligent computing systems.

2.2.1 Neural Networks Modeling the Human Brain

Neural networks that largely mimic the workings of the human mind encourage
broader development in AI by reproducing sensory mechanisms These fibers
receive emotions from the structure of the mind, with billions of neurons a through
synapses that are electrically connected and modulated by synaptic plasticity
[19]. ANNs mimic this process with perceptrons—for layered neurons: input,
storage, and output. Statistics are applied to the use of weighted combinations
and activation functions such as sigmoid and ReLU, enabling the selection and
learning of styles [20, 21]. Learning in these networks’ parallels Hebbi’s principle
from biology, which states that “cells that fire together, string together”. This is
achieved through backpropagation, a technique wherein community weights are
adjusted to limit errors using gradient descent. Different types of neural networks
emulate various brain features: feedforward networks are effective in sample
recognition, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) [22], inspired by using the
visible cortex, excel in image processing, and Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs)
[23], together with Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks [24, 25], are adept
at modeling temporal sequences for language and time-series analysis. Advances
in neuromorphic engineering, which targets to develop hardware that mimics the
mind’s neural structure and Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs) [26], which use
discrete spikes for communication, retain to push the frontiers of AI studies. These
mind-stimulated networks have big packages, from improving cognitive computing
structures to assisting inside the diagnosis and treatment of neurological disorders.
6 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

However, in addition they increase moral worries, particularly concerning the

development of self-sustaining systems and their impact on society. The destiny
of NNs lies in the ongoing convergence of neuroscience and AI, with the pursuit
of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) aiming to create incredibly adaptable AI
structures with cognitive skills that would at some point surpass human intelligence,
marking a new technology of technological and cognitive innovation.

2.2.2 Ant Colony Optimization (ACO)

ACO is an influential algorithm stimulated via the foraging behavior of ants,
designed to address complex optimization issues. Developed through Marco
Dorigo in the early 1990s, ACO replicates how ants discover shortest paths to
meals’ sources using pheromones, guiding different ants to most fulfilling routes
through a collective intelligence system. In nature, ants deposit pheromones
alongside their paths, with shorter routes collecting stronger pheromones trails due
to frequent traversal, growing a superb remarks loop that highlights the maximum
efficient paths [27]. This natural system is translated into ACO’s computational
model, where synthetic ants construct answers by using probabilistically choosing
steps based on pheromone intensity and heuristic data precise to the hassle.
High-great answers bring about stronger pheromone trails, at the same time less
favorable paths see pheromone evaporation to hold exploration. ACO excels in
solving combinatorial optimization issues including the journeying salesman
problem, vehicle routing, community routing, and scheduling, way to its flexibility
and adaptability. Despite its robustness and parallelization capability, ACO faces
demanding situations like parameter tuning and handling massive-scale problems.
Effective balance among exploration and exploitation through pheromone control
is crucial to avoid neighborhood optima and reap worldwide solutions. Ongoing
studies goals to enhance ACO’s efficiency by integrating hybrid algorithms and
real-time adaptive mechanisms, promising extra effective answers for dynamic and
complicated tasks. ACO stands as a testament to the potential of bio-stimulated
algorithms in fixing complex issues throughout numerous domain names.

2.2.3 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)

PSO is an evolutionary computation technique stimulated by way of the social
behavior of birds flocking and fish training, delivered by means of James Kennedy
and Russell Eberhart in 1995 [28]. This set of rules simulates a populace of debris—
analogous to male or female birds or fish—that traverse a multidimensional answer
space to find ultimate solutions. Each particle adjusts its role based totally on its
own level in, and the experience of neighboring particles, guided by using two
number one factors: the particle’s personal great role and the worldwide first-class
role observed through the swarm. These changes permit particles to converge
toward optimal answers through an aggregate of exploration and exploitation,
balancing the want to search new regions and refine current solutions. PSO is
 Potential Benefts of BIAs-based ML/DL Models 7

distinguished by its simplicity, requiring fewer parameters to tune as compared to

different evolutionary algorithms, and its potential to correctly clear up nonlinear,
multimodal optimization problems [29].
PSO has been efficiently implemented to a huge variety of traditional
optimization demanding situations, consisting of characteristic optimization, NN
education, and control systems. However, its novel applications in recent years have
validated its versatility and flexibility across various fields [30, 31]. In healthcare,
PSO is applied for optimizing remedy plans in radiation therapy, making sure it is
concentrated on/of tumors, and at the same time minimizing harm to wholesome
tissue. In renewable power, PSO allows in optimizing the location and operation of
windmills and solar panels to maximize electricity production and performance. In
the realm of finance, it aids in portfolio optimization by way of locating an excellent
mixture of property to acquire preferred returns even as minimizing threat. PSO
is also making strides in robotics, wherein it is hired for route-making plans and
swarm robotics, allowing a couple of robots to navigate and collaborate effectively
in complicated environments. Additionally, PSO has discovered programs in
the system gaining knowledge of, specifically in hyperparameter tuning for DL
models, in which it optimizes the parameters that extensively impact a model’s
overall performance.
The adaptability of PSO to numerous problem domains, coupled with its
truthful implementation, has spurred ongoing research to similarly decorate its
talents. Hybrid PSO algorithms, which integrate PSO with other optimization
strategies that include GAs or differential evolution, goal to leverage the strengths
of multiple strategies for superior overall performance. Furthermore, adaptive
editions of PSO dynamically regulate algorithm parameters in response to the
optimization procedure, improving convergence quotes and solution satisfactory. As
PSO continues to evolve, its packages expand, providing sturdy and green answers
to increasingly complicated and dynamic issues across a multitude of disciplines.

2.2.4 Artificial Immune Systems (AIS)

The non-stop evolution of AIS is pushed with the aid of ongoing studies aimed
toward enhancing its algorithms and expanding its application domains. Hybrid
strategies that integrate AIS with different computational techniques, along with
NNs and GAs, are being developed to leverage their complementary strengths,
resulting in extra effective and green hassle-solving equipment. As AIS continues
to strengthen, its capability to imitate the state-of-the-art adaptive and defensive
mechanisms of the biological immune system guarantees to offer innovative
answers to an increasing number of complex demanding situations throughout
diverse fields.

2.3 Three Key Features of Bio-Inspired Algorithms

Bio-inspired algorithms, drawing concepts from nature, provide specific benefits
over conventional techniques. Here’s a breakdown of 3 key features:
8 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

2.3.1 Inherent Parallelism

Imagine a colony of ants working together to discover food. Individual ants
discover distinctive paths, and hit one to leave pheromone trails for others to
comply with. This disbursed approach is an indicator of inherent parallelism in
bio-inspired algorithms.

2.3.2 Flexibility in Dynamic Environments

The natural worldwide is constantly converting and the ecosystems that inhabit it
have developed a fantastic capacity for model. Bio-stimulated algorithms capture
this essence via modifications in dynamic environments. Unlike traditional
systems, which could resist unexpected adjustments, these systems can fully alter
their movements based totally on new information or evolving situations
One example is a set of rules which can be prompted with the assist of an
improvement software. Imagine multiple responses (which include a completely
unique bridge system) that are continuously changing through mutation and
selection. When environmental situations change (e.g., higher wind speeds),
selection strain offers the satisfactory advanced method to deal with those forces.
Similarly, the bio-inspired algorithm is touchy to unpredictable situations by way
of constantly adjusting itself to discover it primarily based on remarks or changes
within the goal.

2.3.3 Self-Organization and Learning

Bio-prompted algorithms can also similarly exhibit autonomy, with man or woman
creditors working collectively to acquire a non-specific purpose without explicit
command. This self-organizing behavior comes from simple regulations carried
out to every item.
Another crucial factor is to recognize. Many bio-inspired algorithms comprise
inspired mechanisms, the usage of biological getting-to-know techniques. For
example, an algorithm stimulated through NNs can alternate its simple inner
interactions based totally on experience (records), enhancing its universal overall
performance over the years. This self-organizing know-how of competencies
presents bio-stimulated algorithms that can continuously boom their effectiveness
as they stumble throughout new records or manner new facts.

3. Enhancing ML/DL Models with Bio-Inspired Algorithms

3.1 Improving Accuracy and Generalizability

Another important thing is to know that many bio-stimulated algorithms incorporate
stimulated mechanisms using biological learning techniques. For example, an
algorithm inspired by NNs can change its basic internal interactions based on
experience (data), improving its overall performance over the years. This self-
earned knowledge of capabilities provides again-inspired algorithms that can
 Potential Benefts of BIAs-based ML/DL Models 9

continuously increase their effectiveness as they stumble across new facts or

process new information.

3.1.1 Role of Genetic Algorithms in Optimization

Genetic simulations (GAs) are basically optimization methods based on the
principles of herbal selection and inheritance (Flux Optimization using GAs
in Membrane [32]. They are particularly effective in obtaining large complex
areas for high-quality solutions. For ML and DL, GAs can be used to optimize
hyperparameters, pick capacities, and design neural network architectures.

3.2 Enhancing Computational Efficiency

3.2.1 Minimizing Computational Costs

Bio-inspired algorithms can significantly reduce computational costs in ML and
DL models. Methods such as genetic design and PSO simplify the optimization
process and require fewer resources than traditional methods.

3.3 Robustness in Noisy and Uncertain Environments

3.3.1 Handling Noise and Data Variability

Bio-inspired algorithms are mainly adept at fixing noise and statistical variability,
which aren’t unusual challenges in actual-global programs. As an example, GAs
use strategies inclusive of mutation and crossover to discover answers that are
greater, increasing their robustness to noisy calculations by considering more than
one solution simultaneously, thereby a more reliable method by which errors and
insights can be generalized.

3.3.2 Maintaining Performance under Adverse Conditions

Bio-inspired algorithms additionally excel in preserving overall performance under
adverse conditions, including environmental fluctuations and sudden disturbances.
Evolutionary techniques and techniques such as ACO are inherently adaptive
for it enables styles to rethink and remain efficient, even if conditions do not
change, for example, GAs can actively change their parameters to meet new
demanding conditions, ensuring a more appropriate performance than each in a
consistent manner. Similarly, the ACO algorithm can adapt new routes and search
for new routes in real time, predicting the adaptation of bee colonies to boundaries.
These characteristics are important for applications in dynamic environments with
autonomous devices, robotics, and disaster response, where work environments
can change rapidly and unpredictably. It is the ability to be robust and useful in
situations where required, thus ensuring that bio-inspired models provide reliable
performance and choice of materials. Comments increase between the various
events.
10 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

4. Adaptability and Scalability of Bio-Inspired ML/DL Models

4.1 Dynamic Adaptation to Changing Data Patterns

Bio-inspired ML/DL models are known for their dynamic versioning skills,
which makes them appear attractive for dealing with changing reality systems.
Algorithms such as GAs and PSO are designed to adapt and change in response
to new information, reflecting vegetable evolutionary processes. This adjustment
ensures that the fashions are appropriate and correct only when the underlying
record distribution changes. For example, in financial markets where conditions
often vary, bio-inspired models can constantly adapt to new trends and anomalies.

4.1.1 Real-World Application Scenarios

Bio-stimulated ML/DL models reveal great advantages in various real-world
software products. Figure 3 shows a typical real-world application.
1. Healthcare
● Drug discovery and development: GAs and PSO are used to optimize drug
structures and to map and analyze molecular interactions for new drug
therapies.
● Medical imaging: Evolutionary algorithms improve the classification and
class accuracy of medical images, which help in the early diagnosis of
cancerous diseases.
2. Financial Services
● Algorithmic trading: Herd intelligence and evolutionary techniques are
used to optimize buying and selling strategies by learning market trends to
maximize returns and limit opportunities.
● Fraud detection: Bio-stimulated algorithms improve detection of fraudulent
activities by identifying unusual patterns in big datasets.
3. Environmental Monitoring
● Climate prediction: Evolutionary computing helps model and forecast
climate research by supporting complex simulation fashions based on
classical climate statistics.
● Wildlife conservation: Biological models examine the population and
movement patterns of wildlife, helping to improve powerful conservation
strategies.
4. Industrial Applications
● Predictive maintenance: GAs and PSO anticipate system screw-ups with
the help of read-performance statistics, enabling reduced uptime and
renewal costs.
● Process optimization: Bio-stimulated algorithms optimize production
processes, improve chain control, and refine the distribution of useful
products.
 Potential Benefts of BIAs-based ML/DL Models 11

5. Transportation
● Traffic management: ACO and PSO are hired to optimize traffic glide in
smart cities, decreasing congestion and improving journey instances.
● Autonomous vehicles: Evolutionary algorithms useful resource in
developing navigation and choice-making systems for self-riding cars,
permitting adaptation to converting environments.
6. Energy
● Smart Grid Optimization: Bio-stimulated algorithms optimize the
distribution and intake of power in smart grids, correctly balancing deliver
and call for.
● Renewable energy systems: Genetic algorithms are used to layout and
optimize renewable strength structures, which include wind farms and sun
panels, to maximize electricity production.
7. Cybersecurity
● Threat detection: Swarm intelligence and evolutionary computation
decorate the detection of cyber threats with the aid of identifying unusual
styles and behaviors in network traffic.
● Intrusion prevention: Bio-inspired models constantly adapt to new kinds
of assaults, improving the effectiveness of intrusion prevention structures.
8. Robotics
● Swarm robotics: Inspired by means of social bugs, swarm intelligence
algorithms coordinate the actions of more than one robot, permitting them
to carry out complex duties together.
● Adaptive control systems: Evolutionary algorithms optimize robot
control systems, permitting them to conform to new responsibilities and
environments.
9. Agriculture
● Precision farming: Bio-inspired algorithms examine records from sensors
and satellite TV for PC imagery to optimize irrigation, fertilization, and pest
manage, thereby improving crop yields and resource performance.
● Supply Chain Optimization: GAs help optimize the agricultural supply
chain from manufacturing to distribution, decreasing waste, and improving
performance.
10. Telecommunications
● Network optimization: Evolutionary algorithms optimize the layout
and control of telecommunications networks, improving insurance and
reducing latency.
● Resource allocation: Bio-inspired models correctly allocate bandwidth and
different network resources, enhancing the first-rate of provider.
12 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Fig. 3 Real-world applications of Bio-inspired computing.

4.1.2 Continuous Learning without Reprogramming

One of the important thing strengths of bio-stimulated ML/DL fashions is their ability
to engage in non-stop gaining knowledge, without the want for reprogramming.
Unlike conventional fashions, which may require common updates and guide
adjustments, bio-stimulated algorithms along with Evolutionary Strategies (ES) and
ACO obviously evolve through the years. This continuous mastering functionality
is particularly precious in dynamic environments in which statistics is constantly
changing. For instance, in smart town applications, models can constantly adapt to
visitors’ styles, optimizing routing and decreasing congestion in real-time. In the
financial sector, these models can examine from new market statistics, adjusting
buying and selling strategies to preserve profitability. This ongoing variation
 Potential Benefts of BIAs-based ML/DL Models 13

reduces the want for human intervention, decreasing renovation prices and growing
performance. Moreover, in industrial settings, non-stop gaining knowledge of
guarantees that predictive upkeep structures stay accurate as machinery a long time
and working situations trade. By putting off the need for common reprogramming,
bio-inspired models offer a scalable and green solution for long-term deployment
in diverse industries.

4.2 Development of Localized and Distributed ML/DL Programs

4.2.1 Scalability in Large Systems

Scalability is a crucial issue of growing ML/DL applications, especially in huge
structures. Localized and distributed ML/DL programs are designed to address full-
size increases in records extent and computational demands without performance
degradation. Scalability in these structures is completed through parallel processing,
where duties are allotted throughout more than one node or processors. This allows
for efficient dealing with of huge datasets and complex models by way of dividing
the workload, which significantly reduces training times. Techniques along with
information partitioning, version parallelism, and federated mastering allow the
machine to control and manner widespread information in real time.

4.2.2 Fault Tolerance in Distributed Environments

Fault tolerance is important for the reliability and robustness of the distributed
ML/DL implementation. In distributed environments, the failure of an unmarried
node or group can destroy the entire machine, especially information loss
and statistical errors. Replication techniques, where information is duplicated
between two nodes, ensure that a backup will continue to occur if one node fails.
Checkpointing periodically retrieves the state of the device, which upon failure
is restarted from the last stored object. Furthermore, strong dialogue protocols
and error-correcting rules help keep information consistent during transmission
between distributed nodes. The inclusion of these fault-tolerant mechanisms enables
delivered ML/DL packages to achieve high levels of scalability and reliability.

5. Interdisciplinary Innovations and Applications

5.1 Intersection of Biology and Computer Science

The intersection of biology and laptop technology has led to groundbreaking
innovations especially through the development of bio-stimulated algorithms in
ML and DL. Experimental biology methods and systems enable researchers to
draw parallels that affect computational design types, increasing their performance
and strength. Biological systems that have evolved over thousands and thousands
of years to adapt and thrive in different environments provide valuable insights
for solving complex computational problems. This synergy no longer simply
14 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

advances the abilities of ML/DL fashions; however, it additionally gives new gear
and methodologies for biological studies, developing a virtuous cycle of innovation
and discovery.

5.1.1 Exploring Biological Principles

Exploring biological standards offers a wealth of information that may be translated
into innovative algorithmic solutions in computer technology. Biological systems
show off extremely good capabilities which includes self-business enterprise,
adaptability, and robustness, that are proper in computational models. By
analyzing processes like natural choice, neural processing, and collective conduct
in organisms, researchers can expand algorithms that mimic those green and
adaptive mechanisms. For example, GAs draw idea from the manner of natural
choice to remedy optimization troubles, even as swarm intelligence algorithms
are based on the collective behavior of social insects like ants and bees. These
biologically inspired algorithms can address complex issues in dynamic and
uncertain environments, making them appropriate for a huge range of packages,
from robotics to facts evaluation. Understanding and leveraging these organic
standards allow the advent of greater resilient and green computational structures,
bridging the distance among herbal and AI.

5.1.2 New Algorithmic Methods from Biology

New algorithmic techniques derived from organic insights have revolutionized
the sphere of laptop technology, particularly in system gaining knowledge of and
AI. Algorithms stimulated with the aid of biological procedures, which includes
NNs, GAs, and swarm intelligence, have demonstrated to be relatively powerful
in solving complicated computational issues. NNs, modeled after the human
brain’s architecture, have enabled considerable improvements in areas like photo
and speech recognition. GAs, based totally at the concepts of herbal selection,
provide strong solutions for optimization demanding situations, new frontiers for
innovation and alertness.
This listing explores diverse algorithms inspired by organic phenomena,
imparting modern solutions to complex computational demanding situations.
1. Neural Networks
● ANN: Inspired by the human brain, these networks top in tasks like image
and speech recognition via DL [33].
● CNN: Dedicated for processing grid-like records (photographs) by using
mirroring the visible cortex’s structure [22].
● RNNs: Aimed to address consecutive data like time series or natural
language, taking notion from how the mind systems information over time.
2. Evolutionary Computation
● GAs: Mimic organic evolution’s principles of choice, mutation, and
crossover to find finest solutions for diverse issues.
 Potential Benefts of BIAs-based ML/DL Models 15

Fig. 4 Biology-inspired Algorithms for Problem-Solving in Computer Science.

● Genetic Programming: Grows requests or capabilities by way of repeating

herbal genetic strategies, allowing them to solve precise duties [34].
3. Swarm Intelligence
● ACO: Inspired by means of ant hunting behavior, this procedure helps find
greatest answers via suggesting how ants discover food sources.
● PSO: Based on the combined motion of birds or fish, PSO accelerates
discover premier solutions with the aid of mimicking how these swarms
traverse and optimize their actions.
16 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

● Bee Algorithms: Outstanding by way of bee foraging patterns, these

procedures tackle optimization and search troubles correctly.
4. Cellular Automata
● Cellular Automaton Models: Model complex routines the use of simple,
discrete units (cells) that interact and evolve based totally on nearby
strategies [35].
5. AIS
● Encouraged by means of the human immune machine, AIS algorithms
address challenges like anomaly detection, sample reputation, and
optimization.
● Negative Selection Algorithms: Model the immune system’s ability to
differentiate among self and non-self-factors.
6. Evolutionary Strategies
● Differential Evolution: Iteratively improves candidate answers to find
most excellent solutions for a given hassle.
7. Membrane Computing
● P Systems: Inspired with the aid of the shape and functions of living cells,
these fashions provide parallel computation capabilities [16, 36, 37].
8. Neuro-Fuzzy Systems
● Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference Systems (ANFIS): Combine NNs and
fuzzy good judgment, creating models that learn and adapt to facts.
9. Artificial Life (A-Life)
● A-Life models: Simulate real looking behaviors and evolution of synthetic
organisms, with applications in robotics and complicated machine
simulations.
10. Bacteria-Inspired Algorithms
● Bacterial Foraging Optimization (BFO): Mimics the foraging strategy of
E. Coli microorganism to remedy optimization troubles [38, 39].
11. Light-Based Algorithms
● Firefly algorithm: Based at the flashing conduct of fireflies to find greatest
answers for optimization and seek duties.
12. Brood Parasitism Algorithms
● Cuckoo Search Algorithm: Inspired via the brood parasitism of a few
cuckoo species, this algorithm tackles optimization issues.
13. Bat Algorithm
● Bat Algorithm: Mimics the echolocation behavior of bats, locating most
suitable answers for numerous problems.
 Potential Benefts of BIAs-based ML/DL Models 17

14. Flower Pollination Algorithm (FPA)

● Flower Pollination Algorithm: Inspired with the aid of the pollination
system of flowering flowers, FPA addresses optimization troubles.
● Cross-Disciplinary Collaboration: The integration of bio-inspired
algorithms fosters collaboration among PC science, biology, and different
disciplines. This change of thoughts leads to more various and revolutionary
smart structures.
● Biomimicry for AI Advancement: By gaining knowledge of from the
hassle-fixing techniques of nature, AI can evolve into greater robust and
adaptable structures able to tackling complicated challenges.
● The Future of AI: Bio-stimulated algorithms are a promising avenue for
the destiny of AI, probably leading to the improvement of greater clever
and autonomous systems with wide programs throughout various fields.
● Fish School Search Optimization Algorithm: Inspired by means of the
collective conduct of fish faculties, FSS tackles optimization and seek
issues.
15. Glow-worm Swarm Optimization (GSO)
● GSO: Mimics the conduct of glow worms in finding most desirable
solutions.
By drawing proposal from the herbal global, those bio-inspired algorithms
offer effective tools for tackling complicated computational challenges in
PC technological know-how. Their inherent robustness, adaptability, and
efficiency cause them to precious assets for numerous packages.
● Social Spider Optimization (SSO): Inspired with the aid of the social
hunting behavior of spiders, where they collaborate to capture prey. This
algorithm can be used for optimization problems involving a couple of
retailers working together.
● Fruit Fly Optimization Algorithm (FOA): Mimics the efficient fruit fly
olfactory search for locating food resources. This set of rules excels at
locating most fulfilling answers in complex seek spaces.
● Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO): Inspired by the hunting strategies and
social hierarchy of grey wolves, GWO can be implemented to various
optimization troubles requiring green exploration and exploitation.
● Whale Optimization Algorithm (WOA): Based at the social foraging
behavior of humpback whales, WOA utilizes an aggregate of bubble-
internet searching and Levy flight seek styles for optimization.
● Moth-Flame Optimization (MFO): Inspired via the navigation behavior
of moths around a mild supply, MFO can be used for optimization problems
requiring efficient convergence in the direction of most beneficial solutions.
● Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) Algorithm: Mimics the foraging conduct of
honeybees, consisting of scout bees trying to find food assets and worker
bees exploiting the ones assets. ABC algorithms are powerful for numerous
optimization problems.
18 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

● Symbiotic Organisms Search (SOS): Inspired by means of the

symbiotic relationships determined in nature, along with mutualism and
commensalism, SOS algorithms may be used for complex optimization
issues related to multiple interacting retailers.
● Ant Lion Optimizer (ALO): Based on the hunting conduct of antlion
larvae, wherein they invent traps to capture prey, ALO algorithms are
treasured for optimization responsibilities requiring green seek strategies.
● Chemical Reaction Optimization (CRO): Inspired via chemical reaction
concepts, in which molecules have interaction and react to form new ones,
CRO algorithms can be carried out to diverse optimization problems related
to complex interactions.

5.2 Cross-Domain Contributions

5.2.1 Enriching ML/DL Fields

Bio-inspired algorithms have considerably enriched the fields of ML and DL via
introducing innovative procedures to trouble-fixing.

5.2.2 Addressing Complex Challenges

5.2.2.1 Healthcare Bioinformatics

These advancements allow more unique and early analysis, improving affected
person care and remedy efficiency. Bio-stimulated strategies hence play an
important position in managing and interpreting the significant and complicated
datasets normal in healthcare [40].
5.2.2.2 Policy Independent Species
Bio-stimulated algorithms can address complex demanding situations in ecological
and environmental studies, together with managing policy-independent species.
These species, which thrive regardless of human interventions, pose widespread
threats to biodiversity and environment stability. Algorithms stimulated through
natural methods, such as ACO and GAs, assist version and predict the spread of
those species, examine impacts, and increase powerful management strategies
[41].

6. Emerging Trends in Bio-Inspired ML/DL

6.1 Potential Research Areas
Bio-inspired computing, drawing concept from nature’s problem-fixing strategies,
offers a rich landscape for studies. Here are a few promising regions to explore,
together with three novel ideas [42]:
1. Novel Bio-stimulated Algorithms
● Explore new organic phenomena for notion: Which includes slime
mildew foraging patterns or bacterial communique mechanisms. This could
result in the improvement of new algorithms with unique strengths.
 Potential Benefts of BIAs-based ML/DL Models 19

● Hybrid processes: Investigate how to combine distinct BIAs or integrate

them with traditional optimization techniques to leverage the blessings of
every technique.
2. Bio-inspired DL Architectures
● Develop neural community architectures: Inspired by using the shape and
feature of the mind. This should involve exploring opportunity activation
features, gaining knowledge of policies, or community topologies based
totally on biological ideas.
● Explore the capacity of neuromorphic computing: Which pursuits to
create hardware that mimics the mind’s energy efficiency and parallel
processing competencies.
3. Bio-stimulated Robotics and Control Systems
● Design robots: That can learn and adapt like animals, using BIAs for
managing and selection-making. This ought to result in robots with
improved autonomy and flexibility in complicated environments.
● Investigate bio-stimulated methods: To robotic locomotion, drawing
proposal from the green movement styles located in nature.
4. Bio-stimulated Optimization for Complex Problems
● Develop bio-stimulated algorithms: Particularly tailored for solving
complex problems in diverse domain names like logistics, resource
allocation, and scheduling.
● Bio-inspired algorithms for big-scale records: Explore the way to scale
bio-stimulated algorithms to handle the huge datasets encountered in big
data applications.

Conclusion
This review of bio-inspired algorithms in ML/DL has a number of major findings:
● Bio-inspired algorithms: Are exceptionally strong in solving complicated
optimization problems in ML/DL. Some of such tasks include parameter
optimization, function selection, and version architecture optimization.
● Bio-stimulated algorithms: Enhance the robustness and flexibility of ML/
DL models, by referring to biological systems. Dynamic environments,
uncertain situations can be well adapted to these models and perhaps even
exhibit their recovery properties.
● Future AI: A prospective approach to Destiny of AI is the bio-stimulated
algorithms which may lead to development of highly intelligent autonomous
systems with multiple configurations across industries.

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2 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models
N. Sanjana,1* R. Immanual,2 K.M. Kirthika,1 S. Sangeetha3 and
K. Maharaja4

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of bio-inspired algorithms (BIAs)

in optimization models and machine learning. It explores how BIAs, inspired by
biological systems, solve complex problems by emulating natural processes. The
chapter introduces BIAs and their natural origins, discussing their applications and
advantages in optimization and machine learning. It examines both traditional and
contemporary BIAs, including Evolutionary Algorithms, Genetic Algorithms, and
newer developments like Artificial Immune Systems and Membrane Computing
Algorithms, with a focus on Particle Swarm Optimization and Ant Colony
Optimization. The integration of BIAs with deep learning techniques is explored,
highlighting their role in enhancing optimization strategies and improving
deep learning models. Applications of BIAs in deep learning are discussed,
covering model tuning, hyperparameter selection, neural architecture search, and
regularization. The chapter addresses BIAs’ contribution to explainable artificial
intelligence (AI) and visualization in deep learning models, and explores their
practical applications in disease diagnostics, including computer-aided diagnosis
systems, medical imaging, and Omics data analysis. The chapter concludes by
examining current challenges and opportunities in the field, such as computational
complexity, scalability, epistemological frameworks, convergence analysis, and
deep learning integration. This review offers insights into the current state and
future directions of BIAs in optimization and machine learning.

1. Introduction to Bio-Inspired Algorithms (BIAs)

At any rate, even if one disregards the technicalities of the evolution mechanism
spanning millions of years, nature is a treasure chest filled with different ideas for

1
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna Institute of Technology. Co-
imbatore, India.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna Institute of Technology. Coimbatore,
India.
3
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna Institute of Technology.
Coimbatore, India.
4
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, AI Musanna College of Oman, Oman.
Email : [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; maha-
[email protected]
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
24 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

mankind in relation to the different issues that they are faced with. Every engineer,
scientist, or, at some times, the mere problem solver is bound to find oneself at
a point in their careers where what they consider the most challenging of tasks
is the order of the day especially when modeling a system or even dealing with
paradigms. Trust me or beat me, but actually a huge number of questions people
pose, and some responses provided every day, can be provided just by paying
attention to the sounds of nature. From this perspective, the reader is brought to a
world of the future where swarms are manageable, information can be retrieved
from the structure of the evolutions, and bacteria can be cloned to address issues
and look for more opportunities. To understand what this knowledge of BIAs
permits one to do is invite you to consider the vast range of professions within
computer science and engineering, finance, and other business areas where it might
be deployed.
Moreover, it is also helpful in giving good practice to learn how bio-
inspired methods intend and work out natural-like solutions in order to advance
computational methods. This is due to the fact that they are rooted in biology and
are thus extraordinarily effective. You’ll also find out how it was that the folks
came up with the evolutionary algorithms, and (SI), and hoi’, bacterial foraging
optimization. Explicit, simple, and illustrated by example from a lot of areas, you
will soon discover how these high level concepts can be used and how they can be
easily tailored towards formulating solutions for any particular need, and with the
knowledge of the numerous techniques that are available in your HD Toolbox of
approaches for managing practically any issue that may be facing you at a certain
or another stage of your further study.

1.1 Overview of BIAs and Their Inspiration from Natural Systems

BIAs, in general, deserve particular attention since it belongs to the group of
modern and promising methods of solving complex optimization problems, and
which is inspired by the natural world. These algorithms are the subject of some
attention as some of the most effective methods of solving various problems in
computing, engineering, biology, and even in the field of Finance. The primary
subordinate areas of BIAs are EEAs (Extended Euclidean Algorithms), SIAH, and
BFAHs, which are relatively more recent forms of the established BIAs [1]. EAs,
built using concepts of genetic evolution and natural selection, work on a fitness
model which involves the best fit to be the fittest; solutions to optimization problems
change over generations through mutation, crossover, and selection. There are
several types of this family of algorithms, for example; Genetic Algorithms (GA),
Genetic Programming (GP), Evolution Strategies (ES), Differential Evolution
(DE), and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). These population-adaptive search
methods use stochastic items and pick out first-class solutions for difficult issues of
population. Contrarily, SI algorithms work with reference to the social insects and
animals and show how the complex cooperative behavior of the small components
results in the appearance of a collective complex whole behavior. Some of the most
 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 25

popular algorithms are the PSO, the Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), Artificial Bee
Colony optimization (ABC), Bacterial Foraging Optimization Algorithm (BFOA),
and the Firefly Algorithm (FFA). These algorithms often use the populations of
abstract agents that can work in parallel with each other and with the environment
to find the best solution based on cooperation. An addition to the BIA family, only
a few years ago, is the BFAs which basically work in foraging patterns similar to
bacteria and solve optimization issues.
From the BFA (bacteria foraging algorithm) model, current models of BFA
have become both population-based BFA and the individual-based BFA which
incorporate the individual based modeling-InbM for computational balance.
Thus, future work on the development of all kinds of BFAs exhibits the promise
of effectiveness in addressing increasingly difficult optimization problems by
employing the heuristics of bacteria in the search and optimization processes.
More so, increase advancements in the BIAs are expected as researchers continue
to explore the depths of analysis of intricate biological units and develop even
more elaborate optimizations’ algorithms that will be relevant to solve real-life
problems. Figure 1 shows that the use of BIA comes with the following sequence
of engagements: Initialization of the algorithm involves creating the population
of solutions, the number of iterations, and the stop criteria. These are important
control parameters for the algorithm execution and can be tweaked quite often by
the researchers considering the trial-and-error method. The detailed process of
how the field works is as follows: The fitness evaluation stage involves inputting
the individual solutions such as feature subsets as used in the feature selection
phase into a classifier and the accuracy of the classifier serves as the fitness of the
solutions. The central idea of the iterative optimizations is the periodically repeated
steps reminiscent to the biological processes. It goes on cycling through these
stages until it satisfies some exit condition such as the number of iterations equaling
to some fixed upper limit or some predetermined level of error. Specifically, the
following basic elements of bio-inspirational designs assist BIAs to function as
natural evolutionary and social conduct by seeking for better solutions within the
optimization problems [2].

1.2 Principles and Advantages of BIAs in Optimization and

Machine Learning
BIAs were indeed found to be rich in principles as well as they offer numerous
advantages in the field of optimization and therefore, BIA remains as one of the
most useful tools that can be used to solve complex problems with a high level of
efficiency. These algorithms aim for their motives from nature-inspired behavior or
phenomena like evolution, searching behavior exhibited by animals, and bacterial
colony behavior to design efficient optimization approaches. In the light of the
above elaborations, it can be inferred that like natural processes, BIAs are well
capable of searching the solution space, learning from the environment, and solving
even the most complex optimization problems. It should be noted, however,
26 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Start

Initialize population

Calculate fitness value

Satisfy termination Yes Output

conditions? Results

No
Update individual populations/
positions and structures

End

Fig. 1 Common framework of bio-inspired algorithms.

that one of the peculiarities of BIAs by design is the utilization of randomized

algorithms, which situates them in a particular category of optimization algorithms.
Randomness in decision-making and stochastic movements add to the fact that
BIAs avoid solutions located in local optima and explore the various regions of the
solution space; and the general ability for search and problem-solving scenarios
gives BIAs the potential to perform complex optimization tasks [3].
Some main types of BIAs include the Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs) and
SI- based algorithms, which use the population-based search methodologies. These
approaches enable BIAs to have a wide range of solutions and enable the exploration
of the solution space to the full extent while making the optimization process more
reliable. In essence, by replicating some forms of natural processes like mutation,
crossover, and selection, BIAs successfully perform solution searches, solutions’
identification, environment changes accommodation, and, in particular, solve
extremely complex optimization problems effectively. BIAs also have another
major benefit in that they can be used in a Global Optimization context, the goal
of which is to identify the best solution within the huge and complex problem
space. By incorporating the feature of population-based search along with random
variation and selection, BIAs are able to surmount the complexities involved in
searching through optimization landscapes, even if it is trapped at a local optimum,
and this makes BIAs highly efficient search techniques as they are able to look
for global optima when required. Furthermore, BIAs are relatively general and
flexible, that can be used in a vague number of instances in various fields according
to optimization issues. This flexibility makes it possible for BIAs to adjust solutions
and the problem-solving process, throughout iterations and over time, so that it
remarks a high ability to solve optimization of different types of objectives.
 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 27

BIAs are currently one of the defining features of the machine learning domain
and are characterized by specific principles that provide synergistic benefits
when designing new promising learning models. In the current study, it will be
established that one of the most useful areas of BIAs when applied to machine
learning is feature selection and dimensionality reduction. Natural selection-based
algorithms such as GA or PSO can identify the prominent features for learning as
they actually mimic nature and help in dimensionality reduction thereby improving
the efficiency of the models and reducing the computation load. Furthermore,
BIAs are most useful for fine-tuning normal hyperparameters and architectural
characteristics of machine learning. Now, by using EAs and SI algorithms, the
search space of model configurations is examined and the best settings for better
learning performances are determined, itself being a model selection process
that results in finding better models. BIAs are more effective when the current
model contains a prerequisite workflow of diverse functions and numerous target
variables dependent on features for consistent learning in machine learning tasks.
GP, based on evolutionary theory and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) that
mimic neurons in the human brain, can hail complex relationships and predict
outcomes by seeking out optimal solutions and flexible strategies in extensive
search spaces and discontinuous landscapes. Furthermore, these BIAs can be
applied as a part of ensemble learning methodologies where a number of models
are used for prediction-making. Ensemble learning enabled by BIAs can utilize
various populations of models with different properties and synchronize them
into a single improved and less vulnerable learning system. EAs evolve various
populations of models, which have different parameters and strengths, and join
their predictive capabilities in a way that can make an ensemble learning system
more accurate and less sensitive.
Another strength that is apparent when using BIAs in the field of machine
learning is the flexibility of learning and the possibility of online learning from
the streaming data. ACO and BFO inspired from the behavioral aspects of
animals are capable of integrating new knowledge that reflects the ongoing and
dynamic learning tasks in the course of improving the algorithms. Additionally,
some of the BIAs like Decision Tree-based algorithms and Rule-based systems
promising approximations to natural systems can provide interpretability and
rank features based on importance. BIA-based algorithms are able to produce
human-interpretable rules or decision trees describing the learned-feature-to-target
associations; thereby improving the credibility and reliability of machine learning
models based on this knowledge assimilation technique.
The benefits of BIAs in machine learning include maximizing model
performance, managing of intricate relationships between model variables, and
encouraging the concept of diversity, making it easier to adapt to dynamically
changing settings and easier interpretation of the model. BIAs assist in designing
high performance and efficient progressive models for the analysis and learning
from data using the inspiration that is drawn from biological systems and
evolutionary processes and are used across different fields of pattern recognition,
28 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

data mining, and predictive modeling. With the future advancement of research in
this field, BIAs combined with machine learning can be very useful in developing
solutions for many unpredicted real-world applications and the development
of even more intelligent systems [4]. Figure 2 presents the information and the
advantages of BIAs in optimization and machine learning.

1 Global Optimization

2 Adaptability

3 Nature-inspired
Heuristics

4 Feature Selection

5 Dimensionality
Reduction

6 Versatility Across
Domains

Fig. 2 Advantages of BIAs in optimization and machine learning.

2. Ancient and Classical BIAs

2.1 Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs)

EAs are metaheuristic optimization methods that are based on natural evolution
processes where different solutions are adapted in the hope of finding better
solutions. They operate by the basis of a generation of a population of solution
candidates; selection and variation of the candidates mimicking the process
of natural genetic inheritance. It mimics the idea about survival of the fittest,
especially regarding the choice of solutions, since the better solution will have a
higher chance of being copied or used in the next generation. Mutation operators
alter the selected individuals just as the recombination (crossover) operators do;
they create variation in the population as in natural selection. This process of
selection and variation is repeated and builds up over many generations, groping
towards the right solution. Both the exploration by using the variation operators
and the exploitation by the selection can optimize the space of search of an
EA and adapt it to the problem to finally reach the optimum or near-optimum
solutions. GAs are known to solve diverse optimization problems with success
and such problems may involve complicated and more difficult features including,
nonlinear problems, and multimodal problems making EA a key resource pool for
researchers and developers for a variety of disciplines.
 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 29

2.2 Genetic Algorithms (GAs)

GAs are an important category of the EAs that have been applied in numerous and
successful ways with regards to enhancing different aspects of the deep learning
(DL) model. In this regard, each member in the GAs population can be viewed
as a potential solution, or in other words, a certain neural network architecture, a
method for weight initialization, along with some network-related parameters like
learning rates and activation functions. The individuals are represented more or
less in the form of genomes, which could be of Boolean, Real, or some other data
types or even more complex structures [5]. As GAs replicate new generations of
individuals, the process of selection, crossover, and mutation operators produce
fitter individuals and generate better fit population over the generations. Taking the
nature selection step, higher fitness scores are selected, as these may be established
using the validation set or other performances related measurements. Crossover
incorporate the genotypes of two parent individuals to produce off springs. On the
other hand, mutation brings in random changes allowing the algorithm to move
to different region in the search space. Over time, more generations of the GA are
produced resulting in the overall population of the GA moving towards the optimal
deep learning models or configurations that are best suited to the given task. This
strong optimization strategy has been successful in the theoretical and empirical
contexts of designing and fine-tuning DNNs because of the GA capacity to search
through exceedingly intricate solutions as shown in Figure 3.

2.3 Evolutionary Strategies (ES)

ES constitute another important class of Everett algorithms targeted at numerical
optimization tasks. The general form of ES algorithms is distinct from most GAs
that work on integer or binary representations since they utilize derived mutation
and selection methods to evolve species of real-valued prospects. In ES, the
mutation operation is defined in order to fast navigate the continuous search space
by sampling of new solutions according to predefined probability distributions
so that the sample is much more biased and efficient compared to purely random
mutations. This makes ES particularly suitable for fine-tuning of the real-valued
parameters fields in deep learning models like weights and biases. Furthermore, ES
techniques have also been intensified in the field of neuro evolution, where weights
and architectures of neural networks are evolved at once through the initiation of
a single process. Combining the capability of new ES to search high-dimensional
solution spaces and the parallelism, the contributors have managed to reuse these
algorithms to identify new neural network topologies and weight assignments
that yield optimal performance on the multiple tasks. The valuable properties
involving the stability and adaptability of ES along with the ability to search for
the best solution of constant and discrete characteristics of deep learning makes it
an effective tool for AutoML, architecture search.
30 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Start

Initial population

Calculate the fitness value

Selection

Crossover No

Mutation

Is termination criteria
satisfied?

Yes

End

Fig. 3 Genetic Algorithm Methodology.

2.4 Genetic Programming (GP)

GP is one of the most specific techniques within the EAs paradigm that evolves
computer programs or models in the form of trees or any other forms of executable
sets of rules. Therefore, the GP becomes a popular technique over the other DL
methods for the automation of the architectures of the Neural Network (NN).
Unlike the typical global optimization paradigm of EAs that insists on their string-
mutating counterparts, Differential Evolution, GP is capable of creating search
 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 31

space of different sizes and Tree-depths for DL architectures. May be something

like mutation, crossover, selection GP repeatedly improves population of NN
models, and during that will find out how to assemble right parts into successful
complex of subroutines. Moreover, GP has been used at the problem of generating
optimized network topologies, interconnections, and feature representations for
the given data, especially for the cases when a necessary structure is expected to
be hierarchical and complex, and capable of capturing the subtle interrelations
inherent to the data [6]. Through that integration, GP allows to set up powerful
and very flexible tools for automation of various aspects of DL model construction
that in turn leads to the new possibilities for researches and further development
of the existing ideas in such field as architecture engineering.

2.5 Swarm Intelligence (SI) Algorithms

SI algorithms means getting inspired from synergistic, self-organizing collective
behavior that can be observed in natural world like ants, birds, or bees, etc. These
algorithms unveil the emergent intelligence that stems from the transaction that
exists between the individual agents that have simple routines to follow. Even
though every individual agent is very simple, it is sufficient when taken collectively
of sufficient number to solve real problems in the world, explore labyrinthine search
spaces, and find near-optimal solutions. Similarly, they employ the principles like
positive feedback, negative feedback, and that promote the intelligibility of the
swarm collectivity. These algorithms are noted for their flexibility in exploring
different environments, their resilience to failures and inherent parallelism, and
that makes them relevant to solve a number of optimization problems especially
when working with DL where they have successfully exhibited their efficacy in
tasks such as neural architecture search and hyperparameter tuning.

2.6 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)

SI is a broad family of artificial intelligence (AI) techniques modeled after the
behavior of natural systems: flocks of birds, schools of fishes, etc. Movement of
these particles is guided by two main principles using PSO. In PSO, “a swarm”
refers to a collection of particles where each of them is a candidate solution to the
problem being searching, and the particles move in the search space through the
adjustment of position and velocity of each particle and through the information
exchange between the particles in the swarm. The updating of each swarmed
particle is thus made such that each particle is influenced by both its own best
solution and the global best solution giving the swarm an exploration-exploitation
nature. This coordinated movement of individual particles makes the swarm to
search efficiently in the presumed globalization search space and slowly converge
to the global optima. For instance, in DL, PSO has been used in several ways in
optimizing NN such as the model parameters, the structure of the network, and
other parameterized irregularities of neural net models [7]. It is playable in a way
32 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

of balancing between exploration and exploitation which is particularly useful

when dealing with high-dimensional and often non-convex search spaces that are
characteristic for DL problems. As a result, the fact that PSO states the particle SI,
it has been shown that it cuts across DL configuration space, and has been proven
to search better than other optimization routines in some instances as depicted in
the Figure 4.

Start

Set up parameters

Generate initial velocity and position randomly for

each particle

Calculate fitness value for each particle

Update the local best and global best for each particle

Yes
Satisfy the specified number
of generations

No

End

Fig. 4 Particle Swarm Optimization.

2.7 Ant Colony Optimization (ACO)

ACO is a metaheuristic algorithm derived from the stigmergy process observed
with ants searching for their food. ACO algorithms mimic the predefined ants’
pheromone trail-laying and trail-following to determine the better solution path.
ACO has been adopted in feature selection, model pruning, and NAS (network-
attached storage) where it has showcased its effectiveness in DL applications. ACO,
as such, takes advantage of the collective intelligence realized in artificial ants to
search the vast possibility landscape in searching for forms of DL architectures.
 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 33

Derived from nature and evolution, these BIAs provide tough optimization
techniques to unfold the issues of DL. They make it possible to find the best
architecture, the right set of parameters, and appropriate feature descriptions that
will in one way or another help enhance DL models, and, as a result, expand their
applicability to many areas.

3. Modern and Hybrid BIAs

3.1 Artificial Immune Systems (AIS)

AIS refers to a set of computational methods based on the immune system approach
to resolve problems in the presence of uncertainties. In line with the features of
the immune system, such as self-recognition, learning, adaptation and diversity,
AIS algorithms recognize and classify aberrations, categorize patterns, and even
optimize the solutions in a similar fashion as how the immune system fights threats
to the body. Basic theories of AIS, like Clonal Selection, Immune Networks,
and Negative Selection constitute the primary basis for algorithmic modeling
derived from the action of the immune system. AIS streams are widespread in
various areas, such as data analytics, optimization, security, and robotics, combined
with proven solidity and flexibility. AIS has a substantial amount of empirical
evidence, and there is a more theory-based approach in AH and AIS development,
where researchers investigate more advanced mathematical models and analysis
to improve the implementation and knowledge of AIS. Conclusively, AIS implies
a brand new powerful computational intelligence methodology that draws on
biological understanding to proffer creative solutions to diverse types of problems
in multiple fields.

3.2 Membrane Computing Algorithms

Membrane Computing Algorithms are defined as computational algorithms that
have conceptual similarity to the biological membranes at some levels of abstraction.
These algorithms are based on an area of the study of membranes which are a way
of computing inspired by the structure and specific processes of cells. Indeed,
in this computational model, the computations occur in parallel and distributed,
always involving multisets of symbol-objects contained in the membranes. Of
equal importance in Membrane Computing Algorithms is the interaction between
these compartments and more specifically with other compartments or the rest of
the environment in the system.
Membrane computing is a relatively novel approach, and several models
have been proposed with different characteristics and uses. These models are the
symbol-object P systems with multiset rewriting rules in which documents are
changed, the system using symport/antiport, string-objects, tissue-like P systems,
and neural-like P systems. There are some variations in what they represent
regarding computation, which still relies on the principles observed in biological
systems.
34 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

A wide spectrum of fields is benefitted or implemented by Membrane

Computing Algorithms; these are Biology, Computer Science, Optimization, and
Pattern Recognition; the list is not exhaustive. As most of the biological read and
process information through neural network like structures, these algorithms offer
a novel way to look at computational problems, quite possibly holding the keys
to new solutions.

3.3 Hybrid BIAs for Deep Learning

The bibliometry of the integration of BIAs into DL models examines the ways in
which BIAs help to refine and improve DL models. These algorithms comprise
multiple aspects of several bio-inspired optimization algorithms in an effort to solve
various complicated problems in DL tasks including the selection, optimization,
and classification of features.
Hybrid BIA falls within the scope of DL while Meta heuristic optimization
algorithm is conceptually used to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
learning in DL, hybrid BIAs conceptually have used different metaheuristic
optimization algorithms concurrently. As seen in the combinations of WOA and
APSO (adaptive particle swarm optimization) where the integration of the two
improves feature selection and optimization in DL.
In this approach, to cooperate with several EAs, the researchers plan to leverage
the unique feature of each algorithm for developing a powerful optimization
solution for DL problems. The above hybrid methods may help avoid the deficiency
of a single algorithm and improve the optimization effect from various fronts,
including accuracy, convergence rate, and generalization ability.

3.4 Integrating BIAs with Deep Learning Models

BIAs and DL means that in programming the natural systems and processes are
incorporated into the DL structures to make them more performant and more
efficient. By mimicking the actions of these particles like bees, ants, or even genetic
evolution of DL, these algorithmic strategies present new ways of enhancing
these DL models. Integralization process refers to the application of fresh bio-
inspired optimization algorithms like PSO, GAs or the ABC optimization to
conform to the hyperparameters, or the architectural construction of DL models
or their training processes. This integration helps in exploring parts of the solution
space systematically and helps in achieving better model fitting, faster rate of
convergence, and overcoming the problem of overfitting. Through incorporation
of BIAs, despite the adaptive and self-organizing crucial characteristics of DL, it
will be possible to obtain even more powerful, open-ended computer systems with
increased competency in multiplicity of tasks in many range of applications from
image recognition, natural language processing and medical diagnosis.
 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 35

4. BIAs for Deep Learning Model optimization

BIAs, as a method, is one of the practices used within structural engineering and
DL models with good outcomes. Scientists have amplified the effectiveness in
providing engineering the DL prognosis technique related to structural structure
and strength by including concepts derived from nature into AI alternative. BIAs,
namely, GAs and ANNs methodology are based on the observation of biological
systems to tackle complex optimization problems. Such algorithms have very
favorable performances in tuning all the parameters of the DL models enabling the
models to predict effectively and to perform equally well on different environments
[1]. In addition to using BIAs and AI models, both of them are promising in
predicting the shear strength capacity of deep beams. Support vector regression
(SVR) technique has also been hybridized with GA for enhancement of the
proposed framework of estimating the shear strength of reinforced concrete deep
beams. Apart from that it also helps to enhance the accuracy of the predictions and
at the same time addresses a crucial issue of tuning of parameters in SVR models.
Also, it should also be noted that the data handling and structural dependencies
among the variables are nonlinear and that BIAs have some significant advantages
over other existing methods, which makes their usage crucial for optimizing DL
models in structural engineering.

4.1 Hyperparameter Tuning using BIAs

Recently, the BIAs, in combination with DL models for the role of hyperparameter
tuning have also evolved and have been adapted in most of the sectors of machine
learning. This novel approach is based on the Natural Selection theory and SI
principles of which the fundamentals are designed to offer immense performance
increase to DL models. Algorithms that apply the principles found in nature to
select the hyperparameters for a computationally demanding problem also apply
bio-signature. BIAs, therefore, offer the best approach to the optimization of the
DL models given that they can search for an immense hyperparameter space for
the best combination possible.
The basic mode of searching the hyperparameter space such as the grid search
or even entirely random search, which perform very poorly when searching for
high dimensions and come with the added disadvantage of improved computational
cost. The steps involved in the above BIAs are GAs, PSO, and the ACO which
are effective ways of exploring the hyperparameter space and can help find the
optimum set of hyperparameters. Besides, these algorithms are characterized by
self-improvement traits which enable them to dynamically alter hyperparameters
based on the model’s evaluation. The flexibility of DL is particularly beneficial in
terms of hyperparameter optimization, which depends on dataset complexity as
well as NN architecture [8]. Within iterations, BIAs keep adjusting hyperparameters
settings, thus improving overall DL models’ performance and generalization.
Figure 5 shows the General Schema of Hyperparameters Tuning by ABC.
36 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Solution 1 Parent Selection Offspring

Solution 2 s
Bee Onlooker Bees New Solution
yed Solution 3
plo
Solution 3 Em

Scout Bee
No
Solution n-2 Mutated
Yes Met the Offspring
Solution n-1 condition
Solution n Replacement New Solution

Fig. 5 A General Schema of Hyperparameters Tuning by ABC.

In addition to that, combining the BIAs with DL models makes it not only a
good tool for hyperparameter tuning but also provides an entirely new perspective
towards solving challenging optimization problems. Using a mix of the two
paradigms, harnessing both advantages at once can yield a quicker convergence,
greater scalability, and robustness in training complex NNs. Then by utilizing the
properties of the features which are inspired from nature, this can increase the
success rate in optimizing the hyperparameters in DL.

4.2 Neural Architecture Search (NAS) with BIAs

The field of NAS was only recently transitioning to a reality for creating a new
generation of complicated structures for DL using creativity-based algorithms.
These algorithms emulate the inherent processing architecture of the natural world;
thus, they constitute efficient optimization approaches for countless issues in NAS.
In the case of using metaheuristic algorithms, it is possible to refer to EAs, GAs,
and RL that have proved effective in automating the formation of neural network
structures. These algorithms actually duplicate principles of natural selection,
heredity and training based on reinforcement which facilitate powerful search of
the seemingly infinite hypothesis space for network configuration.
Biological methods inspired by weight sharing in NSGA-Net include network
morphisms, and multi-objective optimization to perform an efficient search for a
design space that balances the performance of architectures and the computational
requirement [9]. These algorithms learn and optimize network topologies through
genetic processes like gene transfers, mutations or crossover, and selection over
successive generations. BIAs also help in establishing the right foundation for the
discovery of the true trade-off frontier regarding the performance objectives and the
resource and architectural constraints in NAS. With the help of using evolutionary
methods and Bayesian optimization, meta-modeling and multi-objective selection
schemes, these algorithms provide an efficient basis for searching for the optimal
deep learning models in NAS.
 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 37

Another area of research in NAS, which points to the promising future of

applying BIAs into complex systems, is the automation of the NN’s architecture.
With the help of evolutionary principles and molecular biology strategies,
reinforcement learning, and reinforcement healing strategies, new possibilities
can be opened for improving DL models and artificial intelligence [10].

4.3 BIA-based Regularization Techniques

By focusing on BIA and more broadly on the trends of integrating BIAs in the
DLM optimization domain, it is possible to conclude that the general idea of
applying bio-inspired approaches to design novel regularization algorithms for
enhancing the model performance is a promising research direction in the current
state of IT (information technology) development. These algorithms are inspired by
biological systems, and their primary objective is to mimic the under-connectivity
and the specific firing patterns intrinsic to NNs, in the context of shallow and DL
models. Scientists have created crucial bio-inspired procedures, including Deep
Feedback Control (DFC) and winner-take-all or sparseness systems, which play a
significant role in training deep systems. These algorithms imitate the process that
are used by the brain to learn, hence providing faster and better results in learning.
It is noteworthy that through the employment of the BIA-based regularization
techniques, DL models benefit from the performance enhancement while being
endowed with the features to overcome obstacles such as catastrophic forgetting.
Such techniques enhance incremental and dynamic learning which makes the
models to update the accumulated knowledge with new knowledge without erasing
the previous knowledge. These levels of regularization when incorporated into DL
models through BIBA have shown to have great benefits especially through the
following applications. This research proves that using nature-inspired techniques
can improve reliability and adaptability of models to a noisy environment and their
ability to solve intricate problems.
Therefore, the incorporation of BIAs, especially measured in the context of
BIA, has become the practical method of selecting optimal DL models through
postmodern forms of regularization. Thus, by favoring after processing stints from
biological systems and imitating brain type solutions for information processing,
these algorithms can contribute to the optimization of the model results, solve
some of the issues such as catastrophic forgetting, and create the fundamental
groundwork for the advancement of deep learning algorithms in the future.

5. BIAs for Enhancing Deep Learning Interpretability

Machine learning interpretable models have become a distinct possibility due to the
application of BIAs in DL models. These algorithms refer to the affairs of biological
systems in order to seek to understand the nature of a neuron, by emulating
biological procedures. This can, for instance, be done by employing GAs that
mimic evolution in the attempt to interpret model results in a more straightforward
38 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

manner. GAs aid in the selection process of relevant features in improving the
performance of the model by going through cycles of feature selection to arrive at
the most relevant and informative features thereby giving the Event-driven Stream
Processing (ESP) models modulatory and comprehensible characteristics [11].
Another area of improvement based on SMTs is the improvement of interpretability
using swarm intelligence techniques that borrowed their ideas from the way ants,
bees, and other social organisms behave. Both methods help in the process of
selecting relevant features and enable us to fully understand how the model arrives
at its conclusions.
The general potential of CI (continuous integration) as the driving force
behind the swarm algorithms could help to predict and emphasize the vital
characteristics and their interrelations in the model. NN models that are inspired
by the structure and function of the human brain are helpful in gaining insights into
the process of information flow in DL models. These generated networks resemble
the connectivity of the brain and represent the activation dynamics of the data
when passed through the various layers of a DL model. This is due to ACO ability,
similar to ants’ foraging of food source, to trace and predict the flow of data within
the network, thus analyzing the important paths traveled by the model. Remote
look at the paths of participating ‘ants’ helps reveal the most important features in
the network and their effectiveness in terms of the model’s predictions. Based on
these, the contribution of BIAs in various fields, including image classification,
natural language processing, and healthcare, has been made apparent in terms of
improving the reliability and acceptance of AI systems. The application of these
algorithms for achieving interpretability improvements has been verified through
case studies, as well as Experimental Assessment. In the further development of
research in this area, improving the possibilities of linking BIAs is seen for the
future, DL models that combine interpretability and ease of understanding by
users. It is now only possible to more fully realize the potential of DL concepts
for assisting human decision-making in an increasingly complex world, and in so
doing, create more trustworthy AI systems.

5.1 Explainable AI through BIAs

The Area of Research known as Explainable AI (XAI) has observed a rising curve
in the use of biological mimic algorithms to improve comprehensible AI systems.
The process of natural evolution or the structure and function of the human brain
has therefore inspired researchers when designing models that will offer high
ability as well as a comprehensible manner on how and why the model arrived
at that particular ability. NNs, which are inspired by the structures of the human
brain, GAs imitating the process of the natural selection of species, and swarm
intelligence concepts inspired by interactions of social bees, ants, and other insects
are the subclass of the AI that has the potential to enhance the explainability of the
AI systems. Thus, such heuristics allow designing the models, which not only are
effective, but also can be easily explained to the users, as the principles, supported
 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 39

by the developed algorithms, reflect the patterns observed in nature. In the field of
XAI, BIAs have a crucial task of explaining the actions of complex AI schemes
to their human counterparts.
It is advantageous for researchers to incorporate elements paraphrased from
natural systems to AI models that enable the system to go further than making
accurate predictions, it can also explain the basis of its decision. This transparency
is especially needed in fields including healthcare, finance, and automobiles where
the AI models require clear explanation of how they operate. When applied to
Explainable AI, the concepts and methods of BIAs are the essential steps that
can lead science to a new level of development and ensure AI’s transparency
and accountability while retaining its power and effectiveness. By integrating
bio-inspired knowledge into creating and developing systems, it will be possible
to unleash the complete potential of the AI, while at the same time guaranteeing
the ethical, reliable, and explainable nature of these systems to all the parties
that are impacted by them. However, as more studies continue to be conducted
in the area of XAI, it can be further noted that there is so much potential for the
future of the application of AI in industries as they leverage BIAs in solving
problems. Thus, by following the inspiration from biological systems, which can
be regarded as sophisticated, integrated, and highly perceptible, we can develop AI
models of agents that not only solve tasks efficiently and effectively but also make
explanations that can be understood and trusted by humans and can contribute to
further collaboration of people and artificially intelligent systems.

5.2 Visualizing and Understanding Deep Learning Models with

BIAs
For DL, especially for analyzing the models’ mechanisms, the model’s visualization
and interpretation are meaningful. Biologically Inspired Attribution Scores (BIAS)
have, therefore, been proposed more recently as a computationally efficient
technique of generating visual explanations of a model’s predictions especially, but
not necessarily only in the genomic sequences context. Saliency maps and feature
attribution techniques are actually the kind of models that allow to check how
each input feature contributes to the emergence of results. These methods depict
the feature visualization as an idea based on real data instead of the hypothetical
case, giving some form of explanation of the model’s reasoning. It is noteworthy
that the researchers have come up with the explanation models that are capable of
determining the decision-making process of deep NNs by integrating the additive
feature attribution methods and the distillation techniques.
DL algorithm is one of the most popular algorithms in use today, every
model designer should consider interpretability. Thus, designing interpretable
mechanisms not only improves the predictive qualities of the model but also makes
it possible to explain to a wider audience what is happening at the theoretical
level but in practice. This emphasis on model interpretability is important, to
some extent, to restore people’s trust in machine learning systems and to make the
algorithmic decisions affecting society comprehensible [12].
40 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Ideally in the context of networks architecture, DL deftly draws its success

from a set of model architectures for distinct levels which in turn has the ability
to learn a representation of data in terms of hierarchy with other layers able to
learn both global and localized features. Hence doing so, in a broader sense,
investigating prototypes has made researchers enable the working of DL models
on tractable sets, yet their interpretability remains intact. In particular, the above
mentioned approach enables obtaining a more flexible view on the representation
of features in space and the limitations of the proposed system’s performance.
When it comes to analyzing DNA sequences and patterns, the Deep Motif
Dashboard is certainly a helpful and ready tool in the field of bioinformatics. The
PhyloMotifs rich dashboard sums up a set of graphical approaches to identify
motifs and sequence patterns learned by deep NNs, especially for discriminating
transcription factor-binding sites. By using such models as convolutional, recurrent,
and convolutional-recurrent ones, the researchers receive ideas on how these
models determine the signals in DNA sequences and draw the reflections on why
the transcription factors function in the specific locations. These saliency maps
can be used to analyze the influence that each individual nucleotide within a given
DNA sequence has on the final output of a DL NN. The strength of this method
is that, apart from identifying which parts of the sequence contribute more to the
classification and, therefore, being able to interpret why the model’s outputs are
what they are, Additionally, it provides a temporal dimension of the output scores
showing how recurrent models predict the response through time of sequential
inputs and which indicate the fluctuation of the transcription factors binding
process. Further, the use of class-specific visualization strategy for the consider
transcription factor bind site-positive class helps in determining the right feed-
forward input sequence of the considered transcription factor bind site-positive
class through stochastic gradient optimization.
This method helps to describe and pinpoint certain periodicity
trends that qualify transcription factor binding sites to clearly identify
the processes that support the patterns of transcript expression [13].
Hence, the ways that learning models, predominantly about genomic sequences,
can be visualized and understood through such tools as saliency maps or a
temporal output score, or class-specific visual methodologies are the main focus
of the numerous and multiple correspondences concerning DNA sequences and
transcription factor binding. Indeed, availing of these solutions in the analysis and
visualization aspect puts the researchers in a position to unlock the information
hidden within the genomics study and introduce new advancements within
the bioinformatics niche. Primarily, the use of biologically inspired attribution
scores and interpretable mechanisms embedded within the DL models enhance
the performance of the classifier, and secondarily, the usage of such techniques
contributes to the formulation of the basic premise of transparency and
comprehensibility of any algorithmic decision; altogether, the advancement of
more interpretable and reliable AI systems.
 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 41

6. Applications of BIA-based Deep Learning Models in

Disease Detection
BIAs associated with DL Models have become quite popular in the past few years
and have strikingly indicated matured outcomes in the disease detection area. This
amalgamation of BIA and DL can be revolutionary as it integrates the advantages
of both these domains and can revolutionize the medical imaging and diagnosing
mechanisms through enhancing the disease-detecting systems. Hence, there are
obvious advantages to applying BIA-based DL models in disease detection, one
of which is the capacity to deal with extensive and sophisticated medical data.
The bio-inspired optimization algorithms help in fine-tuning the DL model to
improve the performance specificity on patterns and abnormality detection in
medical scan images. The suggested application of BIA in conjunction with DL is
highly beneficial in disease detection as it leads to more accurate and dependable
results that can then improve the quality of patient care experienced by patients
and healthcare professionals. Moreover, when combining BIA and DL, there
is a possibility of developing disease detection systems that are innovative and
capable of learning from their experiences. These models are able to adapt their
techniques to each new set of data that is given to it and its repetitions to enhance
precision these features are helpful in the dynamic world of medical images where
new diseases and changes are emerging in the market. Moreover, the integration
of Biomedical Image Analysis-based DL techniques in disease diagnosis allows
the provision of a personalized approach to treatments. This approach allows for a
more effective approach and usage of individual patient data to enhance algorithms
in delivering high-quality care. The outlined form of treatment can go down in the
history of the development of healthcare as the one that brought about a revolution
in clinical operations to increase patient satisfaction. To sum up, it is possible to
note that incorporating BIAs with DL models as an effective tool for improving
disease detection in medical images. Using BIA optimization and the pattern
analysis of DL, researchers not only can create new and more accurate diagnosis
and detection systems for various diseases but can also make the process faster
and smarter that can eventually lead to so-called individualized medicine This
symbiosis between BIA and DL is a starting point on the way to the use of highly
innovative approaches in the healthcare field [15– 17].

6.1 Computer-Aided Diagnosis (CADx) Systems

The fusion of DL models using BIAs has become the focus of attention in CADx
systems, and has demonstrated significant performance levels in the diagnosis
of diseases. Employing the CADx systems for a diverse range of diseases, the
investigators demonstrated the enhancement of accuracy, speed, and reliability
of the systems by applying BIA-based DL models. One of the key areas to focus
in the integration is the use of BIA in the feature selection and training of DL
libraries. Deeper Learning researchers have succeeded in applying Moth-Flame
Optimization, Firefly Optimization, ABC Optimization, as well as ACO algorithms
42 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

to select some of the best features from the medical imaging data to improve the
DL models in disease detection applications. These integrated with Convolutional
Neural Networks (CNNs) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), BIA-based
feature selection has empowered the capability of automatically classifying
complex patterns in medical images contributing to the improvement of diagnostic
and predictive accuracy. They were able to classify patterns of emphysema in
chest CT scans by using DL model consisting of both CNN and LSTM parts.
Furthermore, when CADx systems incorporate BIA algorithms, accuracy of the
segmentation of the lung tissues and extraction of ROIs (region of interest) has
received a boost. With the application of specialized algorithms like SIFCM,
the researchers have improved the ability to spot specific features pertaining
to a disease through the images, thus improving the chances of early diagnosis
of ailments like bronchiectasis and lung cancer. Therefore, the combination of
computer-aided diagnostic tools such as the DL model and BIA-based optimization
has enhanced disease diagnosis in medical imaging. Together, these methods have
given impetus to developed, precise, and quicker ways toward diagnosing several
diseases that can greatly enhance the possibilities of diagnosis and treatment within
healthcare.

6.2 Medical Image Analysis and Segmentation

DL models and BIA integrated with DL models have shown incredible advancements
in the medical image (MI) analysis and segmentation of diseases. Several
researchers have employed and enhanced the performance of DL architectures in
terms of the accuracy and complexity of the medical image analysis of a variety of
diseases by integrating the optimization aspects of BIAs. The integration of CNNs
with BIA is a significant step in this approach and is used to extract the features
of medical images. These can help with the automatic recognition and delineation
of pathological areas, including tumors or lesions, at a higher efficiency and with
increased accuracy. Also, due to the adaptability of BIA, the hyperparameters of
DL models involved are tuned correspondingly with enhanced efficiency in disease
detection missions. Furthermore, the use of BIA-based DL models in the detection
of diseases has demonstrated several benefits whereby feature engineering does
not provide adequate solutions [14]. Rather than using the prespecified features,
the models can learn from the data and this leads to an important aspect that can
be captured through the raw image data which is the patterns and details that are
vital in diagnosis. The combination of DL models and BIOT in the fields of MI
analysis and segmentation have promising opportunities for the development of
better disease diagnosis. Researchers must understand the advantages of using both
these methodologies to enhance diagnoses in healthcare structures.

6.3 Omics Data Analysis for Disease Prediction

Precision medicine, as a revolutionary concept that has implications in disease
prediction and segmentation, has received massive improvement through Omics
 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 43

data analysis. The involvement of different techniques like genomics, proteomics,

metabolomics helps in understanding the root cause of diseases and offers
potential biomarkers. This approach benefits a deeper understanding of the disease
heterogeneity and helps in the creation of unique approaches to the treatment of the
patients. Moreover, the integration of Omics data with bioinformatics and machine
learning including the BIA-based DL models, etc., offers newer vistas for early
and accurate diagnosis and classification of diseases. These models take advantage
by using the self-features of Omics data for identifying the noticeable pattern and
features which can help in effective disease modeling and categorization. Omics
data analysis, in conjunction with BIA-based DL models, improves the diagnostic
capacity and comprehensible variables that are inherent to disease diagnostic tools.
This is the prospect of the upcoming book chapter in which we will attempt to
discuss the potential of Omics data analysis for the alteration of disease models
and their forecasts as well as for the disease categorization using the application
of BIA-based DL models. Our work here is to introduce the reader to the major
principles, methods, accomplishments, as well as to provide a number of case
studies to reveal how these progressive approaches are changing the world of
diagnostics and PEM (protein-energy malnutrition). In this context, the intended
goal of this chapter is to present state-of-the-art findings and framework that may
spearhead progressive innovations in precision healthcare.

7. Challenges and Future Directions

7.1 Computational Complexity and Scalability

Considering the issues of computational comprehensiveness and sustainability
of BIAs, the use of these approaches in optimization and, in particular, in
machine learning processes is critical. These challenges come about from the
high dimensional spaces in the optimization problems and large volume of
data available across different fields, which makes the efficiency of the BIAs in
handling big data a huge challenge. In addition, there are issues like small-scale
infrastructure curtailing the growth of BIAs due to constraints in computational
resources required for computation of optimization problems. To overcome such
challenges with computer resources, the future direction might involve the use
parallel and distributive computing in order to handle the data more efficiently,
using advanced optimization techniques and incorporating hybrid methods to
increase the scalability of the technique along with cloud computing for the scalable
resources, using hardware acceleration to perform the techniques at a faster rate,
designing more efficient algorithm and search methods. These challenges and
future directions should be observed to enhance the BIAs’ performance and thus
their usefulness in meeting real-world problems effectively in the future [18–21].

7.2 Theoretical Foundations and Convergence Analysis

The following major bottlenecks in BIA research have been identified: The major
bottleneck is the fact that there seem to be only limited attempts at establishing
44 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

sound theoretical frameworks and systematically and extensively conducting

convergence analysis of BIAs. The existence nonlinearity in biological systems
and the attempt to model biological systems through algorithms are some of the
challenges that orphan BIAs from a robust theoretical framework. Moreover,
conformity of convergence properties in BIAs is more complicated to attain because
of their stochastic characteristics, heuristic search purposes, and dynamic optima’s
environment, which makes it quite hard to achieve convergence with definite
optimization solutions. To deal with such challenges, the future work involves the
propositions of mathematical formulations as well as theoretical models that can be
used in the determination of convergence properties as well as the stability of the
BIAs together with the convergence rates. Some strategies are suggested to validate
them theoretically and empirically such as solving the standard optimization
problems, conducting experimentation and comparing the results obtained for
different methods. More careful analyses of algorithm behaviors with BIAs, such
as comparing theoretical results with real-world data and conducting sensitivity
analysis on step size, maximum iterations and convergence criteria, on different
BIAs problems and analyzing which kind of problems are more suitable for the
algorithm would improve the BIAs in optimization tasks. The present paper
raises some of these prospects and suggests further adjustments to the theoretical
framework and empirical discoveries relevant to BIAs to enhance the convergence
analysis and development of more efficient and robust optimization approaches to
tackle multifaceted application problems in reality [22– 23].

7.3 Integration with Emerging Deep Learning Techniques

Combining BIAs with new learning NNs presents a unique problem as there is a
vast gap between the two in terms of logical structure and what might be considered
‘clean’ mathematical principles when compared to traditional BIAs. The training
paradigms of DL models, which is the case with NNs, are not in the same category
with the evolutionary and swarm-based optimization paradigms of BIAs, thus
increasing the problem of their integration to work more effectively. While making
existing BIAs compatible with DL architecture, especially CNNs and RNNs
(recurrent NNs) as well as dealing with issues of tuning and convergence within the
objective function within frameworks of hybrid optimization, smart approaches,
methods of attack, and defenses that aim at adversarial training. To overcome
these challenges, future directions include the following; future research aims
at integrating BIAs with the DL technique; future work also seeks to fine-tune
pretrained model using BIAs; metaheuristics optimization is also desirable to be
employed for optimizing DL architecture; finally, interdisciplinary researchers
should collaborate in the future working on integration of these approaches. To
this end, resolving these challenges and discussing their potential developments
may lead researchers to new horizons of further development of the optimization
algorithms in the context of growth and changes of DL rates.
 BIAs-based Deep Learning (DL) Models 45

Conclusion
In conclusion, this book chapter has discussed in detail the modern and hybrid
BIAs and their relevance in the field of DL as well as disease detection. BIAs
can be described as a method of solving the given problem which is derived
from analyzing the various biological systems. The heuristic aspects of the living
phenomena have been incorporated in these algorithms where they have been
seen to perform very well despite being used in the solution of complex and
dynamic models. From the BIAs of historical and classical origins including
EAs and Swarm Intelligence Algorithms through to modern and convincingly
composite BIAs, including AIS and Membrane Computing Algorithms, a detailed
description of these BIAs has been included in the chapter. The now-published
synergistic coupling of BIAs with DL models has been explained and general
areas such as model selection, hyperparameter, NAS, and (L1/L2) regularizations
have been covered in the literature. The chapter has also focused on how BIAs can
be used to improve the usability of models derived through DL and AI through
explainability techniques and graphical representations. A brief introduction about
the potential of BIA-based DL models in the fields of disease detection has been
provided as follows: CAD Systems, MI analysis, and segmentation and Disease
prediction by analyzing omics data. These applications point out that BIAs can
be a game-changer in the area of healthcare because they help diagnose diseases
and recommend their treatment quicker and with almost total reliability. Yet it has
also highlighted the issues and possibilities in this area of study discussed in the
chapter. Some of the challenges that need discussed or to be faced, are as follows:
A major challenge relates to the computational complexity and scalability of the
algorithms, as well as to fundamental theoretical aspects of the approach; another
significant topic concerns the convergence analysis of the current algorithms in
the framework of BIAs both in DL and in the context of disease detection; finally,
the integration of the present BIAs with state-of-art deep learning methodologies.
The suggestions for future work encompass the following: The proposal to pay
more attention to designing of effective BIAs and scalable algorithms with good
accuracy, the need to set up more refined theoretical backgrounds, more rigorous
convergence analysis, and the integration of BIAs with DL. Multidisciplinary
cooperation and integration between academic collaborators in computer science,
biology, and healthcare is and will continue to be a key factor that can drive the
progress of the scientific field and produce usable and beneficial services and
products that address current needs. In conclusion, this book chapter enables the
reader to garner valuable insights and ideas to continue further research in the
fields of DL and disease identification using modern and hybrid BIAs. To reduce
the complexity level of various problem domains and to gain a better understanding
about the key principles, applications, issues, and future research directions of
Fuzzy systems, it is possible to argue that this is an important avenue of research
for the researchers.
46 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

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 Evaluation of Bio-Inspired
3 Algorithm-based Machine Learning and
Deep Learning Models
Selvam Durairaj,1* Malik Mohamed Umar2 and Natarajan B.1

Natural processes such as neural networks, swarm intelligence, and genetic

development have inspired algorithms that exhibit great promise in solving
complicated optimization problems in deep learning (DL) and machine learning
(ML). A thorough evaluation of bio-inspired algorithm-based ML and DL models
in medicine is conducted in this research chapter. This study evaluates and contrasts
the performance of multiple bio-inspired algorithms using a range of datasets and
goals. Ant colony optimization, particle swarm optimization, genetic algorithms,
and artificial neural networks are a few of these. Experimental data are used to
assess these bio-inspired models’ robustness, scalability, and performance in
classification, regression, and optimization tasks. This chapter looks at how bio-
inspired algorithms enhance the interpretability and generalizability of ML and
DL models. The advantages and disadvantages of these nature-inspired methods
are also discussed. The findings show how bio-inspired algorithms can be used to
develop intelligent systems of ML and DL in different types of medical healthcare
applications.

1. Introduction

1.1 Background
Artificial intelligence (AI) has come a long way in recent years. Deep learning (DL)
and machine learning (ML) approaches have transformed many fields worldwide,
such as medicine, computation, finance, and agriculture. However, standard
training and optimization issues include the ability to be understood, shortage
of data, and overfitting. Researchers have developed computer models that are
adaptive and self-learning through the use of bio-inspired algorithms, which take
inspiration from biological systems and natural processes. Assessing bio-inspired
algorithm-based ML and DL models is essential to progressing cutting-edge AI
research and technology. By assessing these hybrid models’ efficacy, performance,

1
School of Computer Science and Engineering (SCOPE), Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai
Campus, 600127, Tamil Nadu, India.
2
National Space Science & Technology Center (NSSTC), United Arab Emirates University (UAEU),
Al Ain, 15551, Abu Dhabi, UAE.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Evaluation of Bio-Inspired Algorithm-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models 49

and application, researchers expect to discover new approaches to enhance their

interpretability, robustness, and scalability. More intelligent, flexible, and human-
like AI systems will be possible due to technology.
Traditional Approaches
SGD (stochastic gradient descent), its variants, and other gradient-based
optimization algorithms are widely used in classic ML and DL techniques for
both model training and optimization. Even while these techniques are effective in
many situations, they frequently need assistance when used on high-dimensional,
non-convex optimization-based problems, which results in unsatisfactory solutions
and the slowest convergence rates. Additionally, understanding issues plague
traditional ML and DL models, making it difficult to understand the underlying
mechanics behind their predictions. Additionally, this method uses the diversity
and flexibility of biological-based optimization, its limits, and its ability to function
in very complex contexts.
Current Trends
The bio-inspired Bio algorithms make the drawbacks of conventional ML and
DL algorithms in medical-based applications. It mimics naturally adaptable
and self-organization property-based learning, optimizing model training and
generalization. The ML and DL-based algorithm models hide some information on
the complex optimization problem and change and adjust their environment. This
chapter presents the primary approach of the bio-inspired optimization algorithm,
which handles various ML and DL-based models.

1.2 Motivation
Bio-inspired algorithms are adaptive and self-learning of natural processes and
biological systems with the help of ML and DL, prompting the investigation
of AI system growth increasingly robust and efficient. These algorithms cover
evolutionary, particle swarm, and genetic optimization, providing unique identity
and complex optimization issues based on the convergence speed or processing
rate in the ML and DL. The changing circumstances and solutions of new solutions
are promising and offer new enhancing bio-inspired optimization algorithms. The
new generation of the AL-based model is evolving to medical applications. It will
make new high-accuracy systems on the ML and DL model systems.
The hybrid techniques of ML and DL successfully solve issues of ML and
DL, such as overfitting and underfitting problems. The data scarcity of the model
explores various optimizations and finds hidden high-dimensional data to improve
the AI system’s accuracy and efficiency.
The hybrid model applies to bank engineering and healthcare, which evaluate
ML and DL-based real-world scenarios in miniature and large-scale banking
engineering and healthcare industries. The next compares the bio-inspired
standard ML and DL architecture and optimization techniques regarding linear
and nonlinear and the relative benefits and drawbacks with some constraints. Next,
50 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

it is highlighted to improve hybrid application requirements involving the process

of minimum and maximum objective functions in the optimization techniques.
The alternative goal of bio-inspired ML and DL server AI research and
technology is to forward adaptive and intelligent systems with complex problems
solved with advanced argumentation of real real-world problem issues in society.

1.3 Objectives
The main objective of ML and DL-based bio-inspired algorithms is to achieve the
following three objectives in AI research and technological progress:
I. The hybrid model is explored with a high and enhancing model to make the
training, generalization, and optimization in the swam intelligent, neural
system, and evolutionary system.
II. If handling complex problems to solve optimization problems, it highlights
the high-dimensional data and how to pattern to ML and DL and compare
their adapting environment.
III. The hybrid ML and DL model further improves the applications’ specific
domain. For example, the field of medical domain, particularly cardiac
attacks, needs advanced patterning in the different locations of different
servers.
Additionally, the bio-inspired optimization algorithm models are used in
real-world scenarios to make the interpretability and SCA (sine cosine algorithm)
possible. The main goal is for AI research-based intelligent systems to create more
flexible and easy ways to handle complex issues and change society in healthcare.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning

Cloud-fog computing using ML and DL with bio-inspired optimization [1, 2],
improving the overall efficiency of cloud and fog computing in the distributing
approach. It also effectively handles complex optimization problems because of
the valuation of natural activity and swarm behaviour. The computing resources
appropriately respond to the system, such as power processing, memory, and
network bandwidth, and reduce the optimization throughput and latency. By
applying the bio-inspired optimization approach algorithms with ML and DL, the
entire machine ensures high reliability, resource utilization, and load balancing, and
enhances overall performance. The cloud and fog-based data processing analyzes
larger scale data evaluation and analyses by using hybrid cloud architecture.
Cloud environment also improves the intrusion and detection system by using
bio-inspired optimization to shield data from online social network threads and
security protocols [3, 4]. Combining the ML or DL with a bio-inspired optimization
algorithm in the cloud-fog environment makes it possible to create a more efficient
and secure distribution solution [5, 6]. Identification of medical cancer diagnosis
 Evaluation of Bio-Inspired Algorithm-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models 51

[7,8] applies to bio-inspired algorithms that enhance ML application. These

algorithms solve the complex problem of biological brain activity and swarm
evaluation and improve the efficiency of ML models in detecting cancer using
large datasets [9], predicting related features and increasing their reciting accuracy.
Bio-inspired optimization algorithms are used in breast cancer prediction
systems, and their image processing and classification tasks are enhanced with
the help of GA (genetic algorithm), PSO (particle swarm optimization), and ABC
(artificial bee colony algorithm) [10-12]. Feature selection methods of DL detect
malignant tumours with high accuracy [13]. Earlier, ML-based broader medical
diagnostic of bio-inspired optimization algorithms augmented the sensitivity
of models by way of reflecting a biologically based ML system that leads and
is accurately detected by using productive diagnostic tools and speeds up the
diagnostic system and reduces the incorrect positives and negatives, and enhances
patient outcomes. Bio-inspired optimization algorithm-based AI applications
are used in feature selection, sentimental analysis, social media spam detection,
physiological data analysis, and data mining classification. This type of algorithm-
based model improves the optimization fitness functions and behavioural swarm.
For example, GA, PSO and genetic programming identify the extensive dataset
features and reflect ML models’ high accuracy and efficiency.
Bio-inspired algorithms’ adaptable and experimental nature effectively
differentiate spam from legitimate material, enhancing the efficacy of
classifications for social network spam detection. Bio-inspired techniques improve
the classification learning process in data mining, leading to more accurate and
dependable classification outcomes. Sentiment analysis [14] benefits from bio-
inspired algorithms because they enhance the extraction of features and model
tweaking, allowing for a more precise interpretation of textual input.
These algorithms make biomedical data analysis more accessible, which helps
with accurate disease diagnosis and treatment planning by processing and analyzing
complex medical datasets more effectively. Applications for swarm intelligence,
which mimic the group behaviour of gregarious animals with algorithms, can
enable efficient problem-solving in complex, dynamic environments. When bio-
inspired algorithms are integrated, these diverse ML applications yield more
precise, effective, and flexible systems, resulting in data processing and decision-
making advancements across multiple industries.
ML-based cloud security, network security, spam detection, and task allocation
for vulnerability checking are improved in bio-inspired algorithms. This algorithm
is the proper solution to complex network security issues because of the naturally
inspired swarm intelligent behaviour convergence. In cloud security, using bio-
inspired algorithms automatically addresses the vulnerability score of the given
population input and provides a more robust architecture [15, 16]. We can predict
more responses and accurate unauthorized access in the security system using bio-
inspired intrusion detection algorithms with ML or DL models.
In predicting adaptive learning-based spam detection of bio-inspired
algorithms, Cloud email and communication platforms are primarily used to
52 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

distribute malicious content [17]. In the network security view, bio-inspired

algorithms improve the security tools gateway and quickly detect the threat
response in the network anomalies’ traffic control system [18,19]. ML-based
security maintains high security, operates in the cloud, and further incorporates
the reliability, adaptability, and knowledge-based security solution in bio-inspired
optimization-based solutions on a distributed cloud environment.

2.2 Applications of Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Deep Learning

The advance of DL-based medical healthcare mainly uses bio-inspired algorithms
for sharing the resources of the healthcare system [20, 21]. Using bio-inspired
algorithms in medical healthcare improves the accuracy and efficiency of diagnosis
systems. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and recurrent neural networks
(RNNs) models detect diseases like cancer and cardiovascular issues with high
accuracy using bio-inspired GA and PSO optimization [22, 23]. Enhancing the
protection of patterns and anomalies of identification on DL in precise detection
by using medical images is better than using existing optimization techniques.
The medical healthcare systems of resources regarding equipment, facilities,
and medical personnel allocate tasks using bio-inspired optimization techniques
[24, 25]. This algorithm is used to distribute resources effectively in the natural
processing of ACO (ant colony optimization) and BCO (bee colony optimization).
The result of the algorithms’ waiting time is less than the exiting of GA and PSO.
Bio-inspired optimization algorithms dynamically change the daily administration
of staff schedules and equipment based on real-time data and adequately receive
the required resources and attention. The intelligent and flexible DL-based bio-
inspired optimization combined with the healthcare system and resource allocation
enhances its accuracy and treats the system’s best outcome.
The cloud and fog-based DL system uses bio-inspired algorithms, making
task allocation process, data processing, and resource management in the medical
healthcare system easier. The load balancing, resource allocation, and virtual
machine placement are optimized in the Bio-inspired algorithms, which improve
their performance, latency and computational resource efficiency [26, 27].
In fog computing, the cloud services show how to interconnect to the network
edge and manage the distributed node of fog in the edge, tell about bio-inspired
optimization techniques, and make flexible and adaptable resources for node
allocation tasks in swarm intelligent processing. By enhancing the scheduling of
tasks and data caching techniques, evolutionary algorithms, for instance, can lower
general response time and bandwidth usage in fog nodes. Applications like Internet
of Things (IoT) software and sophisticated city infrastructure that require minimal
latency and real-time processing would greatly benefit from this [28].
When DL is combined with bio-inspired cloud or fog-computing algorithms,
system efficiency, trustworthiness, and scalability are enhanced. These algorithms,
which mimic natural adaptations and self-organizing behaviours seen in the
 Evaluation of Bio-Inspired Algorithm-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models 53

environment, provide innovative solutions to the problematic issues associated

with managing large-scale distributed computer environments, consequently
contributing to enhanced intelligence and efficient cloud and fog systems [29–30].

2.3 Comparative Studies on Bio-Inspired Algorithms

The effectiveness, efficiency, and applications of bio-inspired algorithms across
various domains are investigated through comparative analyses between them
and other bio-inspired methodologies and conventional optimization techniques.
Bio-inspired algorithms’ efficacy, efficiency, and generalizability are assessed
through comparative studies with other bio-inspired technologies and traditional
optimization techniques. The research provides valuable insights into the pros
and cons of various algorithms, which can aid in implementing such algorithms to
tackle intricate real-world issues [31]. The various metrics, goals, obstacles, and
bio-inspired algorithms are shown in Table 1.

3. Methodology

3.1 ML Models
Computers can collect data by using a collection of techniques called ML.
Algorithms such as Support Vector Machines (SVMs), Naïve Bayes, K-Nearest
Neighbors (KNNs), K-means, Random Forest, and K-means are widely used
because of their versatility and efficiency in a range of situations, as exemplified
by Algorithms 1 through 5. Using SVMs separates classes between regression and
classification applications in the hyperplane optimization techniques. It facilitates
text classification and spam detection.
In nonlinear decision boundaries, KNN is an instance-based learning method
that is simple to apply and efficient. The prevalent class of a data point’s nearest
neighbours determines its category. An unsupervised technique called K-means
clustering divides data into k different categories. Two typical applications are
picture compression and market segmentation. Lastly, Random Forest is an ensemble
learning technique that is excellent at resolving problems with classification and
regression. Multiple decision trees are constructed to reduce overfitting and boost
accuracy, and the results are aggregated [32].

3.2 DL Models
The DL models make the maximum learning and optimization from biological
learning processing on Bio-Inspired methods algorithms. This is an imitation of
the self-learning methods in the nature and feature selection. This chapter considers
the six models of DL, like ANNs, CNNs, RNNs, and Fuzzy DL and Fuzzy_
ANN, Fuzzy_CNN, and Fuzzy_RNN, as shown in Algorithms 6 to Algorithm
 Table 1 Different Bio-inspired algorithms and limitation.

54
Reference Algorithm/ Method Metric Types Objective Limitations Future Use

Baburaj, E. (2022) [28] Genetic Algorithms, Accuracy, Neural network- Computational cost Hybrid approaches

Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection
Particle Swarm Computational based data mining and convergence integrating multiple bio-
Optimization, Ant Efficiency classification issues with larger inspired algorithms
Colony Optimization datasets
Yadav, A. and Artificial Bee Colony, Accuracy, Precision, Sentiment analysis Sensitivity to Real-time sentiment
Vishwakarma, D.K. Firefly Algorithm Recall parameter settings analysis applications
(2020) [29]
Gibson, S., Issac, B., Genetic Programming, Detection Rate, False Spam email High false positive Adaptive spam detection
Zhang, L. and Jacob, Neural Networks Positives detection rates in diverse email systems incorporating real-
S.M. (2020) [30] datasets time learning
Subbiah, S.S. and Particle Swarm Prediction Accuracy, Electricity load Handling of extreme Integration with smart grid
Chinnappan, J. (2022) Optimization, Genetic Error Rates forecasting load variations technologies for better
[31] Algorithms prediction accuracy
Ahsan, M.M., et al. Ant Colony Security Metrics, Cloud security Scalability issues Advanced threat detection
(2020) [32] Optimization, Artificial Response Time enhancement in large cloud systems leveraging hybrid
Immune Systems environments bio-inspired methods
Moizuddin, M. and Hybrid Deep Learning, Detection Accuracy, Network intrusion High computational Real-time intrusion
Jose, M.V. (2022) [33] Genetic Algorithms Response Time detection requirements detection with reduced
computational overhead
de Albuquerque, Various Bio-Inspired Diagnostic Accuracy, Biomedical data Handling of high- Personalized medicine
V.H.C., et al. (2020) Algorithms Sensitivity, Specificity analysis dimensional and through enhanced data
[34] noisy data analysis techniques
Soula, M., et al. (2022) Firefly Algorithm, Ant Resource Utilization, Task allocation in Suboptimal Dynamic task allocation
[35] Colony Optimization Task Distribution edge computing performance under strategies for heterogeneous
varying network edge computing
conditions environments
 Evaluation of Bio-Inspired Algorithm-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models 55

11. PSO is one technique that emulates the social behaviour of live things by
iteratively adjusting candidate solutions based on their performance. GAs mimic
natural selection simultaneously by generating populations of possible solutions
across several generations. These frameworks are valuable for many applications,
including optimization challenges, because DL improves their ability to handle
complex, high-dimensional data, and optimize parameters [33].
ANNs, made up of layers of connected nodes or neurons, are the basic models
used in DL. On the other hand, RNNs are designed to process sequential input
by keeping track of temporal dependencies in a hidden state. This characteristic
is critical for various applications, including language modelling and time-series
prediction. Fuzzy ANNs, CNNs, and Fuzzy RNNs are created by enhancing these
conventional models with fuzzy logic. These models combine fuzzy membership
functions and rules to manage imprecision and uncertainty in data and reliable
performance is possible in real-world applications with frequently noisy or unclear
data. Fuzzy CNNs improve feature extraction in the face of ambiguity, fuzzy ANNs
improve generalization from uncertain data, and fuzzy RNNs more skilfully handle
imprecise temporal correlations.

Algorithm 1. ML: SVM Model

Steps:
i) Get the data ready: Standardize or normalize the information.
ii) Decide the kernel function to use: Select a kernel (RBF, polynomial, or linear).
iii) Educate the SVM Model
iv) Adapt the model: For the SVM model to fit, use training data.
iv) Optimization: To maximize the margin, solve the quadratic optimization problem.
v) Assess the Model: Use a validation set to adjust hyperparameters (C and gamma).
vi) Predict: Make predictions on fresh data using the trained model.
Assessing Performance Compute specificity, recall, accuracy, and precision.

Algorithm 2. ML: Naïve Bayes Model

Steps:
i) Prepare the data: Convert categorical data to numerical format and address missing
values.
ii) Determine Prior Probabilities: Determine each class’s prior probability.
iii) Compute Likelihoods: Determine the probability of each feature for each class.
iv) Utilize the Bayes Theorem
v) Integrate the Pasts and Probabilities: Determine each class’s posterior probability.
vi) Forecast: The class with the most considerable posterior probability should be assigned.
vii) Assessing Performance: Use measures such as specificity, recall, accuracy, and
precision.
56 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Algorithm 3. ML: KNN Model

Steps:
i) Get the data ready: Normalize the data to guarantee that every feature contributes
equally.
ii) Select the Neighbour Count (k): Determine what k is worth.
iii) Compute Distances: Determine the separation between training and query instances.
iv) Get the closest neighbours: Determine the closest neighbours using the calculated
distances.
iv) Make Forecasts:
Classification: Assign the neighbourhood’s most prevalent class.
Regression: Calculate the mean of the k closest neighbours’ values.
v) Analyze Performance: Determine recall, specificity, accuracy, and precision.
vi) Assessing Performance: Compute specificity, recall, accuracy, and precision.

Algorithm 4. ML: K-means Model

Steps:
Actions:
i) Set Centroids in Motion: Choose k sites randomly as the starting centroids.
ii) Assign Clusters: Assign the closest centroid to every data point.
iii) Revise Centroids: Take the average points in each cluster to recalculate the centroids.
Again:
iv) Assign each data point to the closest new centroid when reassigning clusters.
v) Update the centroids by recalculating them.
vi) Convergence: Continue until there is no discernible change in the centroids.
vii) Assessing Performance: Use measures such as silhouette score and inertia (within-
cluster sum of squares).

Algorithm 5. ML: Random Forest Model

Steps:
i) Prepare the Data: Convert categorical data to numerical form and address missing
values.
ii) Bootstrap Sampling: Generate several dataset samples using replacement.
iii) Learn how to use decision trees:
Grow Trees: Develop an unpruned decision tree for every bootstrap sample.
iv) Choose a random collection of characteristics to divide at each node using the random
feature selection method.
v) Overall Forecasts:
Classification: For each tree, utilize a majority vote.
Regression: Calculate the average of each tree’s predictions.
vi) Analyse Performance: Determine recall, specificity, accuracy, and precision.
 Evaluation of Bio-Inspired Algorithm-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models 57

Algorithm 6. DL: ANN Model

Steps:
1) Preparing Data:
i) Preprocess and load the dataset.
ii) Make the data more standardized.
iii) Set training, validation, and testing out of the dataset.
2) Architecture Model:
i) Set up the sequential model.
ii) Add ReLU-activated dense layers.
iii) Put in the last Dense layer using the proper activation function
3) Gathering:
i) Select an optimizer, such as Adam.
ii) Choose a loss function (for classification, use sparse_categorical_crossentropy).
iii) Establish evaluation metrics, such as accuracy.
4) Using the training data, train the model.
5) Use test data to evaluate the model.

Algorithm 7. DL: CNN Model

Steps:
i) Preparing Data, preprocessing and loading data, then making the data with standardized,
validation and test sets.
ii) The Architecture Model gets the sequential model, Conv2D layers used by ReLU, and
layers for MaxPooling2D, and flattened layer to transform the 2D matrix data into a
vector.
iii) ReLU-activated dense layers and set its activation function appropriately.
iv) Gathering optimizer of Adam, Select a loss function
v) Use test data to evaluate the model.

Algorithm 8. DL: RNN Model

Steps:
i) Data Preparation of load and preprocessing data.
ii) Architecture Model of Assemble the model in sequential order with Insert the layer
of embedding, an RNN layer, dense layers activated by ReLU, Dense layer with the
appropriate activation function.
iii) Choose a loss function; for binary classification, binary_crossentropy, utilized and
evaluation parameters.
iv) Accessing training and testing data.
v) Assess the model using test data.
58 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Algorithm 9. DL: Fuzzy_ANN Model

1) Data Preparation:
i) Obtain and prepare the dataset.
ii) Completely standardize the data.
iii) Create training, validation, and test sets using the dataset.
2) Architecture Model:
i) Put the model together step-by-step.
ii) Apply fuzzy activation functions to the fuzzy dense layers.
iii) After adding the Dense layer, modify the activation function.
3) Gathering:
i) Select an optimizer, such as Adam, for compilation.
ii) Choose a loss function: sparse_categorical_cross-entropy is a good choice for
classification.
iii) Specify evaluation parameters, such as accuracy.
4) Use the training data to train the model.
5) Test data should be used to evaluate the model.

Algorithm 10. DL: Fuzzy_CNN Model

Steps:
1) Data Preparation:
i) Load and preprocess the dataset.
ii) Standardize the data more thoroughly.
iii) Use the dataset to create test, validation, and training sets.
2) Architecture Model:
i) Assemble the model in sequential order.
ii) Use fuzzy activation functions in layers of Fuzzy Conv2D.
iii) Extend Fuzzy MaxPooling2D by adding layers.
iv) Add a flattened layer to convert the 2D matrix data into a vector. Add layers that are
thick and have unclear activation functions.
v) Add the Dense layer at the end and adjust its activation function.
3) Compiling:
i) Pick an optimizer, like Adam.
ii) Select a loss function (sparse_categorical_cross-entropy works well for classification).
iii) Define assessment criteria, such as precision.
4) Directions: Train the model using the training data.
5) Evaluation: Examine the model using test data.
 Evaluation of Bio-Inspired Algorithm-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models 59

Algorithm 11. DL: Fuzzy_RNN Model

Steps:
1) Preparing Data:
i) Preprocess and load the dataset.
ii) Pad and tokenize sequences.
iii) Make training, validation, and test sets from the dataset.
2) Architecture Model:
i) Set up the sequential model.
ii) Add a layer of fuzzy embedding.
iii) Add a layer of fuzzy RNN (fuzzy LSTM, GRU, etc.). Include dense layers with hazy
activation functions.
iv) Apply the last Dense layer using the proper activation function (binary classification:
use sigmoid, for example).
3) Gathering:
i) Select an optimizer, such as Adam.
ii) Choose a loss function (for binary classification, use binary_cross-entropy, for
example).
iii) Establish evaluation metrics, such as accuracy.
4) Instruction: Utilize the training data and train the model.
5) Assessment: Utilize test data to assess the model.

3.3 Bio-Inspired Optimization Algorithm

GA: By generating a population of potential solutions that change over many
generations, GAs imitate the process of natural selection. It uses processes including
selection, crossover (recombination), and mutation to explore the solution space
and raise the population’s fitness. To address optimization issues, GAs simulate
the process of natural selection. The initial population of potential solutions,
referred to as people, is created at random. A fitness function is used to assess
each person. Then, to generate a new population, the algorithm uses genetic
operators, including crossover, mutation, and selection. The most fit individuals are
selected to procreate. Recombination, or crossover, creates offspring by combining
elements of two-parent solutions, whereas mutation brings haphazard changes
into individuals to preserve genetic diversity. Until the population progresses
toward ideal solutions, this iterative process of selection, crossover, and mutation
successfully explores and exploits the search space to find the most excellent
answer [34].
PSO: It draws inspiration from the social behaviour of fish schools and flocks of
birds. In PSO, possible solutions in the search space are represented by a swarm of
particles. Each particle modifies its position based on its own best-known position
(personal best) and the best-known positions of its neighbours (global best).
60 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

ABC: The honey bee’s foraging habits served as the model for the Artificial Bee
Colony algorithm. It is made up of scouts, observers, and working bees. While
observers choose food sources, working bees look for food sources. The honey
bee’s foraging habits served as the model for the ABC algorithm. It is made up
of scouts, observers, and working bees. Worker bees look for food, observers
choose food according to its quality, and scouts must investigate new regions more
carefully. This cooperation aids in identifying the best course of action.
ACO: Ants’ foraging habits serve as the model for ACO. When ants follow a
path, they leave behind pheromones, which other ants are more likely to follow
based on how strong the trail is. Shorter paths gradually gather more pheromones,
which direct the colony toward the best solution.
CSOA: The clever foraging techniques of crows inspire this algorithm. Crows can
follow other crows to take food, but they can also hide their food and learn where
it is hidden. The step crow optimization algorithm (CSAO) uses this behaviour to
explore and exploit the search space effectively.
FA: The Firefly Algorithm (FA) is derived from the way fireflies flash. A firefly’s
brightness is directly correlated with its appeal, and it diminishes with distance.
Fireflies travel in the direction of brighter areas, which aids in the search for space
exploration and convergence on the best answer.
MOA: The mating habits and flight patterns of mayflies served as the model
for the MOA. The mayfly population in MOA is separated into male and female
individuals. While female mayflies move in the search space to select the best
possible mate, male mayflies are attracted to female mayflies and modify their
positions based on attraction forces. This mimics the processes of discovery and
exploitation involved in finding the best answers. To maintain diversity and prevent
local optima, the algorithm integrates mechanisms of attraction, repulsion, and
mutation, which improves its efficiency in locating global optimal solutions [35].
BA: The Bat Algorithm (BA) is based on bats’ echolocation strategies. Bats use
echolocation to find prey and to navigate by producing sound pulses and listening
for the echoes that return. BA leverages each bat to represent a potential solution
and searches the search space using velocity and location updates. The computer
adjusts the bats’ frequency, loudness, and pulse emission rate to balance discovery
and exploitation. Bats’ heart rates and noise levels decrease as they find better
options; this allows them to focus on a local search for the best options. This
dynamic aspect helps BA by avoiding local optima and effectively converging to
the global optimum.
GWO: Grey wolves’ social structures and hunting techniques inspired the Grey
Wolf Optimizer (GWO). The many leadership tiers in GWO are represented by the
four groups of wolves: alpha, beta, delta, and omega. Alpha wolves lead the pack
in hunting, followed by beta, delta, and omega wolves. As part of an optimization
process, wolves encircle their prey and adjust their positions in reaction to alpha,
beta, and delta wolves’ placements. Because wolves encircle and attack their
 Evaluation of Bio-Inspired Algorithm-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models 61

prey during hunting, the algorithm can effectively explore and exploit the search
space. GWO effectively approaches optimal solutions by mimicking these natural
inclinations.
WOA: The bubble-net hunting technique used by humpback whales served as the
model for the Whale Optimization Algorithm (WOA). In this approach, whales are
represented as agents searching for the optimal solutions. The algorithm consists
of three main stages: finding prey, encircling the animal, and bubble-net feeding.
Whales adjust their locations throughout the surrounding prey phase based on the
best-known solution. During the bubble-net feeding phase, the whales simulate
a spiral movement around the prey by using spiral-shaped travel techniques and
shrinking surroundings. Whales improve exploration by randomly looking for
better options when they hunt for prey. WOA is a robust optimization technique for
solving complex problems by mimicking these clever hunting strategies because
it effectively balances exploration and exploitation [36].

3.4 Healthcare Datasets

The Cleveland dataset was selected for study out of the four Heart Disease dataset
collection datasets because it had a comparatively lower percentage of missing
values than the other two. Out of the 76 features in this dataset, we chose to
work with 13 features that had no missing values. There are 303 samples in the
Cleveland dataset and 270 in the Statlog dataset. Remarkably, the Cleveland
dataset is the only one with six missing values; it was left out of our analysis
instead of performing data correction. The constriction of blood vessels is a
significant health indicator that is used to classify each sample in the Cleveland
and Statlog datasets. If the vessels show less than 50% narrowing, the samples
are classified as (i) healthy; if the vessels show more than 50% narrowing, they
are labelled as (ii) CAD, which stands for coronary artery disease. The Cleveland
dataset’s comparatively reduced number of missing values across its 76 variables
led to its selection over other datasets in the Heart Disease collection. To ensure
robustness and integrity in our research, we limited our work to 13 features from
the Cleveland dataset that had no missing data. On the other hand, 303 samples
and 55 attributes make up the Z-Alizadeh Sani dataset, which is carefully arranged
into many categories like “Demographics”, “Symptom and Examination”, “ECG”,
and “Laboratory and Eco”. Each sample in this dataset is categorized as either (i)
healthy or (ii) unhealthy, a more inclusive categorization that extends beyond the
particular vessel-narrowing criteria applied in the Cleveland dataset and enables a
more thorough assessment of health issues [37].

4. Result Evaluation and Analysis

4.1 Experimental Setup and Datasets

Importance scores of features were computed using methods on the three datasets
of Cleveland, Statlog, and Z-Alizadeh Sani. Ensemble scores of features were
62 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

computed 216 times, representing each combination of the 16 FS methods; 216

different lists, each showcasing feature scores, were generated. Varying numbers of
features (t) are tested for each list, ranging from 1–216. Computational efficiency
considerations set M to 25 for the Z-Alizadeh Sani dataset and 22 for the Cleveland
and Statlog datasets. For each combination of FS methods, 21 (25 – 16 + 1) and
8 (22 – 16 + 1) combinations of top t features were generated for the Z-Alizadeh
Sani and Cleveland/Statlog datasets, respectively. The probabilistic ensemble FS
approach is explicitly applied to the Z-Alizadeh Sani dataset. Due to the limited
number of features (9–25) in the Cleveland and Statlog datasets, the probabilistic
ensemble FS approach needed to be applied. On the Z-Alizadeh Sani dataset,
feature sets ranging from 1 to 216 are selected and separately tested in each
classification.

4.2 Performance Comparison

In Figure 1, the Z-Alizadeh Sani dataset can be optimized using a variety of bio-
inspired algorithms, although the results of ML methods vary noticeably. MOA
continuously produces the highest accuracy, outperforming SVM and K-means
by 99.85% and 99.34%, respectively. With SVM and Random Forest, the WOA
also demonstrates outstanding performance, achieving 98.5% and 98.9% accuracy,
respectively. When paired with PSO, Naïve Bayes works exceptionally well,
exhibiting resilience and accuracy of 98.2%. By contrast, the accuracy rates
produced by the CSOA and ACO are often lower; ACO’s performance with the
Random Forest model is especially dismal, yielding 79.76%. The best optimization
strategies for increasing model accuracy are MOA and WOA, with relatively minor
performance benefits from GA and ACO.

Fig. 1 ML-based Z-Alizadeh Sani Accuracy.

 Evaluation of Bio-Inspired Algorithm-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models 63

Fig. 2 ML-based Cleveland Accuracy.

In Figure 2, notable variations in accuracy are observed when comparing

the performance of different bio-inspired algorithms on the Cleveland dataset.
The MOA and WOA consistently yield high accuracies across most models.
MOA performs exceptionally well with SVM at 97.2% and achieves the highest
accuracy with KNN at 98.4%. WOA also shows strong performance, particularly
with SVM and K-means, achieving 96.45% and 96.4%, respectively. In contrast,
ACO and PSO typically produce lower accuracies; for example, PSO performs
poorly with Random Forest and SVM models, with accuracies of 78% and 70%,
respectively. The GA performs moderately, scoring 91.2% for Naïve Bayes and
90.4% for KNN. The CSOA tends to perform poorly, especially with the Random
Forest model, showing an accuracy of 68%. Overall, MOA and WOA are the most
effective optimization techniques for this dataset, while PSO and ACO demonstrate
the slightest improvement in model accuracy.
In Figure 3, accuracy trends are evident in the performance of different bio-
inspired algorithms applied to the Statlog dataset. The CSOA exhibits the highest
accuracy among various models, offering 99.85% for SVM, 99.06% for Naïve
Bayes, and 99.34% for K-means. The FA also performs strongly, particularly with
Random Forest at 98.9%. Both CSOA and FA are highly effective in significantly
enhancing model accuracy. Conversely, the GA typically produces the lowest
accuracies, with Naïve Bayes at 69% and SVM at 68%. ACO and PSO generally
perform moderately; ACO performs well with Random Forest, achieving a 97.45%
success rate. The MOA and GWO yield good results, particularly with SVM at
94.5%, although they do not reach the peak accuracies CSOA and FA attain.
CSOA and FA are the most effective optimization techniques for improving model
accuracy on the Statlog dataset, while GA shows the slightest improvement.
64 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Fig. 3 ML-based Statlog Accuracy.

Fig. 4 DL-based Z-Alizadeh Sani Accuracy.

In Figure 4, significant variations in accuracy are observed in the performance

of multiple DL models on the Z-Alizadeh Sani dataset, which were improved
using distinct bio-inspired techniques. The MOA and WOA consistently yield the
highest accuracies across most models. For example, MOA performs remarkably
well with ANN at 97.86%, CNN at 98.34%, and RNN at 99.03%. Similarly, WOA
 Evaluation of Bio-Inspired Algorithm-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models 65

excels with ANN at 99.21%, Fuzzy ANN at 99.34%, and Fuzzy RNN at 98.9%.
Conversely, the GA and ACO typically produce lower accuracies, with ACO
performing poorly, with RNN at 75.45%. PSO and FA exhibit modest performance,
with FA achieving 93.78% accuracy with RNN and 93% accuracy with CNN.
Overall, MOA and WOA are the best optimization strategies for enhancing the
accuracy of DL models on this dataset, while GA and ACO show much lower
performance gains.

Fig. 5 DL-based Cleveland Accuracy.

In Figure 5, the accuracy of multiple DL models optimized using different

bio-inspired techniques on the Cleveland dataset shows significant differences. The
MOA consistently achieves the highest accuracies, such as ANN at 99.21%, CNN
at 97.34%, and RNN at 98.34%. The WOA also performs well, particularly with
CNN at 84% and Fuzzy RNN at 91%. In contrast, PSO and GA typically produce
poorer accuracies, with GA performing especially poorly with RNN (68%) and
Fuzzy ANN (56%). ACO exhibits superior performance, particularly with RNN
(99.03%) and Fuzzy RNN (99.85%). The performance of the CSOA and FA is
moderate, with CSOA achieving 94% with RNN and 92% with CNN. In general,
MOA and ACO yield significantly better performance gains compared to GA and
PSO when it comes to improving the accuracy of DL models on this dataset.
Figure 6 shows the accuracy trends of multiple DL models trained using
different bio-inspired techniques on the Statlog dataset. The CSOA stands out
with the highest accuracy rates for many models, such as ANN at 98%, CNN at
97%, and Fuzzy ANN at 99%. Strong performance is also demonstrated by the
MOA and WOA, particularly with fuzzy RNN at 98% for WOA and fuzzy ANN
at 97% for both MOA and WOA. ABC and PSO perform moderately well, with
66 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

ABC achieving 95% for both CNN and RNN. The accuracies of the FA and ACO
are generally lower, with FA yielding 90% for ANN and 82% for RNN. Regarding
accuracy, the GA shows the lowest, with ANN at 80% and CNN at 81%. The best
optimization techniques for increasing model accuracy on the Statlog dataset are
CSOA, MOA, and WOA, whereas GA and ACO slightly improve performance.

Fig. 6 DL-based Statlog Accuracy.

Conclusion
Their evaluation clarifies the efficacy of bioinspired algorithm-based DL and
ML models on many datasets. Regarding increasing the accuracy of DL and ML
models, bio-inspired algorithms such as the WOA and MOA consistently beat
alternative methods. When optimizing models like SVM, ANN, and fuzzy RNN,
these algorithms MOA and WOA perform remarkably well, yielding optimal
accuracies on various datasets. On the other hand, conventional methods such
as GA and ACO usually result in smaller accuracy gains, suggesting that they
need more scope for optimization. While PSO and ABC perform reasonably,
their potential is highlighted under specific conditions. The CSOA technique has
demonstrated its robustness in increasing model correctness, and it is particularly
well-suited for the Statlog dataset. Although GA and ACO yield more moderate
benefits, the top optimization techniques MOA, WOA, and CSOA significantly
improve model performance. This thorough analysis emphasizes the importance of
using suitable bio-inspired algorithms in conjunction with ML and DL to maximize
efficacy and precision.
 Evaluation of Bio-Inspired Algorithm-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models 67

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4 Disease Diagnosis
Traditional vs. Bio-Inspired Algorithm Approaches
Varunsaagar Saravanan,1 Dawn Sivan2,3, K. Satheesh Kumar4 and
Rajan Jose2,3*

Bio-inspired algorithms (BIAs) are computational methods following natural

principles and processabilities. ‘Bio-inspired’ is a metaphorical expression and
refers to the way these algorithms simulate biological functions or claim to target
bionic accomplishments, where other conventional algorithms cannot deal with the
problem. This chapter compares traditional or conventional approaches with BIAs
for disease diagnosis, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses. We discuss
the principles and mechanisms of each approach, including their advantages and
limitations in terms of accuracy, interpretability, and efficiency. Case studies of
successful BIAs applications are presented, and future directions and challenges
are discussed. The chapter thus provides a thorough understanding of the role of
traditional approaches and BIAs in disease diagnosis.

1. Introduction
Nature, in all its diversities, dynamism, and intricacies, is the ultimate source of
inspiration for the resolution of complex issues in Computer Science (CS). During
the past years, which have witnessed the great development of this field, research on
solving optimization problems by imitating nature has resulted in the birth of Bio-
Inspired Algorithms (BIAs). These algorithms have gained much attention because
they enable the provision of optimum solutions at much lower computational
resources [1, 2]. Bio algorithms belonging to different categories borrow several
features from nature in which their structures sum up the characteristic flow
of nature. Instructors and researchers often find detailed descriptions of BIAs
beneficial because of their high-fidelity of accessibility to solutions. Amongst
others, this section compares the performance of Genetic Algorithms (GAs),

1
Lead AI ML, Asianet News Media and Entertainment Pvt. Ltd., Crescent Road, Gandhi Nagar,
Bangalore-560070.
2
Center for Advanced Intelligent Materials and
3
Faculty of Industrial Sciences and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah,
26300, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia.
4
Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation and Technology, Technocity Campus, Thiruvana-
nthapuram, Kerala-695317, India.
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Disease Diagnosis 71

Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), and Simulated Annealing (SA) on well-

defined benchmarking problems and real-world medical imaging challenges [3].
The last few years have seen the interest in the so-called nature-inspired
algorithms growth due to the dynamic development of machine learning (ML),
in particular, convolutional neural networks and deep learning (DL). The further
development of the computation capacity and its easy access to individuals and
companies has contributed more to this interest. The incorporation of BIAs
techniques into the daily use of computers, together with their excellent results, is
one of the key reasons that they are on the rise. Traditional methods for diagnosing
diseases have seen a paradigm shift with the arrival of artificial intelligence (AI).
In the first instance, the initial principles of AI were inspired by natural systems,
followed by the establishment of bioscience to highlight problem statements
through human anatomy settlement. These transformational learning techniques
have now permeated variously in sub-cases such as engineering heights and
edge devices. For instance, algorithms such as the Artificial Bee Colony, PSO,
Firefly Algorithm, and Differential Evolution, are fundamental elements of the
applications, which is proof of biologically inspired methods and their impact on
disease diagnosis.

1.1 Overview of Diagnostic Approaches

The process of identifying a disease or condition that accounts for a person’s
symptoms and indicators is known as medical diagnosis. It entails categorizing
a patient’s condition into different groups so that medical decisions regarding
prognosis and treatment may be made with knowledge. The diagnostic process is
a multifaceted, cooperative, patient-centred endeavour that calls for the collection
of data and clinical reasoning. This tradition of diagnosing involves the normal
processes of interviewing and examining the patient, blood tests, and scans among
others. These fundamental ways have some drawbacks regarding to sensitivity,
specificity and, especially, the possibility of early diseases’ detection. Selecting
appropriate diagnostic tests is challenging due to the vast number of available
options. Ensuring the quality of medical imaging and laboratory tests is crucial,
as these are highly regulated areas in healthcare.
Following are the notable methods applied conventionally for diagnosis:
● Clinical assessments and history tracking: Patient history and physical
examination is critical in the diagnosis of patients because it allows the
physicians to get the first impression. This approach is largely based on
the professional experience of the practitioner, and as such, can present
fluctuations in the diagnostic process.
● Laboratory tests: These include the blood test, urine test, and biochemical
tests that determine aberrations that show evidence of disease. As useful as
these tests are, they tend to be lengthy to produce and can take significant time
and often results are not guaranteed.
72 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

● Imaging techniques: MRI, CT scan, and ultrasounds are some major recent
diagnose techniques which provide non-invasive approaches on internal
body scans which include Xrays. But they are often costly, and its precision
may be dependent with the resolution of the used apparatus or radiologist’s
interpretation.
● Pathology and histology: Microscopy of tissues is still common in diagnosing
many diseases, including forms of cancer, until today. However, this method
is time-consuming and requires tissue sampling through one way or the other.

1.2 Role of ML/DL in Disease Diagnosis

ML and DL techniques are reshaping the healthcare industry with many
applications. The early diagnosis of diseases is one of these applications which
are positively affected. The data analytics today have been made possible, thanks
to the high power of the machines and AI, which has led to detecting various
diseases, including cancer [4, 5]. Furthermore, they have been useful in studying
and finding solutions to diseases with the help of acquiring necessary information,
recognizing difficult patterns and answering that can be used for the patient’s
diagnosis [6]. Thus, ML and DL coupled with telemedicine have the potential for
doctors to find and predict diseases with only one patient remotely. The smartness
of ML and DL in disease diagnosis includes characteristics such as real-time
information collection, high accuracy in recognizing the symptom of a disease
from images and genetic data, and detailed prescription of a suitable treatment.
It also gives the counsellors insights into the patient’s personality and thinking
patterns which serve as the basis of their prescriptions for the treatment of mental
illnesses. The mechanistic explanation is the way ML and DL are analysing the
big data and giving personalized medicine to each patient; this is the “the medicine
of the future” concept.

1.2.1 Applications of ML/DL in Disease Diagnosis

● Early detection and diagnosis: Diagnostic tests are the basic and most crucial
part of doctors’ work which is to screen, monitor, and follow up the patient’s
medical condition; thus, the best treatment plan can be designed. The AI
models have indeed shown that they can carry out early detection of illnesses
that usually go undiagnosed by traditional diagnostic methods and this has
been done with high precision [7, 8]. The other imaging methods like X-rays
and MRI are equally good, except that their results tend to be more expensive
and time-intensive. However, AI methods could enable early diagnosis,
for example, ML and DL is very efficient in inspecting early changes in
retinal images [9, 10], which is not possible during standard examination. An
enhanced diagnostic technique using telematics, mixed with AI, can eliminate
the hurdle of patients travelling to healthcare facilities, places where the risk
of viral transmission is higher, for consultations.
 Disease Diagnosis 73

● Imaging and radiology: Medical imaging is the leading edge where the
ML and DL technologies have produced massive progress, capable of the
autonomous analysis of medical images such as Xrays, MRIs, and CT scans,
which allows a rapid discovery of anomalies that could signal diseases like
cancer, TB, and neurological disorders to a doctor. However, though AI has
excelled in being expert-like, it has not yet surpassed human capability for
innovation and ethical decision-making.
● Genomics and precision medicine: The study of genetics has been very
beneficial to reinforcement learning (RL) and DL, especially as the therapy
of precision medicine. These algorithms, using whole genetic data, could
recognize mutations and genetic markers which show a connection of the
disease with different genes. This action makes it very easy for personalized
treatment plans to be introduced to the genetic uniqueness of an individual,
thereby increasing the effectiveness of the treatment.
● Electronic Health Records (EHRs): The EHR data helps the AI models. These
AI tools could process and find patterns and correlations that may present
the development or increase in illness from the EHR database. Semantic
technology, which is a class of natural language processing (NLP), plays a
crucial role in reading those raw text, so that we can build predictive models
to the occurrence of diseases such as heart disease and diabetes.

2. Traditional Approaches in Disease Diagnosis

Traditional methods such as statistical methods and rule-based systems are the
usual ways of diagnosing a disease.

2.1 Statistical Methods

Even though there are methodologies for the elaboration in traditional diagnostic
techniques, maths and statistical theories are to be employed to analyse the medical
data. The main principles that are represented in this phase are the following:
● Descriptive statistics: Summarized in detail, they give a true picture of
the time it takes for every patient to get affected with the disease and the
distribution of the patients from different races, the ages of the patients, and
other information.
● Inferential statistics: This is the core statistical method used to generalize
from the sample data to the larger study population. Techniques such as
hypothesis testing, and regression analysis are common.
● Bayesian inference: It uses Bayes theorem to update the probability of a
hypothesis and new evidence, aid in refining diagnostic probabilities.

2.2 Rule-based Methods

In rule-based or expert systems, the original set of rules in making diagnostic
decisions come from the clinical guidelines and expert knowledge. The important
constituent parts of such methods are:
74 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

● Knowledge base: An organized area where here all the rules and facts related
to diseases and their symptoms are stored.
● Inference engine: The part of the computer system that scans the rules with
logical processing by which patient data is related to the knowledge base and
consequently gives the diagnoses.
● User interface: The patient can enter data into it and the system can offer the
diagnostic recommendations on the screen.

2.3 Contrasting Traditional and BIA Methods

2.3.1 Foundation
● Traditional approaches: The approach of a medical expert, who is a source of
data with similar studies and diagnosed cases that have been carried out during
their career has been the steady technology used in medical diagnostics. From
the outset, these practices have been issued as analytical and clear protocol by
experienced healthcare professionals.
● BIAs: BIAs mimic the processes of natural sciences, i.e., evolution, swarm
behaviour, and neural networks. They borrow from living species and the
way they work their specific infrastructure to figure out difficult problems. In
addition to this, new methods of the traditional method implementation are
also possible.

2.3.2 Methodology
● Traditional approaches: Mostly, these methods are designed to meet statistical
and logical requirements, namely, the basics of statistics, and the prevalence
of patterns in testing procedures. Forms of these have consequences causing
exponential growth.
● BIAs: However, in the case of BIAs, they are much more interested in the
real-time adaptive multistep optimization and iterative learning. The results
of this are the models get updated more frequently as new data come in so
that the outputs that we get are in line with current real-world data. The
method involves letting the tools flexibility and their ability to take on more
complicated tasks.

2.3.3 Data Handling

● Traditional approaches: These methods frequently rely on primary data, i.e.,
numbers from tests and physicals, to draw conclusions. In most cases, the data
are accurately catalogued and heir to stricter formats, resulting in easier data
analysis employing traditional statistical methods.
● BIAs: BIAs are proficiently handling a high-dimensional data including
images, genetic information, and movies. Their versatility in the treatment
 Disease Diagnosis 75

and learning of various specific data types allows far more intricate and more
nuanced diagnostic capabilities.

2.3.4 Decision-Making
● Traditional approaches: With the implementation of traditional methods, the
interpretation of input into the diagnostic is fixed, and there is a clear path
from the input to diagnosis. The result is generally an easy perfect solution
that follows data at the start and defines the rules.
● BIAs: BIAs can provide the users with several possible results, adding the
advantage of uncertainty and confidence in the diagnosis. This feature of
probability is a specification of the complexity of biological processes, and it
can also absorb the natural variance of medical records.

2.3.5 Adaptability
● Traditional approaches: These techniques are, in general, less adaptable to the
newly arrived data or the change of the pattern of the disease in the organism.
Once settled, the protocols and guidelines are very hard or impracticable to
update, which upsets the treatment of emergent medical know-how.
● BIAs: Alterations in adaption, BIAs can be modelled with new information
and changing environments. For this reason, they can alter the diagnosis they
give, as they adjust the criteria they need for the correct diagnosis using new
data revealed.

2.3.6 Complexity
● Traditional approaches: When clearly well-defined conditions are in question,
traditional modes can be the easiest. On the other hand, they may respond
more slowly or be less accurate if they are dealing with complex or very rare
diseases. Their characteristic of being linear and rule-based is their negative
side and, due to this, they are not very efficient in diagnosing diseases that are
less connected to the already established category.
● BIAs: These types of AI models can come to terms with high complexity,
they can find very fine things, such as revealing and establishment of subtle
patterns and relationships. Their dry runs over learning cycles allow them to
skilfully handle the most intricate tasks of diagnosis.

2.3.7 Accuracy and Sensitivity

● Traditional approaches: These ideas can pick out, diminish, and follow
different criteria depending on human error and diversity. The use of predefined
rules and protocols as their main issue can make such technologies sensitive to
only a few things which can make them exceptionally vulnerable, especially
those that are complicated.
76 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

● BIAs: BIAs, by processing a lot of large datasets and identifying detailed

patterns, can not only find minute details that are not detected by other methods
but also give good quality results in case the disease/infection is difficult to
diagnose. For example, convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have been
found to be operating at a much superior level in patients’ analysis using
medical images than traditional image processing systems.

2.3.8 Speed and Efficiency

● Traditional approaches: Evaluation of a patient’s condition using traditional
methods that are longer, e.g., lab tests that take several days for cultures or
histopathology, can be considered time-consuming by today’s standards.
Error-free the whole time is not likely if people are the only ones that do the
meaningful activities, like data analysis and explaining what the results found
by the diagnostic tools were.
● BIAs: BIAs can process and analyse data immediately, hence quicker to
give the results. Their facility to shift the data processing assignments into
automated mode has a very positive impact in the sense that it leads to an
increase of the productivity and hereby, decreasing the time of diagnosis.

2.3.9 Scalability and Adaptability

● Traditional approaches: Scalability could be a problem when sections are
missing, for example, if one does not have the necessary equipment and staff.
Lack of the necessary resources such as those needed in this case can be the
major roadblocks to the general application of such methods.
● BIAs: BIAs are the most adaptable beasts in the zoo of technology, which are
optionally on cloud-based propagation platforms deployed in many health
institutions giving an opportunity to everyone to enjoy all the benefits of one
incredible technology. Their ability to quickly and accurately sift through
massive amounts of data through new technology has made possible their
being used on a larger scale.

2.3.10 Cost
● Traditional approaches: The methods are expensive due to the expenses of
equipment, reagents, and labour. It is necessary to take care of the diagnostic
protocol’s upgrades and replacement of parts.
● BIAs: The initial investment in development and training followed by
automation and decreased manual labour costs in the future lead to the
eventual economy of funds. Therefore, this makes their impact on healthcare
very beneficial in the long run.
 Disease Diagnosis 77

2.3.11. Application Range

● Traditional approaches: These methods are the most fitting for the different
conditions and have the proof validated from the clinical research use.
● BIAs: BIAs could be composed by using multiple sources of data, such as
genomic and proteomic information, to build the most relevant treatment to
the rare and complex diseases. Being multifaceted allows them to build the
diagnosing instruments with a specialization of medical ailments.

3. Bio-Inspired Algorithms (BIAs) in Disease Diagnosis

BIAs is a sort of new method of innovation, which takes ideas from nature, and
really adds to the generation of new solutions to complex issues. The use of bio-
inspired algorithms brings efficiency, sensitivity, and flexibility to a new level.

3.1 Different Types of BIAs

This section studies the different BIAs and illustrates their functions, comparison,
and advantages and disadvantages.

3.1.1 Evolutionary Algorithms

Evolutionary Computation mechanisms mimic natural molecular biology and are
the primary optimization problem solving approach in a stochastic fashion [11].
The population of these solutions evolves along the generations. Each one of the
individuals, or the solutions, emerge from selection, crossover as well as having a
point mutation that renders their offspring. Then, it’s all about the current fitness
of each participant, which in turn, affects the forthcoming generation.
For instance, one can use GAs to select features and set the parameters of a
ML model to reach a high level of accuracy in disease diagnosis. The GAs use
methods like selection, crossover, and mutation to come up with optimization
solutions, which evolved. Regarding the diagnosis of diseases, GAs could optimize
the feature selection and parameters to use in a machine learning model.
Genetic Programming (GP) formalizes the paradigm of GAs by taking out an
evolutionary part. Specifically, GP makes use of the mutation process. It is critical
to design the GP about medical images to recognize the patterns of a chosen area
in a patient or to make the GP functional in the development of diagnostic rules.

3.1.2 Swarm Intelligence

Swarm Intelligence (SI) is a method based on the cooperative behaviour of social
organisms such as birds, fish, and insects [12]. A few to list are:
● Ant Colony Optimization (ACO): Examples of ACO are where it imitates the
foraging actions by ants, where they lay down pheromones on favourable paths.
It is a machine learning technique that can be applied to medical diagnostics
78 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

for feature selection and clustering which improves the identification of

features in documents with high dimensionality [13].
● Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO): The PSO model is based on the patterns
that birds usually follow, i.e., flocking, and the behaviour patterns of fish as
well. The particles that represent a greater number of potential solutions begin
to change their location by using both their personal and collective experiences
[13]. Through the use of PSO, neural network architectures and parameters are
optimized and therefore, more precise diagnosis is obtained.
● Firefly Algorithm (FA) and Artificial Bee Colony (ABC): The simulation
methodologies of the fireflies and bees are proved as optimization processes
for various problems [14]. Furthermore, their benefits have been on the table
a lot of times, starting on the fields like medical diagnosis. They are especially
effective in finding optimal solutions.
● Fish Swarm Algorithm (FSA): Inspired by the movement of fish, this
algorithm is specially designed for the mentioned purposes and has proved
effectiveness in the mentioned features. Often it is used as a powerful
instrument to optimize the diagnostic scenario by doing the search in the
parameter space more efficient way. It can be discordant to the other method
that does the optimization of this, and it can be the one that does it better.

3.1.3 Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and Deep Learning (DL)

ANNs and DL models are ways that are influenced by the structure and working
of the human brain. Networks include thousands of interconnected neurons that
perform the information processing procedure.
● Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs): The main characteristic of ANNs is that
they can be used in the various prediction tasks. The positive aspect is that it
can describe details that traditional methods cannot find. Hence, the nonlinear
and intricate nature of the given relationships can be determined.
● Deep Learning (DL): DL is a subfield of ANNs, meaning that the models
that are nowadays being explored are deep networks having several levels
that have been trained for data recognition at different levels of abstraction.
Two of the DL techniques, the CNNs and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)
networks, prefer to the new deep learning models. CNNs are best with image
processing as they are highly functional meanwhile LSTMs demonstrate
preferable results when being tasked with the forecasting of sequences such
as patient history or time-series data obtained from wearable devices.

3.2 BIA Mechanisms in Diagnosis

BIAs are based on the approach of duplicating natural processes and outcomes
to solve various complex optimization problems. The main mechanisms involve:
● Evolution and selection: This is utilized in evolutionary algorithms where
solutions are shaped over generations through mutation and crossover with
the best individual being passed on to next generation.
 Disease Diagnosis 79

● Insect gang working: Engaged in SI algorithms, where the simple agents

collaborate and together concentrate on fast convergence in the optimal
solutions.
● Neural adaptation: In ANNs and DL, neurons change their weights depending
on input data and feedback, which leads the network to pick up complicated
patterns.

3.3 BIA Applications in Diagnosis

Bio-inspired algorithms have been put into practice in various medical diagnosis
tasks with grand achievements due to these:
● Attraction of features: It is part of the characteristics of ACO and the other
SI algorithms that efficiently explore dimensions of medical data, thus, they
effectively help in the identification of the most important attributes of the
data for classification of diseases.
● Image processing: It is the area where the analysis of medical images, for
example, X-rays, and MRIs are potential targets for the CNNs that are optimized
by BIAs. This makes it possible to make the detection and classification of the
problems such as tumours and lesions.
● Predictive modelling: These create models by using patient data to predict the
outcomes of a certain disease.ANNs and DL models use EHRs, wearable device
data, etc., and other patient information to perspicaciously forecast disease
progression and are helpful in identifying treatment options accordingly.
● Genomic analysis: AI has been used as a method to identify important genetic
factors for diseases for the identification of new drugs and drug targets at the
gene level, thus improving personalized medicine by treating diseases based
on genetic information of individual patients.

3.4 Comparative Advantages and Limitations of BIAs

3.4.1 Advantages
● High accuracy: BIAs together with DL models can reach the desired accuracy
by learning patterns and connections in the data.
● Adaptability: BIAs have the capability to adapt to new data types such as
continuous change in pathology patterns through dynamic learning thus they
continue to improve and develop their diagnostic capabilities.
● Handling complex data: BIAs displayed their utmost qualities in processing
and analysing very high-dimensional, heterogeneous data including images,
genomic sequences, and physiological signals.
● Automation and efficiency: BIAs are intelligent and automate diagnostic
systems by which doctors can save time and hence reduce possible human
errors during diagnostics.
80 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

● Optimization efficiency: AI-built systems can allocate the most efficient

ways to complete the task in spacious search spaces what is critical for the
development of effective disease diagnosis.
● Parallelization: The BIAs are devised having parallel computational
capability which provides the speed for large dataset analysis and reduces
time consumption.

3.4.2 Limitations
● Interpretability: Most BIAs, especially DL models, are opaque, and they
work like “black boxes”, meaning that one cannot comprehend their decision-
making procedures. Through the lack of this, one may have trouble gaining
the respect and trust of the patient community.
● Computational demands: Training and deploying BIAs, particularly deep
learnings, depends mainly on the type of computer resources available, which
are often expensive, and this can therefore constrain the broad involvement of
such systems, especially if we take resource-limited settings into consideration.
● Data dependence: BIAs are among the most compromise-free ones for they
demand the most accurate data possible to be able to effectively work. Raw
data annotation (preparation but not analysis stage) can be of no less burden
than data collection.
● Overfitting: BIAs may sometimes be subject to the overfitting problem to the
training data, which would result in poor generalization of a test data. For this
reason, techniques such as regularization and cross-validation are the must-
haves to mitigate this risk.
● Parameter sensitivity: The performance of BIAs can change due to the choice
of certain parameters within them. That is why the correct adjusting and
quality determination of these parameters should take place.
● Scalability issues: BIAs work well on a few select issues, but they might
have difficulties with a high number of data or complicated diagnostic tasks.

4. Comparative Analysis
The diagnosis of diseases is the area of science that is always changing due to
the development of new techniques and methods. So, traditional / conventional
diagnostic methods and bio-inspired algorithms (BIAs) will collaborate to bring
new viewpoints forward for their respective advantages and disadvantages.
This section introduces a full-blown comparative study that shows the outcome
performance, readability, and efficiency tests within certain scores, bottom lines,
iterative steps, the ensemble learning technique, as well as the way of hybridization.

4.1 Performance, Interpretability and Efficiency Benchmarks

4.1.1 Performance
The performance of success criteria in disease monitoring encompasses parameters
such as sensitivity, specificity, precision, and the area under the curve (AUC).
 Disease Diagnosis 81

Traditional approaches rely on the vetting of doctors and protocols that have
been through a lot of trials and errors to make them accountable. Nevertheless,
these protocols may fail to mesh well with data that is too high in dimensions and
complexity. On the other hand, BIAs often outperform the human inaccuracy in
their power to find subtler patterns of the datasets.

4.1.2 Interpretability
Interpretability is an important factor that provides diagnostic tools with the
opportunity to be used in clinical settings. Traditional methods involve interpretable
factors, which typically are provided with simple, rule-based decisions or statistical
correlations that are easily comprehensible and can be verified by physicians.
However, BIAs, especially DL models, are considered as “black boxes” even
though they offer any interpretability. However, the recent developments in
interpretability methods, for example, the Automated Interpretability Agent
(AIA), produce function descriptions and infer function structures, which thereby,
make AI systems more transparent. Methods like feature importance scores and
visualization of activation maps in CNNs are being altered to make them more
interpretative in the future [15].

4.1.3 Efficiency
Efficiency deals with the pace of data processing and the number of computational
resources that are utilized. Traditional techniques are much more hardware
efficient and can work more quickly than the speed of execution, they are hence
best for real-time applications and the cases where they have limited computing
resources. However, these protocols are far from perfect and may pose greater time
demands because they can be lengthy and require more tests and consultations.
On the contrary, the procedure of training BIAs, in particular DL models, can
be computationally heavy and time-consuming, as it entails the use of sizeable
hardware resources, for example, GPUs (graphics processing units) or TPUs
(tensor processing units). Nevertheless, when they are completely trained, these
models can deal with large datasets rapidly and give instantaneous diagnostic
results. Feature selection methods in BIAs remove redundant features which in turn
gives computational complexity lessening and finally they create efficiency [15].

4.2 Potential Examples for Hybrid Approaches

Hybrid approaches that integrate BIAs with traditional diagnosis can utilize both
the strengths in novel ways. Following are the examples:
● Early fusion strategies: These strategies are based on combining several data
types to improve diagnostic accuracy using EHRs and multi-omics data.
● Feature selection: The BIAs used here will identify the key features which
can be included in the traditional diagnostic methods to make them more
82 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

interpretable and efficient. They are built in harmony with the systems of
nature regarding the sensor logic thus not altogether uncommunicative from
a human perspective.
● Automated interpretability: Some AI developers have begun efforts to create
AI diagnostic tools. Thus, the quest of AI-based systems to be transparent and
trustworthy is engaged and the above interpretability methods are chosen.

5. Case Studies of BIAs in Diagnosis

BIAs have proven to be extremely successful in various sectors of medicine,
cardiology, oncology, and neurology [16, 17, 18]. This section details the
case studies involving BIAs in these applications and methodologies applied,
comparing the results of traditional solutions with those of BIAs, and future
research development based on these case studies.

5.1 BIA Successes in Cardiology, Oncology, and Neurology

5.1.1 Cardiology
● Arrhythmia classification: ANN models were trained to identify different
cardiac arrhythmias from the ECG signals with high accuracy. The models can
decode even the most intricate structures of the heart’s electric current, thus,
by these means, they outstrip the traditional rule-based systems.
● Heart failure prediction: GAs have been utilized to help find different
combinations of patient-specific variables to assess which one gives the best
results in predicting cardiovascular diseases. These earlier detections result in
immediate treatments and better patient outcomes.
● Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) detection: The combination of GAs and
ANNs exerted the detection of CAD. The GA was useful in the process of
choosing the characters that are of most importance in a patient’s data, then
those data were used in the chosen ANN for classification.

5.1.2 Oncology
● Cancer diagnosis: Medical images can be effectively analysed with ML
techniques to detect an illness before showing first symptoms. Sometimes
these tools can disclose what is hidden from the human eye.
● Personalized treatment planning: The radiation therapy could be optimized
by including ACO. This new method reduces normal tissue irradiation and
enhances the dose received to tumours which also makes treatment safer and
more effective.
● General cancer prediction and diagnosis: BIAs technology could select
the best features in quite complex data sets. Occasionally, dynamic data
redesigned with PSO resulted in a better performance of cancer prediction
models.
 Disease Diagnosis 83

5.1.3 Neurology
● Epileptic seizure forecasting: Neural networks have been applied to analyse
EEG data, make predictions, and at the same time identify the onset of epileptic
seizures. This function serves as a tool in finding timely interventions to the
patient’s safety, which would have a significantly positive impact on his
prognosis.
● Alzheimer’s disease detection: ML algorithms like LSTM have been employed
using patterns identified in neuroimaging information (MRI, PET scans) for
the detection of Alzheimer’s in its early stage. Hence these models offer
medication before an event occurs and this stops the event.

5.2 Research Directions from Case Study Insights

● Enhancing Interpretability: Investigate methods that could improve the
interpretability of BIA models, making it easy to use for physicians and
to allow its widespread use in clinical practice, thus boosting the trust and
adoption of BIA at advanced levels in medicine.
● Integration with EHR systems: Surpass barriers that slow down the
development of healthcare records by learning how to seamlessly use
BIA technology for improving patient outcomes, which are achieved with
predictive analytics. In establishing standards of EHRs, consider the use of
the data interfaces and the necessary networks for successful data transfer
among other systems to ensure that an EHR system reaches its optimum level.
● Personalized medicine: Technology when combined with new generation
BIAs will make it possible for us to use AI in a way that slows down the growth
of cancer or, in some cases, totally medicates it in very rare occurrences,
tailoring the therapy using their genetic information and testing. Regression
of cells can be modified with the use of GAs which optimizes the effect of
treatment and DL can be used to predict how effective a person would be to
the treatment’s effects.
● Multimodal data integration: The data aggregation of proteomic, genomic,
imaging, and clinical data is an onus to provide multifaceted diagnosis. The
purpose of the hybrid interpretable models is to correct and consolidate
multimodal information, thus obtaining more accurate diagnostic and patient
outcomes in the clinical graphical presentation. BIA models should be
equipped with the functionality of real-time diagnostic aiding in the clinical
areas.
● Automated data preprocessing techniques: The part which signifies that the
process of bio-inspired algorithms is reliable and efficient is that data is pre-
processed well. The steps involve advanced data cleaning, normalization, and
transformation methods.
● Explainable AI: Find new ways to ensure that BIA models are clearer and
understandable and so that the logic behind their decisions is transparent to
clinicians. This, in turn, is done through a seamless integration of explainable
84 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

AI techniques to bring better transparency in the predictions made by the

models.
● Real-world validation: Besides the experimental approach, we should also
conduct larger-scale studies to involve different clinical settings and a variety
of patients. The performance of the model under real-world conditions is a key
point of the combination of these models with clinical protocols.
● Ethical considerations: The question of BIA use in healthcare should be
considered from an ethical point of view, liking fairness, transparency, and
blame on an algorithmic decision-making process. In the end, we will have to
put ethical principles in place to protect patient rights and remain the honest
use of AI tools.
● Continuous learning: Formulate BIAs that can adapt to the developing data
and become more and more efficient so that they are kept in the clock with the
dynamic global developments in the specific medical practices. This requires
the development of systems that can feed new knowledge to their own and
recalculate their prediction models accordingly.

6. Recent Advances in BIAs

With the help of recent advancements in BIAs, the field of disease diagnosis has
gone to new extents. Transfer learning, few-shot learning, and large language
models (LLMs) are the cutting-edge technologies responsible for the huge jump in
the accuracy and efficiency of diagnostic models. The broad significant role played
by these techniques is showing in their setting, applications, and other possibilities
that are outreach and treatment applications of the future.

6.1 Transfer Learning

Transfer learning has become a very important method in AI, among others, thanks
to the sky-high direction deep learning has gone, as well as the creation of immense
datasets that are now available. This process is accomplished through the refining
of a pretrained model on a fresh, yet identical task, thus the system can be used at
its best even if the dataset is, in addition, a different target from the prior pretrain
dataset. Such methodology is now commonly applied in different deep learning
projects; these include purposes like computer vision and especially in the natural
language processing (NLP) aspect. The use of transfer learning in minimizing
long-time model training, increasing performance, and reducing the amount of data
required is now evident in the field of technology, for example, the health sector,
games designing, and language translation [19].

6.2 Few-shot Learning

Few-shot learning is a method which seeks to train models to generalize after
seeing as few examples as possible; there are usually between 5 and 20 photos
for each category. In cases where data is limited, this procedure is particularly
 Disease Diagnosis 85

suitable, as it allows models to be instructed and to make decisions even with little
data. Few-shot learning has become a novel technology and as such is particularly
important in medical imaging for tasks such as classification and segmentation,
which have been very effectively addressed as they say by data limitation problems
[20].

6.3 Large Language Models (LLMs) in BIAs

Despite all the benefits of the LLMs that exist, they can also be used, by fully
incorporating them into BIAs, to process and produce text that is very similar to
human beings. These models that are optimized and transferred through different
methods such as the utilization of the data in the identification of the patient as
suffering from diseases or the solution of some steps; the diagnosis phase as
the focal one. In sum, by combining LLMs with transfer learning and few-shot
learning, the time of the entire complex medical process from non-fully labelled
examples to the attainment of an accurate result may be greatly reduced [21-22].

Conclusions
The BIAs inclusion in the disease diagnosis represents a magnifying glass over
the traditional approaches. This part of the chapter focuses on the basic findings
by considering the possibilities of the use of ML and DL in the new areas and the
discussion of the challenges brought by big data, interpretability, ethics, and legal
issues, along with the strategies for continuous improvement.
BIAs are a breath of fresh air in the much-needed refining of the accuracy
and speed of the diagnostic process of diseases. Nature-inspired these algorithms
have been deployed through cutting-edge ML and DL processes that are designed
to tackle even the most challenging medical problems. BIAs, when used with DL
models, have shown unbeatable performance in the detection of diseases such as
cardiac conditions and multiple sclerosis lesions, which are services that other
businesses cannot provide. The role of BIAs is evident in their diagnostic accuracy
strengthening role, which is done through the tight coupling of the AI model to a
particular medical imaging system, and in the end, the model can find tailoring it
to a specific patient, which consequently drives the gaining of more accurate and
consistent results by patients.
Transfer learning and few-shot learning techniques have made it possible for
model performance to improve with less data, and so have become useful in medical
imaging and other diagnostic tasks. Furthermore, LLMs have been effectively used
to decode complicated information from which medical professionals can make
diagnoses as well as make decision support systems more efficient.
The integration of ML and DL in the diagnosis of diseases enables the practice
of early detection of diseases and use of personalized medicine through accelerated
data processing and visual decision support delivery, thereby enhancing patient
outcomes and prognosis in the process. The potential of these breakthroughs is
86 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

high; thus, one can expect the future to easily catch up with the situation when
somebody gets an illness and the treatment becomes faster, more efficient, and
more personalized than before, which changes the atmosphere for the patient from
heightened anxiety to a peaceful state of knowing that the ailment will be solved in
the best and easiest ways available today. The point that is involved in this fusion
is to increase the accuracy of diagnosis, decrease medical costs, and ultimately
extend patient’s lives.

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5 Algorithmic Heartbeat with Bio-Inspired
Algorithms in Cardiac Health Monitoring
Ashwini A.,1* Kavitha V.,2 Balasubramaniam S.3 and Seifedine Kadry4

Cardiovascular diseases hold the first position as the leading cause of death
globally, therefore, the need for early diagnosis as well as prompt intervention
and management to avoid or minimize the effect the diseases could have on human
health is inevitable. This chapter holds applications, benefits, and challenges of
cardiac health monitoring using bio-inspired algorithms. The first part of the
chapter is based on an approach whereby a bio-inspired algorithm is explained in
a detailed manner. The intelligence that just imitates biological life as including
genetic evolution, swarm intelligence and neural networks in cardiac data is
made concentrated and has superior accuracy in anomaly detection. The chapter
is followed by stripping down into the key functional fields of these bio-inspired
algorithms for cardiac health monitoring, and robust classification. Perspectives of
human-like algorithm use in real-life clinical cases are also addressed, as related
to data privacy, comprehensibility and regulation. This section will be descriptive
about the deep dive into Algorithmic Heartbeat in which biologically inspired
algorithms are used to monitoring patients’ heart health. It lets people realize the
place from which this developing field of bio-inspired algorithms can thrive in
cardiac health monitoring which provides the platform for innovation.

1. Introduction to Bio-Inspired Algorithms

Bio-inspired algorithms are computational methods from which natural processes
and biologic systems are taken as inspiration to solve problems, which can be
very difficult. These algorithms are imitating the very same properties of a natural
platform like efficiency, adaptability, and robustness by using techniques such as
evolution, swarming behaviour, and neural networks. Through mingling these
biologic patterns, bio-inspired algorithms have a strong potential to efficiently
resolve a lot of optimization, data analysis, and recognition tasks [1]. They

1
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala
R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Avadi, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
2
University College of Engineering, Kancheepuram, Tamilnadu, India.
3
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation
and Technology (Formerly IIITM-K), Digital University Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala,
India.
4
Department of Applied Data Science, Noroff University College, Norway.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Algorithmic Heartbeat with Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Cardiac Health Monitoring 89

have a wide range of fields of application—engineering, computer science, and

healthcare—which all benefit from the technologies and the problem-solving skills
gained by their application.
The most widely recognized bio-inspired algorithm is the genetic algorithm
(GA) that is an emulation of the functioning of biological evolution based on the
fact of natural selection. The building blocks of GAs are the following mechanisms
as selection, crossover, and mutation that create many generations of solutions
to optimization problems. However, in recent time, it is trending for utilitarian
purpose of bionic algorithms to improve cardiac healthcare and diagnosis. This
manner is not only valuable for stumbling upon optimal or suboptimal options
in large-scale or complex problem spaces, but also effective and precise. Other
than this, the swarm intelligence idea is another of those that are derived from
social insects such as the ants and the bees. For instance, the ACO (ant colony
optimization) and the PSO (particle swarm optimization) strategies, which are the
algorithms derived from the behaviours of insects and their swarms, mimic such
distributed characteristics for problems such as routing, scheduling, and resource
allocation. Figure 1 shows the cardiac disease prediction system using the bio-
inspired algorithms.

Particle
Swarm
Genetic Optimization
Ant Colony
Algorithms Optimization

Fuzzy Logic Artificial

Systems Immune System
Key Optimization
Techniques
Deep Bee Colony
Learning Optimization

Neural Differential
Networks Evolution
Simulated
Annealing

Fig. 1 Flow diagram of cardiac disease prediction using the bio-inspired algorithm.

Neural networks, in the wide range of that—artificial neural networks (ANNs)

and its advanced version, deep learning is included and they serve as the machine
algorithm that mimics the structure and functions of a human brain. These networks
are made up of interconnected submissions (neurons) which use and transfer
90 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

information, allowing machines to learn from data, identify uniqueness’, and make
decisions [2]. The base on which these algorithms are built and the substitution
of the natural processes with algorithmics are indicated as the bases for biologic
systems. We would put into words where these algorithms take their root and why
they use GAs that reproduce nature’s choice and neural networks that resemble
the human brain. Deep learning, with its neural networks composed of multiple
layers, has brought to the universe completely new system; it is areas like image
and speech recognition, natural language processing, and autonomous systems that
have been revolutionized. The neural network has been able to retrieve solutions
from the brain’s ability to learn-and-adapt [3]. Therefore, using the neural network
is one of the most indispensable cornerstones in modern artificial intelligence
and machine learning. These algorithms signify an evolutionary breakthrough of
biological and computational sciences, achieving the goal of finding a practical
solution.

2. Biological Analogies in the Design of Heartbeat

Algorithms
The concept of the biological analogies in the development of the heartbeat
algorithms is based on the usage of the same concepts and processes that have
been long known of in the biological systems to inspire and inform the design
of computational methods that will serve the same purposes of analysing and
diagnosing heart conditions. Analogies are derived from different natural processes,
such as evolution, cellulose behaviour, mind imitation, immune reaction, and
human reasoning, in order to build algorithms that copy features from these kinds
of biological processes which are effective and adaptive, and which are also able
to solve problems.

2.1 Genetic Algorithms: Mimicking Natural Selection

GAs translate into imitating the process of natural selection, a fundamental tool
with which evolution takes place. Considering that heartbeat algorithms for
monitoring the cardiac health can be utilized to optimize the choice of features
through niches from vast datasets like ECG signals, medical imaging, and patient
records, GAs are suitable for this purpose. Firstly, the GA starts by employing a
pool of potential solutions, each one being represented by a chromosome. These
solutions are quite successful thanks to their selectivity criterion, that is, how well
they function in recognizing conditions of a heart [4]. Crossover and mutation
procedures use exchange and slight modification of existing solutions to generate
new ones, imitating the natural way of reproduction and variation. Auditing of age-
related populations, leads to a gradual turnover of suboptimal or close-to-optimal
populations where the identification of the key biomarkers and diagnostic patterns
is highly accurate and efficient.
 Algorithmic Heartbeat with Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Cardiac Health Monitoring 91

2.2 Swarm Intelligence: Emulating Collective Behaviour

Swarm Intelligence techniques are rooted in the collective behaviours of species
like ants, bees, and birds, whereby there is always information exchange. ACO
and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) happen to be the most frequently-utilized
main examples. In cardiac health monitoring, ACO can be used to manage the
skyline of big data salinity, which is a practice of extracting shortest diagnosis
paths in the complex medical networks. In ACO, ants draining pheromones on the
paths which they frequent; moreover, pheromones grow stronger as the quality of
the path increases. Over time, shorter paths and the ones with more effectiveness
supply their pheromone trail and this way attract the next ants to the most beneficial
way of walking. In the same way, PSO reproduces the natural social behaviour of
birds when it is a flocking and fish when it is schooling. Every particle (reminds
the particles which potential methods can be used) moves, using its own past
experience and the experience acquired from neighbouring particles. The close and
collaborative nature of this methodology contributes greatly to the recommended
reiteration and amendments of disease diagnosis models [5]. At the same time, the
precise navigation through high-dimensions with the aid of this approach improves
the accuracy with which heart disease is predicted.

2.3 Neural Networks: Replicating Brain Function

Neural networks, ANNs, and deep learning models are based on the way either
whole or separate parts of brain work. The main structures of these networks are
based on inputs that each neuron (a node) individually processes and then passes
the result over to subsequent layers. In cardiac health monitoring systems, neural
networks can be trained to identify irregularities in ECG signal patterns, images, or
other indicators of health. The use of convolution neural networks (CNNs), which
are types of deep learning models, is effective for processing data from images
such as an echocardiogram or MRI scans. CNNs consider convolutional layers as
a method of automatically learning the spatial structure of objects where the level
of detail is important in the process of anomaly detection, e.g., arrhythmias or the
extra-pericardic structures are analysed [6]. Recurrent neural networks (RNNs)
and the likes (e.g., LSTM [long short-term memory] networks) are the prevalent
choice as models for time-series data, given that they can accommodate a type of
dependency inherent in time-series data, and that they can hence predict future
ECG readings or cardiac activities relying on the previous ones.

2.4 Immune System Algorithms: Mimicking Biological Defence

Mechanisms
The algorithms of artificial intelligent systems are based on the recognition and
reaction capability of the human immune system as it always operates to detect
and eliminate the pathogens. In cardiac health monitoring, these algorithms can
be applied to differentiate both normal and abnormal patterns of heart-related data
92 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

and, in addition, response to the abnormal ones. One scenario is when negative
selection algorithms will have the ability to identify changes in normal functions
of the heart—they will create detectors that recognize non-self (abnormal) data
and will show tolerance to self (normal) data. This is exactly similar to the immune
system which guides it to distinguish between harmful invaders and the body’s
cells making it more helpful in the early recognition of distortions in heartbeats or
other cardiac indicators.

2.5 Evolutionary Strategies: Drawing from Natural Evolution

As a specification of evolutionary algorithms, progressive strategies study
adaptation and solutions optimization using natural generative processes. Their
effect in the case of the application of machine learning to cardiovascular health
monitoring will be to improve the efficiency of the models based on parameters and
architecture [7]. However, it is done through the simulation of natural selection,
where well-adapted individuals selected for reproduction lead to iterative success
the predictive efficiency of diagnostic algorithms. Adopting such a fine-tuning
approach will be worthwhile when dealing with complex algorithms like neural
networks, which helps to obtain the highest possible accuracy and the conditions
to predict cardiac abnormalities.

2.6 Fuzzy Logic: Inspired by Human Reasoning

The evolution of fuzzy logic systems emulates the cognition methodology which
is based on imprecision and ignorance of the human brain. In cardiac health
monitoring, fuzzy logic is used for interpreting unclear data such as a wide range
of symptoms or grey short test results area. Fuzzy logic controllers can take in
more than one input, e.g., blood pressure, cholesterol level, and ECG readings to
determine the overall degree hard matters javascript of risk for heart disease. The
iterative reasoning system enables an approach that is not just simply tagging for
binary logic but providing individualized and dynamic diagnostic outcomes [8].
By extending the ways in which these biological strategies are implemented,
they provide a wide-range of potentials for developing highly starling and precise
heartbeat algorithms that can be deployed to improve the accuracy, efficiency, and
reliability of heart monitoring systems. Through employing the fundamentals of
natural selection, group behaviour, cognition, immune defence, variations, and
human mindfulness, these nature-inspired algorithms present creative resolutions
of some of the most difficult issues in cardiac diagnosis [9].

3. Different optimization Techniques

In the case of cardiac health monitoring, as well as diagnostics, several nature-
inspired optimization methods can be used during the system design phase to
improve performance and the accuracy of algorithms [10]. The filtering processes
of cancer diagnosis which include feature selection, parameter optimization, and
 Algorithmic Heartbeat with Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Cardiac Health Monitoring 93

the efficiency of the model are enhanced by these techniques. Figure 2 shows
some of the key optimization techniques used in Algorithmic Heartbeat with Bio-
Inspired Algorithms.

Algorithm
validation
Transforming
Learning

Dataset
Cardiac disease
prediction model

Recognizing the
dataset

Prediction
outcome

Fig. 2 Key optimization techniques.

3.1 Genetic Algorithms (GAs)

GA is the way of improvement by the rule of nature selection and genetic mutation.
At the outset, they work with the set of population whose each individual contains
the specific chromosomes symbolizing diverse combinations of features or model
variables [11]. The fitness of each solution is determined by how accurately it
diagnoses various heart conditions, whereby true positives, false positives, and
false negatives, among others, are employed to assess the effectiveness of the
solutions. Through the period of repetition, such population undergoes evolution
by step to step up the efficiency of the process of diagnosis to become better
and better. Through this process, GAs are made to be effective searchers in the
relatively large and complex candidate solutions spaces, discovering optimal or
near-optimal solutions and parameter values for pliable models for cardiac health
monitoring. Through the process of intergenerational transfer of information and
machine-learning, the evolution happens, which makes a GA more able to capture
this information and predict anomalies and diseases in a more reliable and less-
error fashion. In cardiac health monitoring, GAs can be used for:
● Feature Selection: Discovering an appropriate set of features from volume
datasets such as ECG signals, CT images, and patient data to have a diagnostic
precision [12].
● Parameter Optimization: To accurately tune the machine learning model’s
hyperparameters in order to obtain the best performance.
94 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

3.2 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)

PSO is proven on a premise, the social behaviour of the birds flocking or the fish
schooling. The process unites any problem by means of iterative techniques that
enhance the candidate solution in regards to the certain of quality characteristics.
PSO, a bio-inspired algorithm that mimics the collective behaviour of a swarm
like animal groups such as bird flocking or fish schooling, is an approach that is
being looked into and used to optimize complex problems like cardiac monitoring
[13]. It is very useful in the case of patient’s cardiac health monitoring for the
improvement the parameters of diagnostic models and the accuracy of prediction
models in cardiovascular diseases.
Every single particle in the swarm takes on a solution, e.g., be a good choice of
one or few parameters or attribute subsets. Implying they add together, are pushed
through the solution space being positioned in line with their own experiences
and those of neighboured particles. The movement of particles is guided by two
main components: not only cognitive and social, but also physical and emotional
[14–17]. During the cognitive stage, each particle is forced to move towards
their best known position (social best) while during the social phase, the swarm
is mandated to move towards the best-known position of the swarm (communal
optimum). Via such mechanism, particles seek and use the solution space, one
after another till they finally reach the optimum or near-to-optimum solutions. In
cardiac health monitoring, PSO can be used for:
● Parameter Tuning: The settings of neural networks and other models of
machine learning are optimized.
● Clustering: Clustering together the similar cardiac data is to see clear pattern
or anomaly detection better.

3.3 Ant Colony Optimization (ACO)

ACO is based on the ant cannibalizing strategy. With ACO bio-inspired algorithms
solving optimization problems related to heart disease diagnosis and monitoring
that optimize the scavenging behaviour of ants is the basis [18]. The ACO gives
particular emphasis to problems where the ideal route is the overflow of complex
and multi-dimensional spaces. Within the arena of cardiac health surveillance, the
ACO can then be explored to foster data analysis, feature selection, and diagnostic
accuracy. ACO is remotely led on the principle of ants foraging and laying down
pheromones to mark their ways. The pheromone trails that these ants leave are in
fact leading other ants towards the shortest and most efficient paths that will bring
them to the sugar source. Pertaining to the computational settings, ACO algorithms
simulate this process in the way that artificial ants are moved from one possible
solution to another and virtual pheromones deposited that indicate the degree of
quality of the solution [19]. It is used to find optimal paths through graphs and can
be applied in cardiac health monitoring for:
 Algorithmic Heartbeat with Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Cardiac Health Monitoring 95

● Path Optimization: Establishing the quickest and most productive journey

through labyrinthine medical entities.
● Data Classification: Adding additional features and removing irrelevant ones
in order to optimize the classification accuracy for heart disease data.

3.4 Artificial Immune Systems (AIS)

AIS are imitating the process of human immune system and they are used for
anomaly detection. Besides, they can recognize the patterns. This is however very
efficient in identification of patterns, anomaly detection, and robust decision-
making. In the respect of cardiovascular health monitoring, AIS can be applied to
catching anomaly trends of heart files, avoiding the later disease and guaranteeing
medical help on time [20].
AIS algorithms imitate such human defensive systems that protect the body by
identifying and counteracting the pathogens with adaptive approaches and quick
responses. Lymphocyte activation occurs by the principles of negative selection,
clonal selection, and immune networks [21]. These atoms together empower the
system to identify and recall patterns, classify data as self or non-self, and make
improvements when presented with fresh threats. In cardiac health monitoring,
AIS can be applied for:
● Anomaly Detection: The recognition of abnormal patterns in ECG queues and
other cardiac data which can suggest heart disease entrance.
● Fault Tolerance: Affirming the reliability of systems by detecting and using
the process of data.

3.5 Bee Colony Optimization (BCO)

The BCO system is a data-driven design approach that mimics the foraging
behaviour of honeybees. The procedure takes after the way they communicate
and search for nectar with each other [22]. They could logically recognize the best
route of foraging in that way. The process of cardiac health monitoring leverages
the application of BCO for optimal feature selection, data clustering, and the
parameters’ tuning of diagnostic models in the featured case. BCO algorithms
mimic the flight patterns of the honeybees in their quest for pollen and nectar. This
simulation involves artificial bees that explore the search space, and the information
they share on the solution quality is particularly their task. The algorithm typically
involves two types of bees: carrying, and bees taking care of. Working bees go out
to explore the options and they return to the hive to lead fellow bees to sources of
food using their intuition and dancing. Beaded-up bees follow these consecutive
dances, and they have higher chances of clicking on bees whose answers are correct
[23]. Along with that function, scout bees forage new areas of the search space,
avoiding trap in local optima which limits the algorithm’s startup. It can be used
in cardiac health monitoring for:
96 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

● Data Mining: Accomplishing good classification results due to dataset size

and feature extraction.
● Resource Allocation: Improving the antiquated medical equipment and
avoiding such situations.

3.6 Differential Evolution (DE)

DE is the class of algorithms conquering the space of continuous optimization
problems and known for its level of accuracy, adaptability, and applicability to
the nonlinear, non-differentiable, rather multimodal objective functions [24–27].
DE explores the candidate solutions via a population of which every individual is
represented as a vector from a feature space. The algorithm optimizes the found
solutions in the iterative way via application of mutation, crossover, and selection
breaks.
● Mutation: Each candidate solution undergoes mutation, where DE creates a
carrier vector carrying the weighted difference between two different vectors
of the population, chosen at random. This way, the population exhibits the
population effect.
● Crossover: The algorithm then adds the mutant vector to the original candidate
solution in order to get a trial vector. Make sure you thoroughly explain the
various impacts of global trade on different countries [28]. At this level, multi-
locality becomes the natural force as multifary inheritance makes an offspring
possess the qualities from multiple parents, hence keeping the diversity intact.
● Selection: Therefore, the algorithm analyzes the result of the change in the
solution vector and then compares it to the initial candidate solution [29].
The trial vector advances to the next generation if it provides a more suitable
solution (selection is executed according to the given criteria, e.g., the lowest
error in predictions) replaces the original solution in the population.

3.7 Simulated Annealing (SA)

SA (Shariah-aligned) follows the concept of annealing in metrology. It is finding a
best scalar value via which the assumed function can be appropriately approximated,
that is, the issue of finding a global optimum solution can be partly overcome. It
is utilized to figure out brilliant approximations to the global optimum point of a
function within an enormous search space. SA is particularly helpful in the cases
in which the precise optimal solution or Euro-critical/Euro-scale scenarios are
mathematically impossible or computationally not profitable.
The SA acting through many expeditions of exploration within the search
space, this allows the algorithm to introduce both uphill movement (improving
objective function value) and downhill movement (deteriorating objective function
value) based on a probability distribution. In every loop, the algorithm randomly
selects a neighbouring solution, evaluates its objective function value, and then
possibly embeds it into the overall solution [30]. If this new solution is the best from
 Algorithmic Heartbeat with Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Cardiac Health Monitoring 97

the current solution, that solution becomes the new current solution. If the newly
suggested solution is not optimal, and this happens with a certain probability which
is determined by the cooling schedule and reduces the probability of acceptance of
worse solutions with progression, SA may just accept it [31]. This make the SA to
move outside local optima and continue looking at the search space until a global
optimum is attained. In cardiac health monitoring, SA can be applied for:
● Model Optimization: Parameter fine-tuning of the diagnostic algorithms to
achieve the over fitting and generalization or/and the follow the rule of biases
reduction to achieve the point.
● Feature Selection: Determining what are the most significant features that
can bring the heart disease diagnosis to be accurate.

3.8 Neural Networks and Deep Learning

Deep learning models are closely related to—themselves—the construction and
the functioning of our brain. Due to the ability to process large amounts of data
swiftly, neural networks and deep learning are biology-based algorithms specially
developed to assist specialists in timely cardiac diseases detection, diagnosis,
and prediction [32]. The algorithms find these data easy to process, especially
those that are complex and can be represented in a high-dimensional form like
electrocardiogram (ECG) signals, medical images, patient records, etc. Through
incorporating neural network architectures that are built on the deep learning
algorithms, bio-inspired systems can spot significant patterns and relationships
within the cardiac data, increasing the accuracy and timeliness of diagnoses.
Optimization techniques in this context include:
● Back-propagation: Solving the training of neural networks is by optimizing
weights with the aim of minimizing the error in predictions.
● Regularization Techniques: Choosing overfitting methods like dropout,
weight decay, and batch normalization is of great importance for preventing
overfitting.

3.9 Fuzzy Logic Systems

Fuzzy logic originates in the human mind. It is a derivative of the way of human
logic of reasoning and decision-making processes. FSL are mostly helpful under
the condition when there are no reliable and exact data or the possibilities to
interpret it in more than one way. In the particularity of cardiac health monitoring,
FLS can aid in the diagnosis of risks, support treatment and establish medical
priority based on the fuzzy rules grasped from the doctor’s knowledge [33]. FLS
operate by using fuzzy programming theory achieving communicating the human
linguistic variables and fuzzy rule to emulate human decision-making process.
Such systems use linguistic labels (for example, ‘very low’, ‘low’, ‘middle’, ‘high’,
and ‘very high’) in which variables take these abstract terms, hence reasoning in
them is flexible, simple, and intuitive.
98 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

FLS consist of three main components: examination, sifting, classification,

and clarification. During fuzzification, crispy data that returns its integer inputs is
converted into fuzzy sets by way of membership functions [34]. Thus, the rules
of the system are passed forward to the fuzzy sets with the final result of being
the output. Lastly, the defuzzification stage crudely turns the fuzzy outputs into
a crisp result which is interpreted and acted upon. In cardiac health monitoring,
fuzzy logic systems can be used for:
● Risk Assessment: Integrating the multiple factors or indicators which are
somewhat inaccurate to assess the total risk of heart disease.
● Decision Support: Hardware capacities must have the ability to handle
nuanced diagnostic proposals based on fuzzy rules originated from medical
professionals.
Using this biomimetic innovation, the cardiac health monitoring systems for
patients can become more precise, efficient, and stable in detection and prevention
of heart diseases. This approach includes techniques that take advantage of the
natural tendency of processes to solve the issues that are involved in the analysis
of medical data that are both complex and challenging.

4. Neural Networks with Bio-inspired Computing

Bio-inspired Computing with ANN nets in cardiac health monitoring combine
the strength of ANNs with the rules from natural systems, so as to improve the
detection, diagnosis, and individualized treatment of the heart diseases. It is exactly
evident that ANNs models, in conjunction with the human brain, which are initiated
and used to learn complex patterns and connections from more large volumes of
data. By employing GAs, swarm intelligence, or evolutionary strategies, which
are bio-inspired computing techniques, these neural networks could still aim
for the performance improvement and adaptation in cardiac health monitoring
applications.
Another significant advantage of interfacing bio-inspired computing with
neural networks for cardiac health monitoring is the capability to deal with the
usually strong complexities and unpredictable nature of the data. For instance,
GAs can enhance the network architecture of the neural networks in the manner
that helps the structure and the other parameters to work effectively in dealing
with different data of cardiac types which includes electrocardiograms (ECGs),
medical pictures, and patient’s data. Furthermore, swarm intelligence algorithms
would play an essential role in detecting similarities between heterogeneous data
sources. In this way, neural networks will be able to get more sophisticated insights
by using multimodal data sources and promoting diagnostic precision.
On the other hand, bionic computing analogous to neural networks can
strengthen the reliability of models using the neural network approach in
cardiovascular monitoring. Having these strategies, the computation power can
be spared to tackle the task of marker selection when several biomarkers or
physiological parameters of the heart diseases are available. Addition of genetic
 Algorithmic Heartbeat with Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Cardiac Health Monitoring 99

information yields much better results and assistance in the classification of

neuronal networks models. Besides that, this allows medical specialists to have a
deep understanding of the mechanisms of cardiac problems which helps them in
applying the personalized treatment programmes.
Therefore, the sophisticated interaction with bio-impellent computing and
neural networks brings adaptable and autonomous cardiac monitoring systems
with the ability of continuous learning and self-improvement. Through the use
of mimicking biological systems such as self-organization and self-change, these
hybrid methods have an ability to adjust themselves to a dynamic environment
of clinical setups, to a change in a patient’s condition, and to a new diagnostic
requirement over a period of time [35]. This proverbial nature of capability
means that the cardiac health monitoring systems stay state-of-the-art through
increased innovation and medical knowledge, generating optimal patient results,
and unmatched care thus providing.

5. Swarm Intelligence for Heart Health Monitoring

Swarm Intelligence with Bio-inspired Computing which proposes the use of
collective behaviours of decentralized systems to monitor cardiac system of human
body, mimicking the behaviours of social insect colonies from the nature, to create
the more efficient process of monitoring is a new approach. The fusion of swarm
intelligence with bio-inspired computing leads to such newly devised method,
which leads more warranted and productive heart health diagnostics, triggering
earlier detection of cardiac conditions.
The algorithmic framework referred to as swarm intelligence includes two well-
known algorithms namely, ACO and PSO which are also known as the behavioral
algorithms that involve the behavior of the ants, bees, etc., amongst various
social entities to solve optimization problems. Through displaying cooperative
network activities and decentralized decision-making patterns similar to the natural
systems, the swarm intelligence algorithms are capable of resolving sophisticated
set of data, identifying cardiac biomarkers and optimizing diagnostic models
used in the heart disease monitoring. When married with natural programming
approaches like GAs and evolutionary approaches, the process becomes even more
adaptive and optimal [36].
GAs use peer intelligence for evolutionary operations on the parameters and
structures of swarm intelligence algorithms, which allows them to dynamically
change their behaviour as the monitoring environment evolves. Regarding the
evolution tactics, the technique can also optimize the feature selection process,
discovering more effective data subsets which can precisely diagnose heart
problems. The conjunction of swam intelligence and bio-inspired computing
allows to design intelligent cardiac monitoring systems that do not only detect
trends, but also can efficiently deal with new information. These systems have the
capacity to manipulate and process the huge amounts of cardiac data from various
sources, like ECGs, radiographs, and patients’ histories, with great precision thus
they can provide timely and accurate diagnosis [37].
100 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Furthermore, utilizing the logic of self-control decision-making and collective

intelligence, swarm intelligence having a bio-inspired computing promotes the
mutual cooperation between healthcare specialists, researchers and engineers
to carry on the massive health monitoring projects related to cardiac health.
Swarm Intelligence Guided by Bio-computing Heart Health Monitoring is a
nascent an approach that can be a game-changer for cardiac diagnostics due
to its scalability, adaptability, and efficiency in overcoming the challenges of
cardiovascular disease detection and management. The cardiac health monitoring
can be improved by employing an intelligence system of nature and is mixed with
advanced computational approaches, and thus make it a revolutionary approach to
be more targeted towards the patients and the healthcare delivery systems.

6. Genetic Algorithm in Feature Selection

GA for Heart Health Monitoring with Feature Selection based on Biology
Computing as a Computational Technique for the Optimization of Relevant
Features within Complex Heart Data, can include any type of Electrocardiogram
(ECG), Medical Images, and Patient Data. GAs constitute one of the searching
algorithms drawing on the ground-based mechanisms such as natural selection and
evolution of genes to identify subsets of features that can successfully diagnose and
predict the types of cardiac conditions by the patterns utilized. Regarding feature
selection for heart health monitoring, GAs consist of generating chromosomes as
feature subsets which outline the population.
Chromosome for each, representing the possible solution, a set of features,
from the original dataset, will be the constituent. These subsets are employed to
model the typical cardiac diseases by using measurements including sensitivity,
specificity, and predictive accuracy. The population of feature subsets is continuously
improved over multiple generations through the processes of selection, crossover,
and mutation with the aim of providing the best. In the process of selection,
generally, fitter feature subsets that are responsible for proficient classifications
would be more likely to be chosen as parents for further reproduction. Crossover
operations are the process where the selection of bits are performed between groups
of parents to develop new offspring with a unique combination of bit-elements.
Mutation includes operations like swapping, inserting, and deleting the features
and thus the algorithm is able to search new regions of the solution space and it is
less prone to the unwanted local optimum solutions.
The bio-inspired nature of GAs possesses them the capability to pin-pointedly
deal with the intricacies and ambiguities with cardiac data by incorporating noise,
variability, and high dimensionality. Through copying the natural selection process,
genetic algorithms solve the search for feature subsets which is, at the same time,
the most discriminative information for diagnosing various forms of cardiac
diseases. Coming up next, through exploiting bio-inspired computing techniques
such as parallelization and neural-engineering in addition to other optimization
methods genetic algorithms can improve their overall performance on the process
of feature selection in heart health monitoring.
 Algorithmic Heartbeat with Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Cardiac Health Monitoring 101

To summarize, it is Genetic Algorithm in Feature Selection with Bio-inspired

Computing that we propose for the monitoring of the health of the heart, which is
the robust and efficient method to the identification of informative features from
the cardiac datasets. Through incorporation of elements of natural evolution along
with state of the art computational techniques, this method makes possible the
design of tested and accurate diagnostic models for heart diseases screening and
treatment, with the final goal of better health outcomes and more efficient medical
services delivery.

7. Bio-inspired Data Fusion

Bio-inspired Data Fusion for Heart Health Monitoring integrates principles from
biological systems with advanced data fusion techniques to enhance the accuracy
and reliability of cardiac diagnostics. Drawing inspiration from the collective
behaviours observed in natural ecosystems, bio-inspired data fusion approaches
aim to intelligently integrate heterogeneous cardiac data sources, such as ECGs,
medical images, genetic profiles, and patient records, to provide comprehensive
insights into heart health.
The main feature of bio-mimicry is that it is capable of imitating the
cooperation that is happening and the decentralized decision-making that ants and
bees are known for. Just like ants, which employ a network of pheromone trails
to solve complex tasks in groups, bio-inspired data infusion approaches capitalize
on parallel computing models to cooperatively process and fuse data on cardiac
originals from various sources. This distributed design adds up to reliable data
exchange and aggregation of cardiac monitoring system components leading to a
robust and accurate diagnosis.
Not only this, but optimizing the fusion process by incorporating natural
principles of selection and evolution into bio-inspired data fusion techniques is one
of the bio-inspired data fusion techniques. GAs, for instance, may go ahead and
dynamically make the fusion rules’ as well as their weights anew in response to
the system’s performance. The fusion algorithms that mimic the setting of natural
evolution iteratively optimize the fusion strategy to deliver the highest likelihood
of producing a validated and comprehensive decision-making system based on the
combined cardiac data. Table 1 shows the performance analysis of bio-inspired
algorithms for cardiac health monitoring.
Table 1 Performance analysis of bio-inspired algorithms for cardiac health monitoring.
Methods Disease Accuracy
Naïve Bayes Heart Disease 86.91%
Bagging Heart Disease 85.94%
SVM Heart Disease 87.46%
Genetic Algorithm Heart Disease 90.53%
Genetic Algorithm +SVM Heart Disease 91.52%
MLP Heart Disease 86.17%
102 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

One more area of bio-inspired data fusion towards precise heart health
monitoring is its capability of dealing with uncertainties and confusion that come
with medical data. Learning from the characteristics of living systems that are
flexible and adaptable, they derive the fuzzy logic and the probabilistic reasoning
to get them close to imprecise and uncertain situations. These bio-inspired
approaches, having built the concerns of uncertainty in clinical cardiac data act as
nuanced and rational diagnostic assessments, by contributing to the reliability of
clinical decision-making in cardiac monitoring. This holistic and interdisciplinary
Bio-inspired Data Fusion approach for cardiovascular care expresses a sentiment
that can be explored through principles of life sciences, computational intelligence
and data science to improve diagnostics. By employing heterogeneous data sources
where collective behaviours are mimicked and uncertainties are addressed, bio-
inspired fusion techniques offer a potential for enhancing the accuracy, reliability,
and efficacy of cardiac patients’ monitoring, ultimately leading to better patient
outcomes and more personalized treatment.

8. Ethical Consideration and Challenges

The following denotes the ethical considerations and challenges when deploying
the bio-inspired algorithms in cardiac monitoring.

Bias and Fairness

Such biologically-inspired computing algorithms may be programmed by the
present data biases inadvertently, thus resulting in the chance for the algorithms to
have unfair or discriminatory results specifically for marginalized people. Ethical
considerations contain understanding and weakening biases in data, maintaining
diversity and inclusivity in dataset collection process, and routinely auditing
algorithms to make sure the correctness of efficiency in decision-making processes.

Transparency and Interpretability

Sometimes the degree of concealment of bio-inspired computing algorithms such
as deep learning models becomes a challenge when making determinations on how
the decisions are arrived at. Transparency and interpretability of these algorithms
are very important in case of the clinicians and patients to rely on the reliability of
diagnostic suggestions. The emphasis should be on the technique that will display
the prediction outcomes of the model and furnish understanding on the reasons
for certain decision.

Accountability and Liability

However, as preferential assigned algorithms become more vital in clinical decision
making, the responsibility and liability in cases of errors or adverse results need
to be clarified. Implementing details for accountability, such as the roles and
 Algorithmic Heartbeat with Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Cardiac Health Monitoring 103

responsibilities of developers, healthcare providers, and regulators, will help to

decrease risks and provide oversight across the entire product deployment cycle.

Equitable Access and Affordability

Provision of bio-inspired computing technologies for remote heart health monitoring
should be used equitably to avoid compound exacerbation in the gaps of healthcare
access and outcomes. Ensuring cost solutions, infrastructure as well as resources
supply adequacy is a powerful weapon to democratize access to advanced disease
diagnosis and make sure that no one with low social status is left behind.

Informed Consent and Autonomy

Respecting patient autonomy and information authenticity for the co-operation
of free and independent agents at work, which is the basis of ethical principles
in healthcare. The need for patients to make informed choices about their
participation in information for diagnostic purposes cannot be overemphasized.
In this case, security, benefits, and implications of sharing of their health data
should be understood.

Regulatory Compliance and Standards

Integration of regulatory standards as well as the design, mode and interactions
of bio-inspired computing technologies should be the goal with the aim of
accomplishing safe and reliable treatment. Making alliance with regulatory bodies
and professional organizations, which calls for the set-up of ethics standards and
best-practice rules, is important.
Through the discussion of these ethical problems and issues inherent in bio-
inspired computing for heart health monitoring, all stakeholders have a role to play
to ensure responsible and ethical operation of these technologies and therefore they
can result to trusted, equitable, and accountable in the use of these cutting-edge
technologies for improving patient outcomes and advancing healthcare delivery.

Conclusion
Finally, the bio-inspired computing joins into the health monitoring of the heart is
on its way to be a powerful innovation in healthcare sector where it could provide
revolutionary detect, diagnose, and manage cardiovascular diseases. Natural
systems and biological processes serve as a reference point for new concepts
of bio-inspired computing methods which lead to novel approaches for process
analysis of complicated cardio data, improve diagnostic techniques and provide
better patient outcome. Bio-mimic computing algorithms, inclusive GAs, swarm
intelligence, and neural networks, for instance, which possess the power to process
heterogeneous data sources, biomarkers identification, as well as diagnostic models
optimization, are tools for smart minds to solve the above-mentioned task. These
104 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

algorithms act on the principles of evolution, collective learning, and neural

processing while being adaptive to successfully navigate the large solution spaces
for finding the patterns, they bring accuracy to cardiac health monitoring.
Moreover, ethical implications as well as challenges in the use of bio-inspired
computing computer for heart health monitoring emphasize the responsibility,
transparent, and patient care-centred innovation. Protecting privacy, avoiding
bias, practicing transparency, and fostering an equitable system are vital to check
that these technologies adhere to the ethical principles, respect patient self-
determination, and promote equal access to high-quality healthcare. In brief,
bio-inspired computing is the promising field that can create the paradigm shift to
heart health monitoring, which will certainly make the diagnostic devices more
personalized, accurate, and efficient. Through the interdisciplinary coordination,
compliance to regulations and establishment of ethical governance, the stakeholders
could leverage bio-inspired computing to the highest possible potential while
preserving data privacy, maintaining fairness and building the trust of the people.
To sustain further development in bio-motivated computing, there must be prior
research, development, and implementation. In due course, bio-inspired computing
will create a better diagnostic system for the cardiac health worldwide and will
finally pave the way for a healthier future.

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 Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based Machine
6 Learning and Deep Learning Models for
Covid-19 Diagnosis
S. Sheik Asraf,1* M. Subash,1 P. Nagaraj,2 V. Muneeswaran3 and
Christopher Samuel Raj Balraj4

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 causes COVID-19, which leads

to many health issues. Most individuals recovered from insignificant to modest
infections deprived of needing supplementary care. However, a tiny proportion
may require medical attention. COVID-19 can affect anyone at any age, and
understanding the illness and its diagnosis is crucial for reducing its spread. Bio-
inspired optimization algorithms utilize biology, evolution, and specific behaviours
of real organisms to address optimization issues across various application domains.
Machine learning (ML) remains a field that uses information and computational
processes to enhance the accuracy of artificial intelligence (AI) by replicating
human learning processes over time. Deep learning (DL) is an ML subfield that
engages neural networks (NN) to feign the intricate executive processes of the
brain of Homo sapiens. Bio-inspired methods based on ML models, like DT, RF,
LR, NB, KNN, and SVM, may be useful in the COVID-19 diagnosis. Bio-inspired
algorithms (BIAs), as well as autoencoders based on DL models, SOMs, DBNs,
RBFNs, CNNs, LSTMs, RNNs, GANs, and MLPs, have significantly aided in the
COVID-19 diagnosis. The difficulties and prospects of applying BIAs to DL and
ML models for the diagnosis of COVID-19 will be covered in detail in this chapter.

1. Introduction
SARS-CoV-2 virus, which causes lung infections and serious disease, is the
source of COVID-19. Most individuals convalesce from insignificant to modest
infections without needing supplementary therapeutic consideration. A miniscule

1
Department of Biotechnology, School of Bio, Chemical and Processing Engineering, Kalasalin-
gam Academy of Research and Education (Deemed to be University), Anand Nagar, Krishnankoil,
Tamil Nadu, India.
2
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, School of Computing, Kalasalingam Academy
of Research and Education (Deemed to be University), Anand Nagar, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu,
India.
3
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, School of Electronics, Electrical and
Biomedical Technology, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education (Deemed to be Uni-
versity), Anand Nagar, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, India.
4
International College of the Cayman Islands, Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands.
* Corresponding author: [email protected] and [email protected]
108 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

percentage, nevertheless, might need medical care, especially in the elderly and
those with underlying medical issues. Anyone at any age can contract COVID-19,
and defence and containment of the virus depend on an awareness of the disease
and its diagnosis. Bio-inspired optimization algorithms are techniques that draw
inspiration from biology, evolution, and particular behaviours of real organisms
to solve optimization issues in a range of application domains. Within the fields of
computer science and artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML) focuses
on leveraging data and algorithms to replicate human learning processes in AI
systems, hence improving their accuracy over time.
Deep learning (DL) is a branch of ML that imitates the complicated
administrative processes of the brain of H. sapiens using multifaceted neural
networks (NN). Bio-inspired methods based on ML models, like DT, RF, LR,
NB, KNN, and SVM may be useful in the COVID-19 diagnosis. BIAs as well as
autoencoders based on DL models, SOMs, DBNs, RBFNs, CNNs, LSTMs, RNNs,
GANs, and MLPs have significantly aided in the diagnosis of COVID-19. This
chapter delves into the challenges and potentials of incorporating Bio-Inspired
algorithms (BIAs) into DL and ML models for the diagnosis of COVID-19.

2. CovID-19: A Worldwide Contagion

World Health Organization has classified the COVID-19 as a pandemic due to its
high death toll and widespread SARS-CoV-2 spread [Figure 1] [1].
Over the past half-century, numerous viruses have surfaced, impacting
various regions and nations; nonetheless, COVID-19 is one of the most widely
dispersed global viruses [2]. Around the world, several countries are retorting to
the COVID-19 contagion in various ways. Countries like China have experienced
a lag in identification and response, overtaxing local health systems in the process.
But in some other nations, effective containment procedures have meant that
comparatively few cases have been documented since the pandemics began [3]. It
has come to light that the COVID-19 outbreak is far more extensive and persistent
than many first thought. There is still much to discover about the massive toll the
epidemic has had on all patients, COVID-19 positive and negative, even after it
has been going on for four years [4].
WHO classified COVID-19 as a pandemic [5]. While life expectancy has
risen a few months annually in several countries over the past few decades, new
data indicates that the COVID-19 pandemic will cause these trends to abruptly
cease in many different countries [6]. The sole method of treatment, despite
the accumulation of a substantial amount of scientific data, is the therapeutic
management of COVID-19 via supportive care [7]. The world is in a state of
flux. The COVID-19 epidemic may have a very high human cost. The pandemic
necessitates taking numerous steps, including testing, treatment, and prevention
[8]. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the potential harm of emerging
infectious disorders globally [9]. Researchers have rapidly gathered information on
viral entry, dominant mutations, transmission routes, diagnostic targets, therapeutic
Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models for Covid-19 Diagnosis 109

WHO Declares Pandemic

(March 12, 2020)

Virus Impact

COVID-19: Widely Dispersed Country Responses Extent and Persistence

Pandemic Classification Impact on Life Expectancy Therapeutic Management

State of Flux

High Human Cost

Steps to Take

Testing Treatment Prevention

Research Progess

Viral Entry Mutations Transmission Diagnostics Therapeutics

Fig. 1 Covid-19: A worldwide contagion.

targets, drug molecules, cross-neutralizing antibodies, and vaccine candidates for

COVID-19 prevention [10].

3. Bio-Inspired Algorithms: An overview

BIAs are needed to quickly handle exceedingly complex problems [Figure 2].
This is particularly true when working with issues that have changing constraints,
incomplete or inaccurate information, dynamic problem definitions, and constrained
processing power. BIAs include NN, evolutionary algorithm [EA], bacterial
foraging optimization algorithm [BFOA], cuckoo search optimization algorithm
[CSOA], firefly optimization algorithm [FFOA], shuffled frog leaping algorithm
[SFLA], bat algorithm [BA], flower pollination algorithm [FPA] and artificial plant
optimization algorithm [APOA] [11]. BIAs use computer architectures that are
modelled after natural phenomena or biosystems. These tactics provide sufficient
information to develop high-performance computing methods and intelligent
paradigms that can handle intricate formulations [12]. The four types of BIAs are
110 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

ecology-based, swarm intelligence-based, multi-objective, and evolutionary-based

[13]. BIAs are useful techniques for optimization. Since the current BIAs can solve
the challenges, the most effective and ideal way would be to use an algorithm
based on sentient animals such as humans, chimpanzees, or dolphins [14]. BIAs
can effectively tackle multi-dimensional nonlinear issues, such as those generally
encountered in biosignal investigation [15].
Finding sound, workable solutions to combinatorial optimization problems
in reality is challenging because these problems frequently have ambiguous
parameters, dynamic limits, heterogeneous solution representations, and precedence
constraints. Randomized techniques, like BIAs, can be used to quickly solve
incomprehensible combinatorial problems. BIAs employ naturalistic operators to
address a range of problems [16]. They imitate certain essential elements of the
neo-Darwinian evolutionary process [17]. Researchers are motivated to seek and
create practical techniques for locating and optimizing the solutions to complicated
optimization problems through BIAs due to the growing complexity of real-life
challenges [18]. BIAs are inspired by the swarm behaviours of various animal
groups, including fish schools, sheep herds, bee colonies, and bird flocks. These
groups, along with insects such as bees, ants, and mosquitoes, often demonstrate
remarkable abilities to solve intricate issues that appear to be much beyond their
reach [19].
Bio-inspired Algorithms Overview

Complex Problems Handling

Types of Bio-inspired Algorithms

Characteristics

Categories

Motivation for Researchers Optimization Swarm Behaviors inspiration

Challenges

Solution Approaches

Neo-Drawinian Evolutionary Process

Competitive Advantage

Fig. 2 Bio-Inspired Algorithms: An outline.

BIAs draw inspiration from biological processes found in nature to compete

with competitor approaches of today. Complex scientific and technical problems
Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models for Covid-19 Diagnosis 111

can be solved as best they can be when ML techniques are combined with an
algorithm that draws inspiration from biology [20].

4. Machine Learning: An overview

ML [Figure 3] acquires data from its environment [21]. New learning theories and
algorithms, as well as the ongoing spread of inexpensive computing and internet
data, have all contributed to recent developments in ML [22].

Machine Learning

Acquires Data from its Environment

Developments in ML

ML Algorithm Types

ML Areas

Al Research Emphasis

Benefits of ML

Expansion of ML

ML Applications

Fig. 3 Machine Learning: An Overview.

The primary benefit of ML is that it can operate autonomously once they figure
out what to do with the data [23]. Common ML algorithm types include supervised
[SV], unsupervised [US], semi-supervised [SS], reinforcement [RF], transduction
[TD], and learning to learn [LTL] [24]. The main emphasis of AI research is ML
[25]. ML can be divided into four main areas: (i) learning ensembles of classifiers
to increase classification accuracy; (ii) scaling SV learning algorithms; (iii)
reinforcement learning; and (iv) learning sophisticated stochastic models [26]. ML
allows computers to mimic human behaviour, generating learning tools for future
use from conversations and actions [27]. Over the past 50 years, ML has expanded
due to computer engineers’ curiosity and a neglected statistical discipline. It has
created learning algorithms for computer vision, and speech recognition, and
generated fundamental statistical-computational theories, boosting the data mining
industry by uncovering hidden patterns [28]. Without explicit instructions, ML
gathers broad principles from observed cases [29]. ML involves two aspects: a
112 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

computer system that can perform classification and prediction tasks, and a heavily
automated process that minimizes human involvement. The goal is to reduce
human biases and improve algorithm performance and selection [30].

5. Deep Learning: An overview

DL techniques in computational models [Figure 4] improve performance in fields
like drug discovery and genomics, enhancing speech recognition, visual object
recognition, and object detection [31].
Deep Learning (DL)

Advanced ML Methodology

Uses Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)

Improves Performance in Fields

Fields: Drug Discovery, Genomics, etc.

Enhances Recognition and Detection

Allows Learning at Multiple Levels

Chosen Domains Based on Proficiency

Utilizes Big Data and Processing Power

Generates Multiple Tiers of Representations

Addresses Dimensionality Issues

Inspires ML Subfield

Enables Data Exchange and Computation

Integrated with Applications

Applications: Image ID Self-driving Cars, etc.

Effective in Analyzing Biological Data

Presents Challenges for Novices

Fig. 4 Deep Learning: An overview.

Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models for Covid-19 Diagnosis 113

DL is an advanced ML methodology that performs better than existing

approaches by allowing models to learn features at several levels and progressively
from unstructured input [32]. DL application domains are chosen based on the
authors’ proficiency, including computer vision, speech recognition, multimodal
processing, information retrieval, and natural language processing [33]. DL, an
ML branch, utilizes artificial neural networks (ANNs) to model sophisticated
data concepts, gaining popularity because of its skill to leverage big data volumes
and processing power [34]. DL, a more advanced method than traditional ML, is
increasingly being utilized in academic research due to its practicality [35].
DL is an ML technique that automatically generates multiple tiers of
representations of the underlying distribution of data [36]. DL uses a two-stage
learning strategy to extract robust features from data, addressing the issue of
dimensionality in shallow systems like the support vector machine (SVM) [37].
ANNs, which use synthetic neurons and synapses that resemble human brains,
are the source of inspiration for the ML subfield recognized as DL. These NNs
enable data exchange and computation by matching input, output, node, and
interconnections [38]. DL draws interest from researchers because it improves
predictive capability in computer devices with massive data and improved
algorithms. ML is integrated with applications including image identification,
object detection, self-driving cars, drug development, and disease diagnosis [39].
DL, a popular AI technique, is effective in analysing and categorizing biological
data, but it presents significant challenges for those unfamiliar with it [40].

6. Applications of Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based ML

Models for CovID-19 Diagnosis
BIAs [Figure 5] based on ML models, like DT, RF, LR, NB, KNN, and SVM are
applied in the COVID-19 diagnosis process (Table 1).

Table 1 Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based ML models for COVID-19 diagnosis.

S. No. Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based Machine Learning Models References
1. LR, SVM, ANN, KNN, K-MEANS, RF, BOOST, LDA [41]
2. SVM, XG-BOOST [42]
3. SVM [44]
4. NN, RF, BOOST, LR, SVM [45]
5. SVM, RF [47]
6. SVM, ANN, KNN [48]
7. XG-BOOST [49]
8. IBk, MLP, NBC, SVM [50]

SVM is the furthermost extensively used ML method for the diagnosis of

COVID-19 [41]. ML techniques can significantly aid in COVID-19 diagnosis
by dispensing X-ray images of the chest [42]. ML can support the identification
114 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

of COVID-19 patients, especially when Xray pictures of the chest are necessary
[43]. Most ML algorithms used in the diagnosis of COVID-19 are SV learning
techniques [44]. Recently, five ML algorithms were applied to an arbitrary model
of 70% of COVID-19 patients. The algorithms’ performance was then assessed
using 30% of newly collected, unseen COVID-19 data [45].

ML in COVID-19 Diagnosis

ML Models: DT, RF, LR, NB, KNN, SVM

SVM: Most Used for COVID-19 Diagnosis

Aids in Diagnosis with X-ray Images

Identification with Chest X-rays

Supervised Learning Techniques

Performance Assessed with New Data

Novel Method for Chest X-rays

Simplified Accurate Diagnosis

Development of Reliable Systems

Timely and Accurate Treatment

Increased Use in Medical Imaging

RT-PCR and Bioinspired Algorithms

Bioinspired Algorithms: IBK, MLP, NB, RF, SVM

Fig. 5 Applications of Bio-Inspired algorithms-based ML models for COVID-19 diagnosis.

A novel ML method has been proposed for studying x-ray pictures of chests of
COVID-19 patients [46]. ML techniques have significantly simplified the accurate
diagnosis of COVID-19 in X-ray pictures of the chest [47]. ML techniques,
including SVM, ANN, and KNN, can be used to develop reliable COVID-19
diagnosis systems, enabling timely and accurate treatment and patient management
[48]. ML is being increasingly utilized for the diagnosis of COVID-19 using
medical imaging [49]. RT-PCR has been successfully used for diagnosis of
COVID-19 using five bio-inspired ML algorithms: IBk, MLP, NB, RF, and SVM
[50].
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models for Covid-19 Diagnosis
COVID-19 Diagnosis

BIAs: Autoencoders, SOMs, DBNs, etc.

DL Models

Benefits: Efficiency and Identifying Lung

Other DL Methods:
CNNs Early Detection, Compatibility Regions
LSTM, RNN, GAN, MLP
Reducing Impact

Radiologic Image Various COVID-19 COVID-19 vs

Processing Data Healthy

Reduce False-
Positives and Negatives

Fig. 6 Applications of Bio-Inspired algorithms-based DL models for COVID-19 diagnosis.

115
116 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

7. Applications of Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based DL Models

for CovID-19 Diagnosis
COVID-19 diagnosis has greatly benefited from BIAs, such as autoencoders based
on DL models, SOMs, DBNs, RBFNs, CNNs, LSTMs, RNNs, GANs, and MLPs
(Figure 6; Table 2).

Table 2 Bio-Inspired algorithms-based DL models for COVID-19 diagnosis.

S. No. Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based Deep Learning Models References
1. CNN, LSTM, GAN [51]
2. CNN, LSTM, GAN [52]
3. CNN, GAN [53]
4. CNN [55]
5. CNN, LSTM, RNN, GAN [56]
6. SOM, DBN, RBFN, CNN, LSTM, RNN, GAN, and MLP [57]

Advanced computational methods like DL can aid in early COVID-19

patient detection, potentially reducing the virus’s impact [51]. Convolutional
neural networks (CNNs) are the furthermost frequently utilized DL architecture
for diagnosing and classifying COVID-19 symptoms from X-ray pictures of the
chest [52].
DL is being utilized to reduce false-positive and negative errors in
COVID-19 radiologic image processing, thereby enabling secure, rapid, and
cost-effective diagnostic services for patients [53]. DL techniques utilizing AI
have been extensively utilized for the COVID-19 diagnosis [54]. DL techniques
are continuously evolving, becoming more efficient and compatible with various
types of COVID-19 data and diagnosis research [55]. Regional DL approaches
are being used to identify lung regions infested by COVID-19, classifying them
into COVID-19 and healthy individuals [56]. DL methods like Extreme Learning
Machines (ELM), long short-term memory (LSTM), and generational adversarial
networks (GANs) have been proven effective in diagnosing COVID-19 [57].

8. Challenges and Future Prospects of Bio-Inspired

Algorithms-based ML and DL Models for CovID-19
Diagnosis
The laboratory identification of infections presents several difficulties [58].
RT-qPCR techniques used to diagnose COVID-19 have varying sensitivity and
specificity, but some protocols have produced questionable test results, highlighting
potential difficulties [59]. The entire analytical procedure for COVID-19 diagnosis,
including sample gathering, treatment, viral ribonucleic acid amplification (RT-
PCR), recognition, medical sensitivity, and specificity authentication, presents
Bio-Inspired Algorithms-based Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models for Covid-19 Diagnosis 117

challenges [60]. The capacity to distinguish COVID-19 from unrelated viral

pneumonia, the availability of public datasets, the cleanliness of the dataset, and
the challenge of addressing issues from several perspectives are all obstacles [61]
(Figure 7).

Laboratory Identification Challenges

Obstacles in Data and Diagnosis
(RT-qPCR)
(Pneumonia differentiation, Dataset issues)

Analytical Procedure challenges ML and DL Challenges

(Sample gathering, RT-PCR, Sensitivity) (Data, Regulation, Privacy)

Future Innovations
(Point-of-care diagnostics, Al, Mobile apps)

Fig. 7 Challenges and future prospects of Bio-Inspired algorithms-based ML and DL

models for COVID-19 diagnosis.

ML and DL must overcome obstacles like regulation, lack of large-scale

training data, noisy data, expertise in computer science and medicine, data privacy,
incorrect structural data, early diagnosis using medical imaging, screening,
triaging, finding therapies, risk assessments, and medical resource planning [62].
Future work will need to address new ML issues for the diagnosis of COVID-19
based on body fluid testing. In the future, point-of-care diagnostics will become
more common due to the integration of lateral flow assays, AI, and state-of-the-art
molecular diagnostics. This will be particularly valid in the case that worldwide
pandemics such as COVID-19 occur [63]. Mobile apps that use a range of visual
data and clinical symptoms will be crucial for prompt diagnosis during pandemics
in the future [64].
AI models’ ability to adapt to virus changes underscores their potential as
a crucial technology for enhancing global health infrastructure [65] adaptability
during pandemics and other epidemics [66-68].

Conclusion
SARS-CoV-2 virus causes lung infections and other serious disorders and is the
source of COVID-19. After mild to moderate diseases, most patients recover
without the need for further care. Only a very tiny portion, though, especially in
the elderly and those with underlying medical issues, may need medical attention.
COVID-19 can infect people of any age, and understanding the disease and how
to diagnose it is essential to both preventing and controlling the virus. Bio-inspired
optimization algorithms are techniques that use biological principles, evolutionary
dynamics, and particular behaviours of real-world organisms as inspiration to solve
optimization problems in a range of application domains.
118 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

ML is the study of how to use data and algorithms to simulate human learning
processes in AI, hence improving AI accuracy over time. DL is a subfield of ML
that uses multidimensional NNs to feign the intricate administrative processes of
the brain of Homo sapiens. Bio-inspired methods based on ML models, like DT,
RF, LR, NB, KNN, and SVM, may be useful for COVID-19 diagnosis. BIAs,
including autoencoders based on DL models, SOMs, DBNs, RBFNs, CNNs,
LSTMs, RNNs, GANs, and MLPs, have been significant in the diagnosis of
COVID-19. The difficulties and opportunities of combining BIAs with DL and
ML models for the diagnosis of COVID-19 were fully covered.

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 Bio-Inspired Intelligence in Early
7 Cancer Detection
A Machine Learning Approach
Ashwini A.,1* Balasubramaniam S.2 and Sundaravadivazhagan B.3

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 causes COVID-19, which

leads Scientists have been encouraged by the need for finding better methods of
early cancer detection to explore these root principles of bio-inspired intelligence
and machine learning. This chapter focuses on the applications of these two
fields – the use of bio-inspired algorithms for improving the early detection of
cancer. Bio-inspired intelligence in early cancer diagnosis is defined as taking
cues from biological systems and techniques to develop new strategies for early
detection of cancer related conditions. This multi-disciplinary approach uses
biology, computer science, and engineering to solve the complex challenge of early
detection of cancer when treatment is most successful. It begins by introducing
the fundamental aspects of bio-inspired intelligence and how these concepts are
incorporated in machine learning systems to identify cancer. The chapter focus on
swarm intelligence for data clustering, modeling of tumor growth, and medical
image applications. Therefore, bio-inspired intelligence will most probably offer
inspiration for developing new strategies and techniques as well as algorithms
for the early detection of cancer. The scientists, by leveraging on the natural laws
governing the biological systems, have the chance to commission the enhancement
of the efficacy of the cancer diagnostic which will lead to increased patient
outcomes and survival rates.

1. Introduction to Cancer Diagnosis

One of the most important tasks in oncology is cancer diagnosis which focuses on
the identification and characterization of malignant tumors. Early identification
and accurate assessment of cancer are crucial for treatment and successful patient

1
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala
R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Avadi, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
2
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation
and Technology (Formerly IIITM-K), Digital University Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala,
India.
3
Department of Information Technology, University of Technology and Applied Science-AL
Mussanah, Oman.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Bio-Inspired Intelligence in Early Cancer Detection 123

management. There are various methods used in cancer diagnosis; they include
imaging tests, histopathology, molecular biology, and computational approaches.
All these techniques are essential in establishing whether or not a person has cancer,
the type of cancer, and the stage of cancer, which is helpful for cancer treatments
and prognoses. Historically, the identification of cancer has been primarily based
on medical imaging methods, including X-ray, CT, MRI, and ultrasound. These
methods help clinicians to see internal images and spot any abnormal masses or
lesions. After the questionable area is identified, a biopsy is usually taken, and a
pathologist later analyzes the sampled tissue using a microscope [1]. Microscopic
examination of tissue samples is still the most reliable way to make cancer diagnosis
and it gives much information about the structure of the tumor tissue.
Today, the rapid development of molecular biology methods has profoundly
changed cancer diagnostics. Molecular tests for cancer include PCR, NGS, liquid
biopsy, which identify genetic alterations, epigenetic markers, or circulating tumor
DNA in blood. These molecular diagnostic tools also offer the hope of early
cancer detection at a stage when it is not detectable in any imaging studies as
well as additional information on the nature and type of tumor under study due
to the information about tumors at the genetic and molecular level. This is very
important in the area of personalized medicine because this information allows the
recognition of the idea of having individual treatment on cancer’s characteristics
in each patient.
The use of machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) in cancer
diagnosis is the next frontier in cancer diagnosis in the use of developing AI and
ML in diagnosis which would ensure to improve the precision and effectiveness of
diagnosis of cancer. ML algorithms are able to search any medical information such
as scans, pathology slides and information regarding aberrations to find cancer
[2]. One of them is bio-inspired intelligence which exploits mechanisms gained
from biological systems to enhance the performance of these algorithms. Through
the stimulation of neuronal processes in the brain, evolutionary computation, and
artificial immune systems, bio-inspired AI models can provide increased diagnostic
accuracy and support early cancer detection and prognosis for improved clinical
outcomes and mortality rates.

2. Evolutionary Algorithms in Feature Selection

Evolutionary algorithms (EAs) are one of the types of bio-inspired computational
techniques using the principles of natural evolution as a model for problem solving,
in the context of feature selection for early cancer detection. In general, EAs have
significant applications in feature selection for early cancer detection as they
demonstrate a great potential in enhancing the efficiency and accuracy of tumor
detection of machine learning (ML) models by selecting the most important features
from a pool of features [3]. Here’s a detailed explanation of how evolutionary
algorithms are applied to feature selection.
124 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

2.1 Initialization
This involves generating an initial population of potential solutions referred to
as chromosomes or individuals. Each of the chromosome stands for a part of the
feature set. Such subsets can be chosen randomly or by some heuristic criteria [4].
For example, in the dataset that has hundreds of features, each chromosome can
be presented as a binary vector in which ‘1’ means that the feature is chosen and
‘0’ means that it is not.

2.2 Fitness Evaluation

The next step is to find the fitness of the individual in the population. Accuracy is the
fitness of the particular feature set chosen in a classification or prediction problem.
This usually entails utilizing the chosen features to train an ML algorithm and then
determining how well it works on a validation set. Popular fitness functions for
evaluation purposes are accuracy, precision, recall, F1 score, or some combination
of these. A high fitness score implies that the given chromosome is associated with
a high-performing model for the features chosen.

2.3 Selection
Selection is the process of replacing the old generation with a new one that is
derived from the existing population. This step is based on the fitness scores, with
better fitter having a higher probability of selection. Suitable methods include
roulette wheel selection, tournament selection, or rank-based selection [5]. The aim
is to guarantee that good solutions get passed down to the succeeding generation
without getting stuck in a local optima due to lack of diversity.

2.4 Crossover (Recombination)

Crossover is another genetic operator that refers to the process of combining the
features of two parent individuals to form an offspring. This process is supposed
to imitate biological reproduction and would attempt to create a new individual
with characteristics from both individuals involved in the reproduction process [6].
Typical examples of crossover operators are single-point crossover, multi-point
crossover, and uniform crossover. For example, in single-point crossover, a random
point on the parent chromosomes is chosen, and the subsequences following this
point are exchanged between two parents, generating two offspring.

2.5 Mutation
Mutation involves introducing random alterations on individual chromosomes to
ensure diversity in the population. This step aims at improving the search space
and making sure that it does not get trapped in local optima. In the case of the
feature selection problem, mutation can be defined as a process of changing one
 Bio-Inspired Intelligence in Early Cancer Detection 125

bit of the binary vector, that is, substituting a ‘1’ with a ‘0’, or vice versa [7]. The
mutation rate which describes when a given mutation occurs is usually low so that
the general form of the good solutions is not destroyed but new variations can be
tested.

2.6 Replacement
The replacement process follows crossover and mutation where a decision is made
on the evaluation of the new generated individuals as to whether they will form
part of the next generation. This step can involve replacing the entire population
with the new individuals or a blend of the best individuals from both the current
and new populations. Such strategies like elitism where a specific number of the
‘fittest’ individuals are transferred to the next generation are employed to prevent
the algorithm from losing the ‘best’ solutions [8].

2.7 Termination
The evolutionary process proceeds through the sequence of fitness evaluation,
selection, crossover, mutation, and replacement till a stopping condition is satisfied.
Typical stopping conditions include reaching a fixed number of generations,
reaching a targeted fitness for the population, or failing to see any increase in fitness
for a certain number of generations.

3. Genetic Programming (GP) for Model optimization

GP is an important evolutionary algorithm that is used to describe a computer
program optimization based on the genetic algorithms (GAs). GP works on
populations of computer programs that usually have tree representation as opposed
to GAs which work with parameter vectors of fixed length [9]. Such programs can
carry out specified activities or address specific issues; therefore, GP is useful in
diverse applications including modeling for optimizing early cancer detection.

3.1 Foundations and Representation

GP is a type of evolutionary algorithm in which solutions are evolved over time
through a process that resembles natural selection. The individual or elemental unit
of GP is a computer program. These programs are usually depicted in the form
of trees where various nodes stand for functions or operations (for instance)—
variables, mathematical functions, logical operators, and leaves—represent inputs/
variables. This tree-based representation is general since it can represent many
different computational structures and solutions [10]. Random permutation is
commonly used to generate the first population of all possible programs. Each
program is one of the possible solutions of the problem and diversification of the
initial population gives a wide field for the evolutionary algorithms to search.
126 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

3.2 Fitness Evaluation

The fitness of each program in the population is a critical component in GP. Cross
validation is the process of fitness evaluation where each program is run on a
training set and the performance is recorded. In the context of cancer detection,
a program’s strength could be defined as the efficiency with which the program
is classifying the samples as cancerous or non-cancerous. Fitness functions can
also include other performance parameters like precision, recall, F1 score, or
computational speed.
Fitness evaluation serves two main purposes: It offers a framework for classifying
programs in terms of their fitness, and it determines the choice of programs to be
copied based on their fitness [11]. This performance-based selection is crucial
to the evolutionary process as it ensures the effective spread of favorable traits
throughout the population.

3.3 Genetic Operations: Selection, Crossover, and Mutation

Genetic operations are the means by which GP progresses the population through
subsequent generations.

Selection
Selection deals with the process where individuals are picked from the existing
population to reproduce the next generation. Methods like roulette wheel selection,
tournament selection, or the rank-based selection are employed to stochastically
include higher-fitness individuals in the next population without eliminating
diversity completely.

Crossover (Recombination)
Crossover is a reproduction strategy in which parts of two parent programs are
mixed together. Crossover in GP mainly involves swapping of sub-trees from
each of the parents. For instance, a subtree of one parent performing a particular
function or a decision block may be replaced by another subtree from a different
parent to thus give rise to new combinations of operations and inputs [12]. This
recombination can generate offspring with better traits from their parents and it
can be used to generate better solutions.

Mutation
Mutation entails the creation of random alterations to individual programs so as to
keep diversity and search for new regions of the solution space. Recombination/
mutation in GP might include changing a node in the tree, e.g., it includes
substituting one operator for another (for example, replacing the addition operator
with a multiplication operator), and introducing new nodes or removing already
 Bio-Inspired Intelligence in Early Cancer Detection 127

existing ones. These random changes ensure that the population does not become
trapped on sub-optimal local solutions too early and promotes the search for
diverse solutions [13].

3.4 Iterative Evolution and Termination

The above events of selection, crossover, and mutation are repeated for several
generations. Each generation is a set of population that changes with time as
expected enhancement in the fitness of the population as better programs are
produced and the weaker programs are omitted [14]. This process is repeated
until a certain stopping condition is fulfilled, which may be a predefined number
of iterations, a certain computational time, or sufficiently high fitness values for
the entire population.

4. Biological System Modeling for Tumor Growth Prediction

Mathematical modeling of tumors for the diagnosis of growing tumors and cancer
prognosis deals with the application of mathematical, computational, and biological
techniques to describe the processes of cancer development. These models assist
in forecasting the developments of tumors, their possibilities of metastasizing, and
their responses to medications.

4.1 Introduction to Biological System Modeling

Biological system modeling is a computational approach that seeks to define
biological systems using models that can computationally describe the behavior
of these systems. In cancer research, these models are primarily aimed at studying
aspects of tumor development and malignant behavior and involve mimicking the
effects of cancer cells on their tissue environments [15]. It hopes to accurately
simulate tumor progression and determine the emergence of opportunities for
diagnosis and treatment.

4.2 Types of Models

There are several types of models used for tumor growth prediction, each with its
unique strengths and applications:

4.2.1 Mechanistic Models

The mechanistic models in pharmacodynamics depend on the biological processes
governing tumor growth. These models apply mathematical equations to define the
rate of occurrence of cellular events, including the proliferation, death (apoptosis),
and formation of blood vessels (angiogenesis). For example: Many of the tumor-
cell population dynamics are described using Ordinary Differential Equations
(ODEs) which represent time evolutions of the cell populations. Partial differential
128 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

equations (PDEs) take into consideration both positional and temporal variations
and describe the dynamics of how tumors move over space and their growth over
time.

4.2.2 Phenomenological Models

Phenomenological models are more data-oriented; they simply describe the
observed quantitative relationships without necessarily outlining the formal
processes that cause the observations. These models can be used to forecast
information where there is a significant amount of historical data [16]. Examples
include: Statistical Models: These employ regression methods to determine if there
are measurable relationships between factors like the rate of tumor growth and the
patient’s age or the size of the tumor at the time of diagnosis or the presence of
certain genetic markers. Machine Learning Models: ML represents mathematical
techniques such as neural networks and decision trees that can model massive
datasets aimed at extrapolating tumor behavior and patient responses.

4.2.3 Hybrid Models

The third strategy is to use hybrid models, which integrate mechanistic and
phenomenological theories in a way that enables the benefits of each to be exploited.
They also combine specific biological mechanisms with statistical techniques to
produce more realistic forecasts.

4.3 Key Components of Tumor Growth Models

Important aspects of tumor growth comprise several essential biological mechanisms
that characterize the process of cancer progression [17]. Such variables include
cellular proliferation- the rate in which the tumor cells divide, angiogenesis—the
formation of new blood vessels for the tumor to acquire nutrients and oxygen and
finally various microenvironment interactions involved, which include the effects
of the tumor on the surrounding tissue and vice versa, the immune response and
the extracellular matrix around the tumor.

4.3.1 Cellular Proliferation

This component represents the differentiation of the cancer cells used in the growth.
Some of the factors that could be used include the genetic mutation, nutrients,
and the signaling pathways in the cell that could promote cell proliferation. The
equations represent various dynamics for how the number of cancer cells depends
on time [18].

4.3.2 Angiogenesis
Tumor angiogenesis is essential in the growth of tumors because it helps in the
provision of basic substances and oxygen to the tumors. Angiogenic factors such as
 Bio-Inspired Intelligence in Early Cancer Detection 129

VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) and their implications in blood vessel
development are sometimes included in the model.

4.3.3 Microenvironment Interactions

Tumor tissues are highly dynamic and are characterized by the recruitment of
various immune cells as well as stromal cells and deposition of the extracellular
matrix. Such models include these interactions to predict how the tumor ‘shapes’
the environment and how this transformed environment influences the growth of
the tumor.

4.3.4 Invasion and Metastasis

Sophisticated systems reproduce the stages of invasion (cancer cells spreading
to surrounding tissue) and metastasis (disease dissemination in the body). These
processes include the simulation of cell locomotion, the action of enzymes on the
extra-cellular matrix, and the trafficking of cells through the blood stream.

4.3.5 Treatment Response

The impact of current treatments such as Chemotherapy, Radiation, and targeted
therapies must be factored in [19]. Models model how these treatments influence
the viability, development rate, and development of potential immune mechanisms
in tumor cells. But the concrete models in addition often have much more explicit
descriptions of the process of invasion/micro metastasis—how cancer cells move
from one part of the body to another – and of therapeutic response that is how
tumor cells perceive chemotherapy and radiation. It is necessary to mention that the
models of tumor growth are effective because they include all these components
and create a full working system for tumor simulation.

4.4 Mathematical and Computational Techniques

The Mathematical and Computational Methods for Bio-Inspired Cancer Diagnosis
is presented as a new class of bio-clinical cancer diagnosis that uses principals of
biology and computer science for making digital predictions through making use
of mathematical models that can be thought of in the way computers do it [20].
This includes the equations that model mathematical representations of the growth
and development of a tumor using differential equations, the cell-agent model with
interactions of certain cells with their environments, and the cellular automata
model for grid-based chemical and biological systems computations. Neuro nets
and support vector machines (SVMs) are also used to address large datasets to
obtain the difference between the features that can characterize the presence of
cancer.
130 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

4.4.1 Differential Equations

Differential equations ODEs and PDEs are employed to describe continuous
changes in some parameters such as the number of tumor cells and the concentration
of nutrients. They have more accuracy and specificity essential for modeling
biological systems.

4.4.2 Agent-Based Models (ABMs)

ABMs are computational models that generate emergent patterns at the population
level by reproducing cell behaviors based on individual cells’ actions and
intercellular interactions. Each cell applies clear principles and observing their
interaction enables one to notice emerging growth mechanisms [21].

4.4.3 Cellular Automata

Cellular automata are based on the idea that a periodic structure is employed
with each of the cells of the structure capable of existing in a specified state such
as healthy, cancerous, and necrotic. Each cell has a state that is dependent on
predefined rules driven from adjacent cells to mimic local interaction and growth.

4.4.4 Machine Learning

Unsupervised ML approaches, namely, neural networks, SVMs, and ensembles can
be utilized to improve the model [22]. These models are able to notice complex
patterns from big datasets which can act as a good complement to mechanistic
approaches.

5. Algorithmic Procedure for Anomaly Detection

A technique suggesting the implementation of collective behaviors of decentralized
systems for the surveillance of cardiac system of human body as this is modeled
on the behavior of real social insect colonies found in nature for the creation of a
more efficient process is a novel approach. Figure 1 shows the processing flow of
bio-inspired algorithms.

6. Bio-inspired optimization for Hyperparameters

Anomaly detection-based bio-inspired cancer diagnosis based on immunological
algorithms develops from the observation that the biological immune system
possesses the capability to distinguish the difference between the targets or
self-objects, and subject or non-self-entities to identify and eliminate pathogens
or abnormal cells. These algorithms capture the Adaptive and Innate immune
responses and uses Negative selection, Clonal selection, and Immune network
theory to identify the anomalies in biological data [23]. The aim here is to be
 Bio-Inspired Intelligence in Early Cancer Detection 131

Start

Initialize Population

Fitness
computation

Termination Output End

condition

Operations and
updation

Fig. 1 Process flow of bio-inspired optimization.

able to predict outliers that do not belong, and in the case of diagnosing cancer is
able to predict the existence of certain cellular or molecular patterns that suggest
cancerous cells are growing in the body.

6.1 Negative Selection Algorithm

The negative selection algorithm is a well-known immunological technique for
anomaly detection. It is grounded on the process of T-cell development in the
thymus T-cells that exhibit high affinity to self-antigens that are eliminated so that
mature T-cells that can recognize non-self-antigens are obtained. In computational
terms, this means producing a set of detectors which characterizes normal behavior.
These detectors are then exposed to self-samples, and those that give a response
similar to the self-samples are eliminated. The rest detectors that fail to identify the
self-samples are useful for detecting anomalies. It is used in cancer diagnosis to
flag abnormal patterns observed in a patient’s data, for example, abnormally high
gene expressions or imaging a pattern that might suggest the presence of tumors.

6.2 Clonal Selection Algorithm

Immunological Clonal selection is another approach with inspiration from the
adaptive immune response where B-cells that interact with antigens are allowed
to multiply and undergo hyper mutation in an effort to raise the affinity of a cell to
the antigen. When translated computationally, it involves creating a population of
possible solutions (antibodies) that have to be exposed to a set of data (antigens).
Antibodies which recognize abnormalities or malformations (known as antigens)
132 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

are chosen for propagation and undergo alteration or modifications to create

different versions [24]. It is an iterative optimization which is important in
improving the system’s capability to recognize anomalies peculiar to the system.
In cancer diagnosis, clonal selection algorithms can dynamically enhance their
identification skills by repeatedly learning new patterns from new data and this is
in line with enhanced detection skills of cancer cells.

6.3 Artificial Immune Networks

Artificial immune networks consist of a graph of relations between different
immune cells and the responses of these cells to antigens which are the pathogens
and the relations that form dynamic evolving detector networks. These networks
comprise of vertices which represent different detectors (immune cells) and edges
which may show the interaction between the different detectors. The network learns
by analogy to the immune system through mechanisms that include suppression
and stimulation, but preserves a diverse pool of detectors helpful in recognizing a
wide range of anomalies. As far as cancer diagnosis is concerned and can find use
in integrating diverse biological datasets, e.g., of integrating numerous data sources
(genetic, proteomic, and imaging) to build a multidimensional, fault-tolerant, and
learning system that can successfully identify more elusive and sophisticated
derivatives of abnormality potentially associated with cancer.

7. Adaptive Cancer Diagnosis Learning Algorithms

Cancer diagnosis are computational approaches that are based on imitation of
natural processes existing in living organisms for identifying, classifying, and
predicting the incidence of cancer cells [25]. Rather, these algorithms are designed
in such a way that they learn and modify with time and experience as it happens
in living organisms in a given environment, in this case cancer diagnosis. A brief
overview of applications of the main types of such algorithms for cancer diagnosis
is discussed.

7.1 Introduction to Adaptive Bio-inspired Algorithms

Bio-inspired adaptive algorithms in engineering are based on different processes in
nature including evolution, immune systems, and brain activity. These algorithms
are accompanied by the following features: they can learn from data, they can
exploit new information, and they can increase the performance of the algorithm
in time [26, 27].

7.2 Types of Adaptive Bio-inspired Algorithms

In cancer diagnosis, these algorithms need to work out well with multidimensional
medical data to detect features and abnormalities that are relevant to the cancer.
 Bio-Inspired Intelligence in Early Cancer Detection 133

7.2.1 Genetic Algorithms (GAs)

GAs borrow their principles from a study of nature and the process of evolution. As
they operate, they develop a set of candidate solutions to the problem by employing
operations of selection, crossover, and mutation [28– 30]. To discriminate cancerous
tissues, GAs can be applied to choose the relevant features, set model variables,
or generate classification strategies. They work by repeatedly selecting the best
solution and ‘breeding’ new populations of solutions until satisfactory solutions are
obtained—a process which finds and optimizes or approximates optimal solutions
for complex diagnostic problems.

7.2.2 Genetic Programming (GP)

GP is another variation of GAs in which solutions are computer programs or
models instead of fixed-length character strings. GP works with tree structures
representing computational models and improves programs by choosing, merging,
and changing them. For cancer diagnosis, GP may use descriptive capabilities
to develop predictive models that combine multiple types of inputs, e.g., big
data: consist of massive amounts of structured/semi-structured/unstructured
information, such as genomic, proteomic, imaging to generate precise and/or
interpretable forecasting rules.

7.2.3 Artificial Immune Systems (AIS)

The AIS are modeled after the human immune system which is capable of
identifying foreign substances in the body and neutralizing them. AIS algorithms
are applied in forecasting or detecting anomalies and/or novel patterns in data; for
instance, negative selection algorithm or clonal selection algorithm. AIS can also
be applied in cancer diagnosis in that it pinpoints abnormal data in medical records
that could possibly suggest cancer. Such systems go through changes on a regular
basis and also learn from new sets of data that enhance detection skills.

7.2.4 Neural Networks and Deep Learning

Artificial neural networks (ANNs) along with their derivatives including
convonutional neural networks (CNNs) and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) are
based on the human brain and its mechanism of working. These networks are made
up of neurons that are arranged in layers and handle the information accordingly
[31]. Multilayered deep learning models can be used in the identification of
complex patterns and features in massive datasets. Modern CNNs are effective
at analyzing medical images for cancer diagnostics, while RNNs are suitable for
time-series data, including data from patient monitoring.

7.2.5 Swarm Intelligence Algorithms

Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) are two
examples of swarm intelligence algorithms which are based on the behavior of
134 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

particles of various social organism like bird, fish, or ant. The latter are algorithms
which improve solutions by mimicking the flocking and swarming behavior and
communication of these organisms. In cancer diagnostics, he swarm intelligence
algorithms help in searching for the best solution from the vast dataset that helps
optimize the diagnostic models, feature selection, and treatment planning.

7.3 Key Components and Mechanisms

Learning and Adaptation

Evolutionary ML techniques process patterns in an iterative manner where data
is used to test parameter and structure modifications of the algorithms. It entails
training with datasets that have been used in the past to detect a pattern and then
testing with other datasets to verify and improve the models [32]. The adaptation
mechanism undertakes to maintain the algorithms relevant in the presence of new
data or altered data conditions.

Feature Selection and Dimensionality Reduction

The dimension of medical data is usually very high in cancer diagnosis; hence,
feature selection is crucial. Some of these techniques borrow from nature with
bio-inspired algorithms like genetic evolution, swarm behavior, and neural
network pruning used to discard noise and de-noise the data to obtain relevant
features for better results in the models. This process increases the interpretability
and efficiency of diagnostic models. Table 1 shows the different dimensionality
reduction techniques used in bio-inspired optimization procedure.

Table 1 Various dimensionality reduction techniques.

Types Merits Search method Effectiveness
Wrapper Method Classifier interaction and Deterministic Superior with high
feature selection efficiency
Feature Extraction High discriminating power PCA, ICA Used in hybrid
algorithm
Filter Method Autonomous and high speed Univariate, Quicker
calculation Multivariate
Embedded Low overfitting values Integrated and Computations are
Method Simplified model less expensive
Hybrid Method Combination of various In-depth search Complexity
feature selection and method
extraction

Robustness and Generalization

Advantages of bio-inspired algorithms include a capability to work well with
robust and generalized data. This is attained through such mechanisms like
 Bio-Inspired Intelligence in Early Cancer Detection 135

mutation and crossover in GAs that provide diversification to prevent overfitting.

Other algorithms such as the neural networks and deep learning models employ
regularization mechanisms and dropout layers to retain the generalization abilities.

7.4 Applications in Cancer Diagnosis

Early Detection and Screening

Modern heuristic bio-mimicking methods are used in the pre-clinical cancer
diagnosis. Such algorithms can look at imaging results, compare them with genetic
information, and even check the levels of certain biomarkers to spot the first signs
of cancer before people experience any symptoms. This type of detections at the
earlier stage improves the efficacy of treatment as well as the chances of survival
of the patient.

Personalized Medicine
This can be solved through adaptive algorithms which are developed to alter the
models to fit the individual attributes of the patient [33]. These algorithms are able
to combine the data of genomics, the data of proteins, and clinical data to determine
the most suitable drug for a particular patient using their individual genetic and
biological markers.

Prognosis and Risk Assessment

ML involves use of the bio-inspired adaptive algorithms for predicting the progress
and outcome of disease and for Cancer Risk Estimation. These models try to
forecast the trends of patients in the future based on the past patients and also
attempt to identify patterns of diseases and patient revisit behaviors and survival
rates. This is important because the clinicians are the people who will be responsible
for making decisions about the care of the patient and treatment as well as follow-
ups and continuing care.

Treatment Response Prediction

Making accurate forecasts on how a patient is going to respond to various treatments
is another critical use [34]. Swarm computational intelligence databases process
personalized information and predicts individual reactions to chemotherapy,
radiation, and biologic drug therapies to optimize treatments and reduce toxicity.

8. Hybrid Bio-inspired Approaches

Bio-inspired hybrid methods for cancer diagnosis are combinations of fundamental
biochemical and biological concepts from different sources of biological systems
and computational algorithms to improve the performance of diagnosis. These
136 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

approaches involve hybridization of various algorithms that are used for example
in genetic algorithms, AIS and neural networks; the main idea behind such
hybridization is that it would improve performance on detection and classification
of the cancerous growths via elimination of weaknesses of individual approaches.
Through utilizing the underlying biology and versatility of living beings hybrid
methods have great potential in modeling the dynamic and complex nature of
cancer for enhanced diagnosing results.
One of the common hybrid applications in cancer diagnosis includes using
the GAs with the ML classifiers like SVMs or decision trees. GAs are applied
to the tasks of determining feature subsets, model coefficients, or classification
conditions based on repeatedly improving a set of potential solutions through
a selection, crossover, and mutation process. Meanwhile, other algorithms, like
SVMs or decision trees, apply the selected features to fit efficient classification
models according to the training data [35]. This approach combining GAs for
feature selection and ML for classification by building a diagnostic model is a
hybrid approach because it combines GAs for solving feature selection problems
with machine learning for classification problem and it guarantees that the resulting
model requires a minimal number of features but has a high predictive performance.
A second type of merged bio-inspired strategies involves the use of AIS in
combination with more ‘conventional’ ML techniques for cancer classification.
AIS algorithms attempt to replicate the human immune system’s capacity to detect
deviations from normalcy and use AIS algorithms to pattern find and eventually
find patterns associated with cancer in large medical datasets. When combining
AIS with ML algorithms, the result can be an ML model enhanced with anomaly
detection capabilities or an AIS model that gains the classification power of ML and
the generalization ability of ensemble methods with the random forests algorithm.
This combination of features makes the system robust and able to accurately detect
cancer in various datasets based on unique and efficiently discriminating between
normal and abnormal patterns [36].

9. Challenges and Future Directions

Challenges and opportunities reveals that future development of bio-inspired
cancer diagnosis will be an intricate process that reflects the complicated nature
of both biological systems and computational methods [37].

9.1 Data Integration and Heterogeneity

The first issue in bio-inspired cancer diagnosis is that of data integration where data
from all types of biology such as genomic, proteomic, imaging, and clinical needs
to be unified. These data sources tend to manifest high degrees of heterogeneity
and present a challenge to integrating them into models that comprehensively
describe cancer biology. Future efforts will include the research and advancement
into means on how heterogeneous data sets can be integrated and harmonized to
provide a better and more accurate diagnosis of cancer cases.
 Bio-Inspired Intelligence in Early Cancer Detection 137

9.2 Interpretability and Explainability

Even though bio-inspired algorithms may reach a high level of accuracy in cancer
diagnosis, they have a crucial limitation: these models are not very explainable and
interpretable. Clinicians need lucid and comprehensible models that translate to the
biological foundation of diagnosis. An area of future work will involve the creation
of approaches for decision-justification to support the clinician by explaining the
decisions of bio-inspired models, and developing the clinician’s trust in them.

9.3 Robustness and Generalization

The generalization and stability of the models inspired by bio-organisms for cancer
diagnosis should be guaranteed for their industrial applications. Such models need
to work in population subgroups, in various healthcare systems, with different
quality and quantity of data available. Future work will include finding ways to
effectively tune bio-inspired models to improve their robustness and generalization
abilities using techniques for data augmentation, transfer learning, and model
regularization.

9.4 Ethical and Regulatory Considerations

The development of bio-inspired cancer diagnosis technologies to date makes the
discussion of ethical and regulatory issues relevant. These types of technologies
pose significant ethical and legal concerns, including patient privacy, informed
consent, and algorithmic bias, which must be properly managed and regulated to
avoid or minimize the potential harm from AI and ML’s misuse and misapplication.
Future study work will shape in creating an ethical standard and laws or regulations
that put value to the growth and quality of bio-inspired cancer diagnosis models
for the coming years.

9.5 Clinical Validation and Translation

Finally, clinical validation of the testing procedure and demonstrating its clinical
implementation in bio-inspired cancer diagnosis is crucial for its success. Well-
designed and randomized control trials must be conducted to assess the accuracy
and efficacy of these models in clinical practice to establish the models contribution
to patient outcomes, clinical decisions, and healthcare. Future works will include
the large-scale clinical trials to further elucidate diagnostic performance and
clinical utility of bio-inspired cancer diagnosis models toward broader application
in clinical decision support.
Nano bio-cancer technology is a new field that can be used to detect and
treat cancer and has great potential for the future. But, there are still some critical
barriers that need to be overcome to achieve this potential fully. These challenges
include data integration, interpretability, robustness, ethical, and clinical validation;
therefore, addressing these problems will allow the researchers to leverage the most
promising bio-inspired approaches in cancer diagnosis.
138 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Conclusion
Bio-inspired design has several distinct advantages in the detection and classification
of cancerous cells and in prognosis of cancer growth. However, problems like
data heterogeneity, interpretability, and regulation, among others, continue to
hinder progress in this area as researchers and health organizations strive towards
enhancing the accuracy of cancer diagnosis and achieving more personalized
and accessible approaches. More advancements in data interoperability, model
explainability, clinical verification, and ethical management will enable bio-
inspired cancer diagnosis to radically transform clinical cancer care by predicting
improved cancer patient outcomes and more efficiently guiding clinical decision-
making.

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 Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Machine
8 Learning and Deep Learning for
Diabetes Diagnosis
S. Aathilakshmi,1* Balasubramaniam S.2 and Ayodeji Olalekan Salau3

Bio-inspired algorithms in machine learning and deep learning for Diabetic

diagnosis are important as diabetes affects millions of individuals throughout
the globe and is the leading cause of blindness in persons of working age. This
highlights the critical need of a trustworthy retinal screening method. Recently,
with the use of effective Image Processing technology, Deep Learning algorithms
have shown promise for application in population diagnosis and classification. In
this research, the proposed system used a Conventional Neural Network as part
of a deep learning approach to rapidly detect diabetes in newly recorded medical
images. Classifiers well-suited to many different classification tasks may be mined
from data. Main objective of this research is to solve the challenge of detecting
diabetes and Glaucoma in retinal pictures, using feed-forward neural network.
The suggested approach significantly improves the speed and accuracy of illness
detection over conventional techniques due to its much greater rate of complete
classification. When a self-trained model is used, such as Alexnet, extensive testing
may assist improve accuracy. As a result, the suggested approach vastly enhances
the speed and precision of diabetes recognition. The results show a classification
accuracy of 99.61%, sensitivity of 98.65%, and specificity of 98.60%.

1. Introduction
Diabetic diagnosis is important as diabetes causes severe vision loss and is a global
health crisis. About a third of the roughly 285 million persons who have diabetes
mellitus globally also have diabetic symptoms. Diabetics develop an eye condition
over time as a consequence of having diabetes; another one-third of persons in
this group encounter the more severe kind of diabetic symptoms called vision-
threatening diabetic retinopathy. High blood glucose levels call for a different issue
in diabetic diagnosis, like it will affect the retina, leading to Diabetic diagnosis [1].

1
Department of ECE, Chennai Institute of Technology.
2
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation
and Technology (Formerly IIITM-K), Digital University Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala,
India.
3
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Afe Babalola University, Nigeria.
Email: [email protected]
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
142 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Vision loss occurs when these tiny blood vessels are broken and the contents bleed
onto the retina. This occurs when the retina, the light-sensitive area at the back of
the eye, does not get enough oxygen and nutrients because blood vessels there have
been damaged. A diabetic may initially have relatively little visual impairment [2].
The great bulk of research in this area makes use of fundus photographs, which
are visual records of a person’s current ocular condition. Determining whether or
not diabetic symptoms are present in these fundus images requires segmentation
of retinal blood vessels, lesions, and the diabetic itself [3].
Microaneurysms (MA), superficial retinal haemorrhages, exudates (Exs) (both
soft and hard), intraretinal haemorrhages, and cotton-wool patches are all examples
of lesions that may be utilised to determine the presence or absence of diabetic
symptoms and their development [4]-[5]. To avoid irreversible vision loss or
damage, an early Diabetic diagnosis is essential. Some individuals claim to have
seen alterations, such as a diminished ability to read or concentrate on distant
objects. These visual deviations might manifest in ways you wouldn’t anticipate.
As the disease progresses, blood vessels in the retina may start to bleed into the
vitreous, the gel-like substance that fills the eye. In the last two decades, the
prevalence of diabetes has increased Diabetic Automatically.
The World Health Organisation predicts this number will reach 700 million
by 2045, making public health an increasingly pressing problem on a worldwide
basis. Diabetics is caused by damage to the retina’s blood vessels in the retina’s
underlying layer [6]. If neglected and left untreated for an extended period of time,
it may have disastrous effects, including blindness. This emphasises the critical
nature of finding a solution to this problem. However, some persons with Diabetic
diagnosis may see dot-like or streaky patterns [7], which resemble a spider web.
These spots may go away without treatment, but it’s best to take care of them
immediately. It’s important to stop the bleeding since it may reoccur, become
worse, or create scarring if the wound doesn’t heal correctly if left untreated.
Non-proliferative and proliferative phases of Diabetic diagnosis are
distinguished. Vision loss at this point is caused by fluid leakage inside the
retinal blood vessels [8]. Because of the swelling and subsequent wetness of the
retina, vision is impaired. Non-proliferative Diabetic diagnosis is characterised
by microaneurysms (MAs), microhaemorrhages, and exudates (Exs). A leading
global cause of blindness in diabetics is a matter of concern. Because of how
common it is in developed countries, it is crucial for finding a way to detect,
identify, and diagnose it quickly [9]. Nearly a third of the roughly 285 million
people around the world who have diabetes mellitus show symptoms of diabetic,
and another one-third of those people have a more severe manifestation of diabetic
known as vision-threatening diabetics [10]. However, a significant challenge
remains in successfully collecting actionable information from segmented images.
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) may be utilised to improve segmentation
results when this is the case.
The use of a Hybrid Neural Network allowed for the classification of Diabetic
diagnosis into several subtypes. In this study, the VGG network was employed
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Diabetes Diagnosis 143

for feature extraction to help build the recommended CNN-based model using
a transfer learning mechanism inside the InceptionV3 framework to investigate
a unique alternative approach. After that, the user employed a Support Vector
Machine (SVM) to sort diabetic instances into groups.
An entirely automated method for classifying diabetic was first presented
in the publication Automated Detection of diabetic [11]. This sorting task was
accomplished using five distinct Transfer Learning models. These models achieved
impressive levels of validation accuracy, with Exception (86.25%), Inception
Res-Net V2 (96.25%), Mobile Net V2 (93.75%), Dense-Net 121 (81.25%), and
NAS-Net Mobile (80.00%) performing best. Following that, the user advanced the
idea of employing deep CNNs for automating the process [12]. This research made
use of a transfer learning approach inspired by the DenseNet-121 structure. Mas,
Exs, and haemorrhages were identified in the input pictures and utilised to detect
DIABETIC; the preprocessing and augmentation methods performed to the image
data were also outlined in the research to further increase the model’s sensitivity.
Results from the trained and validated version of the constructed classifier were
encouraging. It achieved very high levels of accuracy throughout training (96.3%)
and validation (94.9%). In addition, the model’s quality was summarised by its
0.88 qua Diabetic weighted kappa score.
Diabetic diagnosis and Normal Retinal Image Classification through CNN
and SVM propose employing CNN and SVM as a classification approach to
distinguish between Diabetic diagnosis and normal retinal images [13]. At its
heart, the method employs transfer learning to glean summary statistics from the
last fully connected layer of a CNN. An SVM is used to categorise data once the
features have been extracted. This method not only increases accuracy, but also
Diabetic automatically reduces the processing time required for classification,
all thanks to the combination of CNN with fine-tuning. The researchers put their
method to the test on a set of retinal images from the Messidor database (n = 77
in base 12, and 70 in base 13). They discovered a remarkable degree of accuracy;
95.75% for base 12, and 95.24% for base 13. The recent researchers tried out a
variety of transfer learning models, including VGG, Alex-Net, Inception, Google
Net, Dense Net, and Res-Net [14].
In order to classify cases of Diabetic, the authors of [15] compared CNNs,
Transformer-based networks, and multi-layered perceptrons (MLPs), three deep-
learning architectures. The study included the use of much deep learning architecture
such as Efficient Net, Res-Net, Swin-Transformer, Vision-Transformer (ViT), and
MLP-Mixer. Models based on the transformer design were found to have the
highest levels of accuracy among the options studied. This provides more evidence
that transformer-based networks, like Swin-Transformer and Vision-Transformer,
are superior when it comes to diabetic categorization. The DenseNet-121 model
was employed to identify Diabetic in fundus images [16]. The proposed model
was built to analyse retinal images that have already been processed, without the
need for further feature improvement, and was designed to take advantage of the
power of deep learning (DL) models based on the Dense-Net architecture in order
144 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

to provide an automated diagnostic solution for the identification of Diabetic. To

increase the accuracy of diabetic detection, the authors utilised basic preprocessing
techniques on images with noise. The approach used by Saranya et al. showed some
encouraging results. The model’s superiority in diagnosing Diabetic diagnosis was
shown by an accuracy of 0.83 and a precision of 0.99.
Using a previously trained model is a cutting-edge approach to diabetic
classification. After that, we’ll use an image classifier powered by a deep CNN.
By beating baseline models despite having access to less training photos, this
novel approach demonstrates its worth. Another research group [17] employed
transfer learning to improve the diabetic detection accuracy of the EfficientNet-B0,
EfficientNet-B4, and EfficientNet-B7 models used similar frameworks to group
Diabetic into referable and possibly blinding categories. Area Under the Curve
(AUC) values of 0.984 for referable diabetic (R-diabetic) and 0.990 for vision-
threatening diabetic demonstrated superior classification performance for the novel
network model on the Eye PACS dataset, indicating that the authors’ proposed
method is effective in detecting signs of Diabetic diagnosis on the APTOS 2019
dataset. The methods explain ability was improved with the help of a custom
algorithm.
This study used the Efficient Net-B3 architecture [18], using ImageNet
weights as the initialisation set. The completely connected layers were populated
during training using data from the He initialisation. Experiments were conducted
to prove that the Efficient Net model outperformed the gold standard data. Zhang,
Z. looked at several different models, including the Efficient Net, Res-Net, Swin-
Transformer, ViT, and the MLP-Mixer, and found that the devices having a basis
in transformer design performed the best. In addition [19], the authors classified
cases of DIABETIC in a different way. The ensemble model was built from three
individual CNN models. This ensemble model was built on the principle of stack
generalisation.

2. Related Work
Alex-Net, ResNet-50, and VGG-16 models were the ones most extensively explored.
The authors empirically compared and contrasted the performance of 28 unique deep
hybrid architectures. Cases of diabetic were classified using these frameworks into
two categories: referable and non-referable [20]. Researchers compared end-to-end
DL models to a three-class classification of fundus images (normal, glaucomatous,
and diabetic eyes) [21]. For the purpose of diabetic classification, a wide variety
of CNN models were used. Among them were MobileNetV2, DenseNet-121,
InceptionV3, InceptionResNetV2, ResNet-50, and VGG-16. In their publication
[22], the authors detail how they used the DenseNet-169 framework to develop
an original CNN model. The model’s performance was improved by adding a
convolutional block attention module (CBAM).
The purpose of the revamped format is to streamline the process of classifying
Diabetic-diagnosis severity. ResNet-101, a model reported in [23], was used
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Diabetes Diagnosis 145

to assign a severity rating to Diabetic and determine the likelihood of macular

edema. The findings demonstrated that ResNet-101 was a more effective model
than ResNet-50. This research [24] provided a heuristically constructed deep
neural network for assessing the severity of diabetic. The authors’ experiments
demonstrated that the proposed network performed very well in diagnosing the
presence of the disease. Mirroring and spinning the pictures were only two of the
ways that the data collection was improved in this study [25] for grading Diabetic
and it demonstrated promising results in differentiating between various degrees of
severity associated with diabetic. These methods were used to complement the data
already available. Overall, the accuracy of both approaches was high, at 94.4% and
88.8%, respectively. Existing automated algorithms for diabetic classification are
commensurate with these levels of accuracy. One method for diagnosing diabetic
relies on the original model’s binary ‘yes’ or ‘no’ categorization. Fundus pictures
are segmented into four distinct diabetic severity stages using the second model,
which does a subtler job. To classify the seriousness of the originally presented,
the Hinge Attention Network (HA-Net) model was used. Its effectiveness was
boosted by integrating many attention tiers. A pretrained VGG-16 network was
used to analyse the input images and generate the first spatial representations. Since
overfitting occurs while using CNNs to categorise the seriousness of diabetics, [26]
several regularisation strategies for this task were investigated. In their research,
Diabetic copout regularisation was demonstrated to be effective in reducing
overfitting and improving accuracy.
By using image processing and feature extraction techniques to complete
fundus pictures, an automated method was developed in a prior study to identify
diabetic. In the process of categorising the data, data mining methods were used.
Preprocessing the images was the initial stage, followed by the determination
of statistical, GLCM-based, and histogram-based measures. Inefficiently, this
information was sent into an SVM classifier, which attempted to place the fundus
image into a disease category such as diabetic. Retinal fundus photographs,
however, were used to gauge the RNFL thickness in an effort to detect glaucoma.
This approach is often used by ophthalmologists since it requires no invasive
treatments. Taking photos in a manner that allows those with healthy and diseased
retinas to see them is crucial. In circumstances like screening campaigns for people
who do not have regular access to healthcare services, the portability and ease-
of-use of the technology makes it important to healthcare practitioners [27–28].

3. Machine Learning-based Diabetic Diagnosis Method

The primary purpose of this research is to develop a CNN method for automatically
identifying diabetic from digital fundus images and more accurately characterising
its severity. Specifically, this research proposed a clinical picture order model for
retinal fundus images for the diagnosis of Diabetic diagnosis. Focusing on the
details extracted from retinal images by image processing techniques, this study
accurately arranges retina-related diseases based on the extracted highlights. In
146 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

order to identify diabetics from healthy individuals in retinal images, a CNN

classifier is trained using highlight extraction. The suggested framework’s rapid
general characterisation will boost productivity and set the disease apart from
previous models. To accurately identify diabetic with little effort, our proposed
model employs Alex Net, a Self-prepared CNN architecture trained on a dataset
of fundus images. Retinal Diabetic in, microaneurysms, glaucoma, and other eye
diseases are all well represented in the database. First, the patient’s retinal image
is segmented to correspond with the Alex Net’s information layer. Next, the brain
network extracts features (using the HOG extractor), and finally the model is
built up and ready to further arrange the Diabetic diagnosis. Figure 1 depicts the
suggested architectural model, which includes the convolutional portion as well

Input Dataset

Bio-inspired Algorithms

Machine Learning and Deep Learning process

Feature Selection
Predicted–Diseases/Predicted-Not a Disease

Classification
GMM / SVM / SVM- GMM

Extraction
Accuracy/ Specificity/ Sensitivity

Stop

Fig. 1 Block diagram of the proposed functional system.

 Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Diabetes Diagnosis 147

as FC4, FC5, and fc6+soft max. The final CNN layer is built such that distinct
boundaries are assigned to each component of the image.

3.1 Graphical Analysis of Bio-Inspired Diabetic Diagnosis Method

Researchers have access to retina-related images and explanatory text detailing
the severity of Diabetic diagnosis. The following are some of the most common
exploration datasets that have been tested:
● Database of Electronic Ophthalmoscopy Images for Vessel Extraction.
● High-Goal Fundus Dataset, MESSIDOR Dataset, Retinopathy Online Test
Dataset, and the Structured Investigation of the Retina Dataset.
● Datasets DIARETDB0 and DIARETDB1.
Alex Net’s findings demonstrate that a massive, deep CNN can achieve world-
record performance on a notoriously challenging dataset with just a somewhat
complicated supervision. One year following Alex Net’s release, all passages in
the ImageNet competition opted to use the Convolutional Brain Organisation for
the classification challenge. Alex Net was an early innovator in CNN, ushering
in a new era of experimentation. After the release of so many significant learning
packages, Alex Net’s implementation is remarkably straightforward. The input
dataset was collected from TensorFlow and forwarded to diabetic detection-based
applications. The bio-inspired algorithm is used to optimize the workflow of the
machine learning and deep learning with effective optimization algorithm. The
machine learning steps involved feature extraction, classification, and resolution.
To attain this way this research focused on mainly three different algorithms such
as SVM in Machine Learning. The work flow of this system was shown in Figure 1
with the collection of different dataset. The confusion matrix between diseases
and conditions that are really not diseases is shown in Table 1. Classification and
grading results for photos with Diabetic diagnosis using the proposed technique,
as well as results from using a standard CNN and a standard deep learning-based
classifier trained on CNN characteristics.

Table 1 The confusion matrix of the actual disease and the actual not a disease.
Matrix Parameters Actual-Disease Actual-Not a Total
Disease
Bio-Inspired Authorization process 820 2 822
Bio Non-inspired process 6 592 598
Total 740 564 1304

Using CNN-extracted features, the author trained a separate GMM for each
class. The number of elements is determined via trial and error. The suggested
model was run in Python on a 32 GB RAM HP Z4 G4 workstation shown in Figure
2. The log-likelihood vectors from the class-specific GMMs are used to train the
SVM classifier. Various SVM parameters have been selected for their empiricism
in terms of performance.
148 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

For the best results, set C = 8 for the trade-off parameter and use a 0.8-width
radial basis kernel. Classification Accuracy (CA) for the E-ophtha dataset using
the bio-inspired algorithm in Machine and Deep learning process.

Fig. 2 Classification accuracy of the Bio-inspired machine learning method.

Fig. 3 Classification sensitivity of the Bio-inspired machine learning method.

Fig. 4 Classification specificity of the Bio-inspired machine learning method.

 Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Diabetes Diagnosis 149

Evaluation of Classification Efficiency Using the E-ophtha Dataset: Here have

a look at how several models fared when asked to classify retinal pictures from the
E-ophtha dataset. All the different models, including regular bio-inspired algorithm
in Machine and Deep learning process, have been tested with the CNN features
extracted at different layers (M1, M2, M7). Figure 4 shows the confusion matrix
from the CNN-GMM model applied to the E-ophtha dataset with feature maps
from different layers, and Figure 5 shows the confusion matrix from the same
model applied to the same dataset.

Fig. 5 Performance metrics of the Bio-inspired machine learning method.

Fig. 6 Classification sensitivity of the Bio-inspired deep learning method.

In addition, the confusion matrix derived on the E-ophtha dataset for the
categorisation of normal and impaired retinal pictures using different hierarchical
features constructed on models such the bio-inspired algorithm in machine and
deep learning process is shown in Figures 6 and 7. The confusion matrix derived
from several models shows that the overlapping seen in the lower levels disappears
as the number of layers in question increases. Classification specificity is improved
by 3.2% in the bio-inspired algorithm in machine and deep learning process model
150 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Fig. 7 Classification specificity of the Bio-inspired proposed Deep learning method.

shown in Tables 2 and 3, with a sensitivity and specificity of 81.0% and 89.6%,
respectively, for the classification tasks shown. The classification accuracy of
the bio-inspired algorithm in machine and deep learning process model is 4.6%
high machine learning bio-inspired algorithm model. To demonstrate the efficacy
of the proposed model, this research compared the results obtained by using the
bio-inspired ML feature extraction with those obtained by employing an ML-
based classifier and an SVM-based classifier. Additionally, an evaluation of a
fully connected CNN using the aforementioned parameters yields an accuracy of
52.4%. The log-likelihood derived by bio-inspired algorithm in machine and deep

Fig. 8 Simulation results of the No diabetic simulation.

 Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Diabetes Diagnosis 151

learning process, on the other hand, gives important and significant properties that
are class-specific.

4. Multi-stage Analysis of Accuracy, Severity and Sensitivity

on Messidor Data Set

4.1 Stages of Diabetic Output 0 = Nothing Happens

The result demonstrates No diabetic at Stage 0 using the present method’s
comparison settings. When applied to grading tasks, bio-inspired algorithm in
machine and deep learning process with extracted hierarchical features at the M7
level achieves an overall accuracy of 89.1%. Figure 8 displays the classification
accuracy achieved by the different models on the Messidor dataset for the different
classes.

Table 2 Analysis of classification accuracy with different dataset model.

Classification Accuracy (in%)
Models SVM GMM CNN Bio-inspired Algorithm
M1 45.0 63.1 63.1 62.1
M2 45.0 66.3 68.4 69.5
M3 45.0 72.6 72.6 74.7
M4 45.0 74.7 76.8 78.9
M5 45.0 75.8 78.9 83.1
M6 45.0 75.8 78.9 85.2
M7 45.0 82.1 83.1 99.69

Table 2 shows the analysis of classification accuracy with various models

based on Convolution network based with various optimized algorithms like
SVM, and so on. In Table 2, out of seven different models using three different
bio-inspired algorithm and analysis; from the observation the last model produces
more accuracy and resolution from the way of approach. Classification accuracy
is most important to analyse the strategy of the proposed algorithm.

Table 3 Sensitivity and specificity analysis of different dataset models.

Bio Sensitivity (in%) Bio-Specificity (in%)
Models SVM CNN Bio- inspired SVM CNN Bio- inspired
algorithm algorithm
M1 51.3 54.0 56.7 70.6 68.9 65.5
M2 56.7 59.4 64.8 72.4 74.1 72.4
M3 67.5 67.5 72.9 75.8 75.8 75.8
Contd.
152 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

M4 70.2 72.9 78.3 77.5 79.3 79.3

M5 72.9 72.9 81.0 77.5 82.7 84.4
M6 72.9 70.2 81.0 77.5 84.4 87.9
M7 75.6 75.6 98.66 86.2 87.9 98.60

Table 3 shows the sensitivity and specificity analysis with various models
based on Convolution network with various optimized algorithms like SVM,
and so on. In Table 3, out of seven different models using three different bio-
inspired algorithm and analysis, from the observation the last model produces
more accuracy and resolution from the way of approach. Sensitivity and specificity
analysis is most important to analyse the strategy of the proposed algorithm.

Table 4 Sensitivity, Precision obtained Analysis of different Dataset models.

Models Bio-Sensitivity (in %) Bio-Precision (in %)
Normal Mild Moderate Severe Normal Mild Moderate Severe
M1 47.7 45.1 53.1 66.7 78.8 22.2 55.3 53.1
M2 58.7 67.7 63.3 70.6 85.3 37.5 60.8 62.1
M3 67.9 71.0 71.4 70.6 88.1 40.7 71.4 67.9
M4 78.0 77.4 77.5 76.5 94.4 50.0 76.0 75.0
M5 82.6 87.1 81.6 80.4 95.7 62.8 80.0 77.3
M6 86.2 90.3 85.7 86.3 95.9 71.8 82.3 84.6
M7 89.0 90.3 85.7 92.1 97.9 77.7 85.7 83.9

Table 4 shows the sensitivity, precision, and specificity analysis with various
models based on Convolution network with various optimized algorithms like
SVM, and so on. In this above listed out seven different models using three
different bio-inspired algorithm and analysis, from the observation the last model
produces more accuracy and resolution from the way of approach. Sensitivity
and specificity analysis is most important to analyse the strategy of the proposed
algorithm.

4.2 Diabetic Output Stages Mild Diabetic Output Stage 1

Different models were tested and compared shows in Figure 9, including the
mild diabetic simulation. The experimental findings outperformed the results
of regular ML and Deep Learning. Classification accuracy is at 86.2%, while
grading accuracy is at 89.1%. When compared to ML and Deep Learning, a
bio-inspired algorithm with ML produced superior results. In addition, we’ve
expanded our efforts to make greater precision gains. Therefore, a feature-learning-
based ensemble of classifiers using CNNs has been suggested for diabetic picture
classification and grading.
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Diabetes Diagnosis 153

Fig. 9 Simulation results of a Mild diabetic simulation.

4.3 Stage 1: Diabetic Detection at Low Levels

Previous analysis shows the results of an examination of the ML and Deep Learning
achieved by several models, including the bio-inspired ML and Deep Learning
algorithm. In addition, result shows the mild diabetic simulation derived on the
dataset for the grading tasks utilising different structural features constructed on
models like ML, and Deep Learning-SVM. These findings demonstrate that using

Fig. 10 Simulation results of a Mild diabetic simulation.

154 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

just traditional GMM is insufficient to generate a model with higher accuracy.

Figure 10 shows the results of mild diabetic systems, theretofore log-likelihood
has been included into the proposed model. Since the basic derived from GMMs
supplies the important and relevant class-specific characteristics, the ML classifier
constructed over the signal analysis vector space outperforms regular report.

4.4 Severe Storm Stage 2

Stage 2 comparison parameters per existing approach are shown in the result,
indicating moderate diabetic.

Fig. 11 Simulation results of low level diabetic simulation

Bio-inspired ML and Deep Learning were investigated in this suggested

system for the classification and grading of retinopathy pictures. Both the E-ophtha
and the Messidor databases were used in the experiments. Using the parameters
P (Number of components in bio-inspired algorithm) = 6, supposed design = 88,
various parameters = 6, r = 0.85, the ML model achieved 99.6% accuracy on the
grading assignment.

4.5 Stage 3: Severe Dehydiabetication

Figure 12 shows the experimental results have proven to be better when compared
with those of conventional ML. The accuracy obtained for classification and
grading tasks are 86.2% and 89.1%, respectively. The results of the bio-inspired
ML model were better than ML and Deep learning. Furthermore, our work has
been extended to improve the accuracy even further. Hence, an ensemble of
classifiers using CNN that use a feature learning-based approach for classification
and grading of diabetic images has been proposed.
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Diabetes Diagnosis 155

Fig. 12 Simulation results of a severe diabetic.

4.6 Stage 4: Proliferative Diabetic

When compared to ML and Deep Learning, the suggested model has been shown
to perform better on classification and grading tasks. Specifically, when it comes
to the grading job, the bio-inspired model is 5.4% more effective than the CNN-
SVM model. Figure 13 shows the ML model to the Bio-inspired model; the latter
is 7.5% more effective.

Fig. 13 Simulation results of Proliferative diabetic.

156 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Conclusion
The proposed model makes use of Alex Net, a CNN architecture, to provide a
state-of-the-art automated method for recognising retinal images affected by
diabetes and glaucoma with little human interaction. It is difficult and error-prone
to do periodic diabetic manually due to a lack of resources and reliable expert
opinion. This technique may allow for more accurate and precise scanning of
fundus images. The amount of work required from human beings decreases. In
order to train the models, they required a larger dataset. This analysis showed
the feasibility of training CNNs to detect Diabetic diagnosis in fundus images.
Ophthalmologists may consult CNNs for a second opinion on a categorization
problem. A more advanced set of algorithms may allow for a further increase in
the capacity of aberrant photographs in a certain length of time. The new classifier
is used for the purpose of image categorization. In the forthcoming work, we’ll do
a similar evaluation of newly released DL-based diabetic segmentation and lesion
detection studies. Future improvements in networks and datasets may make real-
time categorization from CNNs a useful tool for diabetic doctors.

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 A Multi-Objective Optimized Bio-Inspired
9 Deep Learning Framework for Autism
Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis in Toddlers
K. Vijayalakshmi1* and Venkatesh Naganathan2

Bio-inspired optimized algorithms are stimulated by behaviours of living beings

and physical principles that addresses problems across various application domains.
A developmental disorder in the neurological system of a human is referred to be an
Autism-Spectrum Disorder. It is considered based on communication difficulties,
restricted and repetitive behaviours, rational thinking and societal responsibilities.
Recognizing and handling it timely may reduce the risk and improve the condition
when compared to the prior. To do such diagnosis, the current assessment can be too
expensive which leads to the requirement of Deep learning models to be integrated
with neuroimaging bio-inspired methods. A novel methodology is proposed in this
chapter to detect autism by combining Artificial Neural Network with GridSearch
optimization and Particle Swarm Optimization with Multi-Objective functionality.
Particle Swarm is a bio-inspired technique which is metaheuristic by nature,
applied for feature selection. The relative analysis based on evaluation of this
proposed model is carried out further with various machine learning models using
the classification metrics. The proposed model is built using pyswarm, sklearn,
matplotlib, seaborn, and is unique due to its bio-inspired characteristics, achieving
maximum model accuracy with a minimum number of attributes, indicating its
potential for early treatment with mediation for better curability.

1. Introduction
Autism Syndrome Disorder (ASD) is a chronic ailment which has an emotional
impact on a large proportion of the population. It also affects the physical appearance
of the face and during the developmental phases its signs and indicators appear
very often. It means that the symptoms can be clearly witnessed between two years
from the time of birth. It has a multifaceted issue in its diagnostic process and
necessitates specialized medical knowledge and instruments that rely on interpretive
encoding of the child’s remarks and opinions, discussions, and conversation with
parents, and physically examining the case. As there are no specialized tests, such
as blood tests or medical exams for ASD, diagnosing it becomes a difficult task.
Doctors collect a child’s developmental history and behavioural patterns from the

1
School of Computer Science and Applications, REVA University, Bangalore, Karnataka, India.
2
Senior Consultant cum Professor, Amity Global Institute, Singapore.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 A MOO Bio-Inspired Deep Learning Framework for ASD 159

various assessment tools like neurological tests, the “Autism Diagnostic Interview-
Revised (ADI-R)”, the “Autism Diagnostic Observation-Schedule (ADOS)”,
and the “Childhood Autism Rating-Scale (CARS)”. Even though there is no cure
for autism, doctors provide behavioural therapies that aid in the child’s gradual
improvement. Multilayered machine learning (ML) techniques offer exceptional
capabilities in handling intricate classification tasks by meticulously examining
intricate patterns and relationships concealed within extensive datasets. The use
of multilayered ML techniques can greatly improve manual analysis and diagnosis
systems. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) algorithm is used in the facial
expression detection to identify facial expressions and Artificial Neural Networks
(ANNs) algorithm is used for prediction in the questionnaire system.

Nature Inspired
Optimization Algorithm

Stochastic Deterministic

Heuristic Meta-Heuristic

Bio- Physical Geography Human

Inspired Inspired Inspired Inspired

Fig. 1 Types of Nature-Inspired Algorithms.

Bio-inspired computational models draw stimulation through the biological

systems. It is due to the fact that the human brain and nervous systems can readily
tackle highly complexed computational problems with high quality solutions. The
work is aimed to create a supportive system that assists doctors in dealing with
complications while also providing children and families with access to practical
diagnosis assessment. As a result, the proposed chapter employs multilayered
optimized Deep learning (DL) techniques to create a low-cost automated system
with better autism diagnosis.
The chapter covers the various bio-inspired algorithms and their applications
in the healthcare domain for disease prediction. It covers the background study
to analyse the need to address this topic of interest for disease detection. A
novel algorithm is proposed to detect the ASD, especially in toddlers combining
DL algorithms with well-known bio-inspired algorithms like particle swarm
optimization (PSO) for feature selection and classification that are metaheuristic
by nature. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of using Bio-inspired
deep learning techniques for ASD prediction. It highlights the significance and
importance of timely identifying the cause and intervention which is the need of
an hour. It is addressed to include both the conceptual along with the algorithmic
160 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

details of the approach to make the readers to understand and learn it better. The
content presented in this chapter will be useful for both academicians and IT
professionals, such as those who are interested in Artificial intelligence (AI), ML,
Bio-inspired or Nature-inspired, classification and optimization techniques. It
provides a comparative and rigorous analysis of the convergence of the proposed
algorithm. It includes tables, illustrations, and figures to provide the reader’s
understanding on the proposed work. The multi-objective optimizations combined
with bio-inspired metaheuristic algorithms offer a more promising approach to
solve complex real-world problems efficiently.

1.1 Overview of Bio-Inspired Metaheuristic Algorithm

By making use of the capable, contributing and competent strategies identified
in nature, the Bio-inspired algorithms offer innovative solutions for a variety of
real-world applications. The following section introduces the basic principles of
bio-inspired algorithms and their variants to the reader to understand their wider
scope in the field of research.

Nature Inspired Algorithm

Bio-Inspired Algorithms

Swarm Intelligence based Non-Swarm Intelligence

Algorithms based Algorithms

Artificial Bee colony Particle Swarm Flower

Glow warm swarm Ant Colony pollination
Shuffled Frog Leaping Firefly
Cuckoo Search
Bat algorithm

Fig. 2 Types of Bio-Inspired Algorithms.

1.1.1 Bio-Inspired Algorithms

Bio-inspired metaheuristic methods are optimization algorithms that draw
inspiration from natural phenomena or biological systems to develop strategies
for efficient problem-solving. These techniques are very often used for highly
complexed problems and where the conventional ideas to determine optimal
solutions may be difficult. Based on the different biological phenomena, bio-
inspired algorithm variants exist as listed below:
 A MOO Bio-Inspired Deep Learning Framework for ASD 161

● Genetic Algorithms (GA): This is the most well-known bio-inspired

metaheuristic algorithm that is based on the natural selection and genetics
process. It is to evolve the candidate solutions using mutation, selection, and
crossover to seek for optimal/near optimal solutions.
● Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO): This is a metaheuristic-cum-population-
based technique derived by the social manners of bird flocking or fish schooling.
In PSO, based on its neighbours and experience, a cluster of sub-solutions is
determined as the particles move around the search space for the best solution.
● Ant Colony Optimization (ACO): This is defined from the foraging nature of
ants that involves modelling. It is based on how ants communicate amongst
themselves using pheromones and also finds its shortest route for its feed. It
is used widely for combinatorial-based optimization problems.
● Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) Algorithm: This is inspired by the foraging
behaviour of honeybees to seek the strategy for food resources such as local
search and global search to optimize numerical functions.
● Simulated Annealing (SA): This imitates the annealing process in metallurgy
where a material is heated and then slowly cooled for it to approach a low-
energy state. It is used to optimize problems by allowing the algorithm to take
in worse solutions with a certain chance to escape local optima.
● Genetic Bee Colony Algorithm: It combines the principles of both genetic and
bees behaviour to provide better solutions with more efficient.
● Fish Swarm Algorithm: It mimics the behaviour of a fish shoaling in order to
fix the better and right solution for the complex problems.
● Cat Swarm Optimization: It is influenced through the hunting nature of cats
to provide optimized solution using swarm intelligence approach.
● Whale Optimization Algorithm: It is influenced based on the bubble net
hunting activities of the humpback whales for optimization.
● Artificial Algae Algorithm: It is inspired from the growth and the movement
patterns of large clusters of algae to attain optimization solution.
● Elephant Search Algorithm: This obtains optimized solution based on the
herding behaviour of elephants.
● Cuckoo Search Optimization Algorithm: It optimizes the solution using a
search process combining with the nature of brood parasitism behaviour of
cuckoo birds.
● Moth Flame Optimization: This is based on the optimization of solution using
a moth’s behaviour of navigation towards light sources.
● Grey Wolf Optimization Algorithm: The optimization process uses the societal
and chasing nature of grey-wolves.

1.2 Optimization in Bio-Inspired Metaheuristic Algorithms

Bio-inspired metaheuristic optimization algorithms require highly computational
strategies inspired by the natural processes and behaviours to unravel intricate
problems with optimality. These algorithms imitate the behaviour of living
162 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

organisms and natural phenomena to search from the space to find solutions for
the way out of the problem. By analysing the principles observed in nature, such
as evolution, swarm intelligence or animal behaviours, bio-inspired metaheuristic
algorithms can efficiently explore solutions and find near-optimal solutions for
various types of optimization problems. Hence, they useful for solving complex
optimization problems where traditional methods might struggle due to high
dimensionality, nonlinearity, or the presence of noisy objective functions.

1.2.1 Metaheuristic Optimization Algorithms

The bio-inspired algorithms are metaheuristic that provide an effective mechanism
to address wisely on optimization related problems by using nature’s process and
its functionalities. It basically explores in widespread search space for solutions
of optimality to address more than one objective. Due to this ability, it can handle
various complex problems and sustain the diversity in their solutions. As per the
timelines, these techniques effectively demonstrate the NP—hard problems in
determining the near optimal solutions. These algorithms are basically defined
through its capability to both local and global searches and finally get convergence
to its end optimal solution.

1.2.2 Multi-Objective Optimization (MOO)

MOO is a method of satisfying more than one functional objective whose aim is to
determine the better optimization solution from the search space. The bio-inspired
algorithms score their significance due to their MOO ability and solve many crucial
complexed problems by considering multiple objectives to find an optimal or near
optimal solution. Few bio-inspired techniques that are basically defined with MOO
characteristics are given below:
● Evolutionary Multi-objective optimization (EMO): It uses population-related
mechanism with various strategies to specifically address multiple objectives.
● Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II): It is non-dominating
and uses sorting that maintain a variety of solutions and compromise on
objectives with conflicts.
● PSO for MOO (PSO-MOO) / ACO for MOO (ACO-MOO): These are the
techniques which already are defined in previous the section 1.1.1 that use the
characteristics of swarm and ant to effectively perform with a single objective,
whereas this technique additionally handles MOO to determine the set of
outcomes that are not dominated ones.
All these algorithms which are nature-inspired with multifunctional objectives
and can be used in various domain fields of expertise as image recognition and
processing, banking and finance, robotics and engineering design, healthcare, and
scientific research, etc.
Their versatility, robustness, and ability to handle complex optimization
problems make them great valuable tools for researchers and practitioners seeking
efficient solutions to the real-world challenges that need to be solved.
 A MOO Bio-Inspired Deep Learning Framework for ASD 163

1.2.3 Applications and Advantages

Bio-inspired algorithms have found their broad spectrum of applications in various
fields due to their ability to efficiently solve any complex problem requiring an
optimized solution. Some common applications include:
● Engineering Design Optimization: In engineering, bio-inspired algorithms
are put to use in optimization of design, structural analysis, control systems,
and other engineering tasks. These algorithms can assist in finding optimal
solutions to complex engineering problems that may be tedious to solve using
orthodox methods. Optimizing designs with multiple conflicting objectives as
cost, performance, and reliability.
● Robotics and NLP: Bio-inspired algorithms are used in natural language
processing (NLP) for chores as analysis of text, sentiment, machine translation,
and speech recognition. These algorithms greatly improve the accuracy and
efficiency of language processing systems.
● Cybersecurity: In cybersecurity applications, bio-inspired algorithms are
utilized for the detection of any intrusion, malware analysis, and network
security. These algorithms help an organization protect their digital assets and
dodge the cyber threats effectively.
● Time-Series Analysis: Bio-inspired algorithms are applied in time-series
analysis for predicting future trends, recognizing patterns, anomaly detection,
and data mining. They can help analysts derive valuable insights from their
time-dependent datasets.
● Recommender Systems: Bio-inspired algorithms play a role in creating
recommender systems that are extensively applied in the domain of e-commerce
and social-media platforms, along with service of streaming. These techniques,
in turn, provide better personalized suggestions or recommendations based on
the user’s preference to improve the end-user experience and exposure.
● Financial Forecasting: Bio-inspired algorithms are used in business and
management for tasks such as process optimization, allocation of resources,
and decision-making. These forecasting algorithms greatly assist businesses
in the reduction of cost, increase in the efficiency, and overall performance.
They are specifically used for tasks like optimization of portfolio, risk
management, algorithmic trading, and fraud detection. These algorithms can
effectively aid in financial institutions in making clear decisions and manage
risks effectively, especially portfolio optimization, while considering risk and
return as competing objectives.
● Bioinformatics and Healthcare: Bio-inspired algorithms find their
applications in healthcare for medical image analysis, diagnosis of a disease,
treatment planning, and drug discovery. These algorithms can contribute in
the sectors of personalized medicine and healthcare.
The advantages of Bio-inspired algorithms for Multi-objective optimization
are:
164 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

● Robustness: Bio-inspired algorithms exhibit robustness in handling complex

optimization problems which include multiple conflicting objectives.
● Diversity: These algorithms promote diversity amongst the solutions, which
helps in exploring a wide range of trade-off solutions on the Pareto front.
● Adaptability: Bio-inspired algorithms can adapt to dynamic environments and
changing problem situations effectively.
● Parallelism: Many bio-inspired algorithms can be parallelized easily, allowing
them to efficiently explore the solution spaces.

2. Background of the Study: Experiential Investigation

of Bio-Inspired Algorithms for Disease Detection in
Statistical Perspective
Omar, K.S. et al. (2019) [1] proposed a prediction model for ASD using ML
methods with mobile app deployment for autism people of any age. It is a hybrid
model comprising of RandomForest (RF) - CART and RandomForest-ID3 which
is applied on AQ1-10 and 250 real datasets. The model delivers improved results
in terms of accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, precision, and FPR for both kinds of
datasets. Alsaade, F.W. et al. (2022) [2] proposed a system for ASD detection using
deep learning techniques like CNN with transfer-learning and the flask framework.
Three pre-trained models, Xception, VGG19, and NASNETMobile, were used to
classify 2,940 face images collected from Kaggle. The Xception model contributed
high performance compared to other models.
Rabbi, M.F. et al. (2021) [3] focused on detecting autism in children using
Multilayered Perceptron (MLP), RF, Gradient Boosting Machine (GBM),
AdaBoost (AB), and CNN where CNN achieved the highest accuracy of 92.31%.
Wei, W. et al. (2019) [4] proposed a new model for predicting saliency in images
for children with ASD based on CNN and used multilevel features to generate
three attention maps, which are then combined to produce the predicted saliency
map. Li, B. et al. (2019) [5] introduced an ML system to classify ASD using facial
attributes like emotions, expressions, actions, etc. to train CNN. Experimental
results show improvement in the model’s performance on various metrics for
ASD classification with an improvement of about 7%. Popescu, A.L. et al. (2020)
[6] proposed the deployment of a mobile app using ML techniques for multiclass
image classification that predicts emotional state based on children’s (between
2–5 years old with autism) drawings. The application uses Firebase and has been
proven to be robust, providing an accuracy of 80.6% in identifying emotional
states.
Karuppasamy, S.G. et al. (2022) [7] used AI (artificial intelligence) specifically
DL algorithms to diagnose ASD using neuroimaging-based approaches that provide
information on anatomy and activity of brain, which can aid in identifying ASD.
The work uses CNN to detect ASD patients from a huge collection of data that has
the patterns of the brain for identifying the region of interest (ROI) using feature
extraction techniques and achieved 95% accuracy. Baranwal, A. et al. (2020) [8]
 A MOO Bio-Inspired Deep Learning Framework for ASD 165

analysed a dataset for screening ASD in adults, children, and adolescents using ML
algorithms such as ANN, RF, Logistic-Regression (LR), Decision-Tree (DT), and
Support-Vector Machines (SVMs) which obtained accuracy of 80%, 88%, 92%,
80%, 76% for adult dataset, and accuracy of 82%, 82.2%, 90%, 90.3%, 96%, 95%
for child dataset.
Tao, Y. et al. (2019) [9] proposed SP-ASDNet, a DNN that combines CNNs
and LSTM (long short-term memory) networks for the classification of an observer
who has ASD or is typically developed based on their scan path of a given image.
The model achieved an accuracy of 74.22% for validation. Maria Sofia et al.
(2022) [10] proposed a cost-effective system for autism diagnosis in children using
automatic and analytic tools that includes a questionnaire tool based on ADI-R for
parents/caregivers to provide developmental history and an observatory system
based on ADOS to analyse autistic patients’ behaviours like eye movements and
facial expressions. Ali, N. A.et al. (2020) [11] developed a Dl model using CNN
with six layers for autism detection by using a dataset of 20 individuals from King
Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia which achieved an accuracy of 80%, Raj, S.
et al. (2020) [12] attempts to detect ASD using various ML and DL techniques
and evaluates their performance on three nonclinical datasets: child, adolescents,
and adult. The results show that CNN performed well compared to a conventional
SVM achieving an accuracy of 98.3% for the ASD Child dataset after handling
missing values.
Islam, S. et al. (2020) [13] proposed a model to diagnose autism in children
at an age less one year through the set of questionnaires. The dataset collected
from ‘Q-CHAT’ and ‘AQ’ tools applied on SVM, RF, Naive Bayes (NB), and
KNN (K-Nearest Neighbour) predicted with an accuracy of 83%, 93%, 89%, and
98% for toddlers. Hashemi, J. et al. (2021) [14] proposed and validates computer
vision methods that automatically relate the behaviours for the identification of risk
markers of ASD early. It is applied to video recordings from a mobile device’s front
camera while the child watches movie stimuli designed to elicit such behaviours.
Vakadkar, K. et al. (2021) [15] conducted a study to investigate the application of
ML techniques to complement the conventional methods used to diagnose ASD.
It applied SVM, RF, NB, LR, and KNN to a dataset to construct predictive models
and found that LR provided the highest accuracy.
Singh, A. et al. (2021) [16] aimed to improve the ASD diagnosis by using ML
models to identify significant indicators of autism in toddlers. The study used an
ASD dataset and designed an NN (neural network) and RF classifier with feature
selection.
Hossain, M.D. et al. (2021) [17] focused on automating the ASD diagnostic
using ML techniques on ASD datasets of ‘toddlers, children, adolescents, and
adults’. It is to identify the most significant traits and best-performing classifier
and feature selection techniques and found that the MLP classifier outperformed
by achieving accuracy of 100% with a minimal contributing features for all four
datasets. Hammood, W.A. et. al. (2017) [18] provides a comprehensive overview
of bio-inspired optimization algorithms, focusing on those derived from natural
166 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

phenomena such as DE, Ffly, PSO, ABC, and Bat with its limitations and challenges
(dependency on parameter tuning, balancing exploration, and exploitation phases)
and suggested the ongoing advancements and hybrid approaches.
Jakšić, Z. et. al. (2023) [19] provides a wide-ranging overview of bio-inspired
optimization algorithms in microelectronics and nanophotonics by exploring
various heuristic and metaheuristic approaches. Mujawar, S. et. al. [20] (2022)
performed a wide-range of review in bio-inspired optimization algorithms applied
to medical disease classification, focusing on heart disease, neurological disorders,
cancer, lung cancer, and COVID-19. It highlights the application of various
algorithms such as GA, PSO, CNN comparing their outcome in terms of accuracy
and computational complexity. It addresses the variability in performance of
different algorithms across various diseases and signal types, making it difficult
to generalize results and integrate LSTM and GRU (gated recurrent unit) with bio-
inspired models to enhance classification accuracy and address these limitations.
Yadav, M.K. et. al. (2022) [21] explores the integration of ML and bio-inspired
algorithms to improve the early diagnosis of liver diseases using ultrasound
imaging. It addresses the strength, challenges, and limitations of diagnostics
through computer-assisted tools and techniques. It addresses the inherent difficulty
in detecting liver disease at an early stage due to the organ’s ability to appear healthy
despite significant damage. The proposed methodology, involving preprocessing,
feature extraction, and advanced classification algorithms, aims to address these
issues but requires extensive validation and refinement.
Haque, N.I. et. al. (2021) [22] outlines the BIOCAD framework, a digital
healthcare system utilizing ML models for classification of disease and detection
of anomaly and evaluates the work using bio-inspired optimization algorithms,
particularly the WO, GWO, and FO methods, on three distinct medical datasets.
While the WO algorithm shows promising outcomes as FScores with 0.89 to 1.0,
several limitations and challenges are evident. The framework’s performance on
imbalanced datasets, such as the Parkinson dataset, is hampered by high false-
negative rates, indicating a challenge in generalizing across different medical
conditions.
Giampaglia, D. et. al.’s (2012) [23] paper introduces a unique computerized
approach for categorizing cells in “fluorescence microscopy images” using a
classifier-based approach on bio-inspired information that relies on the dispersal
of divergence within the cell images. The method demonstrates high classification
precision of over 96% on the HEp-2 Cells dataset. S Lohi, S.A. et. al. (2023) [24]
presents an innovative disease detection in crop and yield prediction model utilizing
multi-featured bio-inspired representation of feature with ensemble classifier. The
model addresses the complexity and the computational overhead in the integration
of diverse classifiers such as SVM, MLP, LR, DT, and NB and GA-based feature
selection, while optimizing feature variance.
Digumarthi, J. et. al. (2022) [25] underscores the critical need for advanced
predictive methods to address cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), emphasizing the
prospective of bio-inspired optimization algorithms in enhancing the prediction
 A MOO Bio-Inspired Deep Learning Framework for ASD 167

of classification of heart diseases, particularly arrhythmias. Using Cuckoo

Search, BAT, and Modified Salp Swarm Optimization, the research demonstrates
significant improvements in diagnostic accuracy. Bhargava, R. et. al. (2022) [26]
present a thorough exploration of the application of the Ant Lion Optimizer (ALO)
metaheuristic technique to address the ELD (economic load dispatch) issues in
power system to reduce cost involved in fuel while satisfying various constraints.
Pham, T.H. et. al. (2023) [27] have done the systematic literature review
for valuable insights into the application of bio-inspired algorithms for feature
selection addressing publication bias and the variability in research methodologies
and evaluation metrics across the included studies. Trojovský, P. et. al. (2022) [28]
introduce a novel metaheuristic algorithm, STO (symbol-timing offset) influenced
by the hunting cum fighting behaviours of Siberian tigers. It primarily focuses
on the algorithm’s performance on optimization tasks but lacks a comprehensive
analysis of its scalability to handle larger and more complex problem spaces. It
addresses noisy or uncertain objective functions of STP (Spanning Tree Protocol)
to enhance its credibility and applicability as a viable optimization tool in practical
settings.
Givi, H. et. al. (2023) [29] present an innovative metaheuristic algorithm, Red
Panda Optimization (RPO), inspired by the searching cum climbing behaviours
of red pandas. It addresses the scalability of RPO performance on extremely
high-dimensional optimization problems and robustness and adaptability across
diverse problem landscapes. Yang, Q. et. al. (2018) [30] explore the usage of
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for efficient monitoring of critical infrastructures
through optimal flight path planning mechanisms using bio-inspired algorithms
presents promising avenues for enhancing data collection from WSN (weighted
sum model). It addresses the complexity of deriving the optimal UAV flight path
amidst various environmental factors such as prohibited airspace, geographical
conditions, and sensor deployment statistics, which are NP-hard problems. Jain,
A. et. al. (2023) [31] briefed in the paper a technique for the early diagnosis using
ML with bio-inspired algorithms like Bat and firefly.

3. Autism Diagnosis using Bio-Inspired Metaheurisitc

optimization Algorithms for Feature Selection
Today, due to the development in the growth of innovations in algorithmic reach,
it is very significant and important to attract the industry through its contributions.
As discussed in the previous section, these bio-inspired algorithms are learnt and
derived from the natural phenomena and biological process. They have the ability
to solve multiple complex problems to determine optimal solutions from the set of
search space of solutions. Due to this, they can address challenges of any kind in
various domains of applications which include the very sensitive healthcare related
issues like disease diagnosis, image processing, computer-aided counselling, etc.
In this context, the diagnosis of autism carried through these natural influenced
algorithms can commendably improve its ML predictive models’ performance.
168 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

These techniques provide the assurance of achieving the optimal solution for the
autism related diagnostic complex problems [32–33].
The most popular bio-inspired optimization algorithm is PSO that has a number
of particles through which it determines the potential solution. Usually the larger
number of particles will increase the probability of finding of a quality solution. But
at the same time, the complexity exists in terms of its computational overheads. So
there must be a trade-off between search efficiency and computational cost [34].
PSO requires the following aspects of parameters to search for an optimal solution:
● Particle position
● Velocity update
● Social and cognitive learning
● Swarm topology
The simple steps of PSO comprises of the following:
● Determine the movement of the particles in the swarm by specifying the
position of the particle in the search space.
● Determine the velocity of the particle using the below equation:
vel(t + 1) = w * vel(t) + c1 * rand (0,1) * (Pbest(t) – pos(t))
+ c2 * rand(0,1) * (Gbest(t) – pos(t)) ...(1)
where, w is the inertia weight, a constant determines the quantity of particle’s
previous velocity moved to the next iteration; c1, c2 are the acceleration constant
that determines how much the particles influenced by the Gbest and Pbest solutions;
rand (0,1) – random function generates the randomness between 0 and 1 in the
particle movement and initializes velocity to zero.
● Determine the new position of the particle based on its velocity using the
equation:
pos(t + 1) = pos(t) + vel(t + 1) ...(2)
● Apart from these, the algorithm considers few constraints to restrict the
particle to move far away or get stuck in same local optima from its search
space for the solution. It specifies the limits of maximum velocity.
● Hence the particle movement is based on the combination of the current
position and the velocity of the particle along with the personal best and the
global best solutions.
● By fine tuning the parameters w and c1, c2, the behaviour of the particle can
be improved and the performance of the algorithm also can be increased.

3.1 Data Profile

The PSO and ACO bio-inspired algorithms can enhance the accuracy of DL models
to predict ASD. The data and the algorithms are the major key resources for the
prediction of autism using bio-inspired algorithms. Data-profiling is the process
of analysing and examining the data sources at different parts of integrity to know
 A MOO Bio-Inspired Deep Learning Framework for ASD 169

its structure, quality, and content. The purpose of data-profiling is to identify

patterns, inconsistencies, and anomalies in the data, and to assess its accuracy and
completeness. To analyse the data, the data-profiling techniques can be done using
data visualization such as box plots, heat maps, etc.

3.1.1 Autism Behavioural Dataset

The ASD Behavioural dataset is used to perform the prediction in Toddler Autism
as of July, 2018. The dataset is provided by Thabtah, University of California
available at Kaggle.com, and is an open source for all ML techniques. This dataset
can be utilized for study environment collected from the ASD Tests screening
app [4]. The dataset contains 18 attributes including the class variable and 1,054
cases or records. The 18 attributes are the descriptive features, and the dependent
feature is the class label for ASD traits (Yes/No), means toddler has ASD or not.
In addition, the parents, the caregiver, and the medical personnel each answered
the 10 questions which are A1–A10 and responses to the Q-CHAT question are
chosen as “0” or “1” in the dataset. Most of the data in this case is of the Boolean
or binary variety, which is suitable for classifier computation. Apart from these,
the dataset consists of numerical and categorical attributes that need to be scaled
and converted before they can be used in classifiers to try out the best possible
outcomes. The attributes (A1–10) and its mapping corresponding to the ‘Q-Chat-10’
questionnaires as listed in Table 1.

Table 1 Details of variables mapping to the Q-Chat-10 screening methods.

Attributes Corresponding Q-chat-10-Toddlers Questionnaires
A1 –10 (Screening on Respond when someone calls by name?
response, eye contact, Keep eye contact?
communication,
Express the wish when they want something?
vocabulary, starring,
understand and console, Point interest to others for sharing?
etc.,) Pretend to act?
Follows your way through?
Signs of warmth to keep others comfort when they are upset?
First word spoken?
Use any basic body signals?
Stare at nothing without any purpose?

The values will be gathered using the Q-CHAT questionnaires and the total of
these question values is reflected by the Q-Chat 10 score. Finally, the score which
is greater than 3 indicates that the toddler has a significant risk of developing ASD
symptoms [8], else with 3 or less indicates that there are no evident ASD features.
The complete dataset description is provided in Table 2 that describes the unique
characteristics of each toddler that may be used to determine which variables will
influence the occurrence of ASD.
170 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Table 2 Features with its descriptions.

Feature Type Description
A1–10: QA Binary Code generated based on the screening
method used
Age Numerical Age in months – Toddlers
Score by Q-chat-10 Numerical <=3: no ASD traits
> 3: ASD traits
Sex Categorical Male: Female
Ethnicity Categorical Ethnicities
Born with jaundice Boolean Jaundice Symptoms
Family member with Boolean Family History/Genetical
ASD history
Who is completing the Categorical Parent, self, caregiver, medical staff, clinician,
test? etc.
Why have you taken Categorical Use input textbox
the screening?
Class variable Categorical Yes: ASD traits
No : No ASD traits

3.1.2 Data Preprocessing

Originally, the dataset that consists of 1,054 observations and 18 characteristics
(with target variable) includes categorical, continuous, and binary variables. The
data preprocessing is very much required to provide quality data to the training
model by removing noise and bias out of it. Depending on the number and nature,
missing values are identified and handled in the dataset either by imputing them
with the mean or median value or removing the missing values. It is required
to identify the contributing features through the feature selection techniques.
Also the categorical data must be converted to numerical as machine learning
algorithms performs well with numerical data. The preprocessing once completed,
the data will be ready and suitable for training and analysis [35–36]. The following
preprocessing steps will be followed before developing any ML model.
● Handling Duplicates: Duplicate entries in the dataset are identified and
removed.
● Handling Outliers: Outliers in the dataset are identified and handled either by
removing them or capping their values at a predetermined threshold.
● Label Encoding (LE): Non-numerical variables like sex, jaundice, family_
mem_with_ASD, and class/ASD_Traits are converted to numerical (binary-
0/1) format using label encoding technique.
● One-hot Encoding [15]: LE is not effective for those when there are more
than two values/classes and hence one-hot encoding is employed for multiclass
features like ‘Ethnicity’ to avoid hierarchical ranking.
 A MOO Bio-Inspired Deep Learning Framework for ASD 171

● Feature Decomposition: Categorical attributes with multiple categories are

identified for which one hot encoding is not feasible, hence feature composition
technique is used to group different categories into a single category.
● Feature Engineering: When all characteristics in a dataset are employed,
classification accuracy may suffer [10]. Furthermore, having fewer
characteristics minimizes the time and memory consumption that are needed
to fit the model. Hence, rank the attributes to determine the subset of most
significant attributes from the given dataset that results in the maximum
accuracy.

3.2 Data Visualization Techniques

Various data visualization techniques are used in Autism prediction using
behavioural data to analyse and present the data in a meaningful way [37]. Here are
some techniques for data visualization that can be referred for feature importance:
● Heat Maps: It is used to show coefficient correlations between attributes of
behavioural data; reducing data dimensionality can be used to visualize data
patterns by colour-coding different values. The Heat map given in the Figures 3

Fig. 3 Correlation Matrix.

172 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection
Fig. 4 (a) Heatmap (b) Bar chart (c) Line chart.
 A MOO Bio-Inspired Deep Learning Framework for ASD 173

and 4a perform feature engineering and aids to reduce data dimensionality by

removing highly correlated variables.
● Bar Charts: They are commonly used in data analysis and visualization to
compare different categories and their values. To predict autism, a bar chart
can be used to display the frequency or prevalence of certain behaviours or
symptoms associated with autism across different groups.
The bar chart in Figure 4(b) explains the importance of various attributes
considered in the dataset which are calculated using the Fisher score. It helps in
eliminating attributes from the dataset which have less importance and to reduce
data dimensionality. Also, by using the bar chart the distribution of ages of the
individuals in the ASD group can be represented as in Figures 5a and b. The plot
explains by having age on the x-axis and the number of individuals on the y-axis
in understanding how the ages of the toddlers are spread across the dataset.
● Line Charts: These represent the data to be displayed in terms of coordinates
linked by a line. They are used frequently to demonstrate the trends and
changes in data over time. The developmental trajectory of certain autism-
related behaviour from the dataset as shown in Figure 4c.
● Box Plot: It provides a summary of the central tendency and spread of the
‘Qchat-10-Score’ for each sex, including the median, quartiles, and potential
outliers as in Figure 5c. It helps in understanding if there are any notable
differences in the Qchat-10 scores between males and females.
● Count Plot: It provides a graphical assessment of the number of cases for
each ethnicity, divided by the presence (or absence) of ASD traits as shown
in Figure 5d. This helps in identifying if certain ethnicities have a higher or
lower count of ASD traits within the dataset.
● Point Plot: It is useful to visualize the mean values and confidence intervals,
highlighting trends and differences between groups over a continuous variable
like age as in Figure 5e.

4. Bio-Inspired ANN-GSoM with PSo

Behavioural models use data on behaviour such as societal interaction,
communication skills, and repetitive or tiresome behaviours to identify the outlines
and characteristics that are associated with autism. This section introduces the
novel algorithm to detect autism in Toddlers behavioural dataset using ANN
validated utilizing GridSearch and feature selection operating PSO with multiple
objective functionality [38].

4.1 Methodology
The comprehensive workflow to build the proposed model to classify autism
spectrum disorder traits in toddlers is depicted in Figure 6 as a framework. The
behavioral dataset is gathered from the online data source kaggle and it is read
into Pandas DataFrame. ANN-GSOM model is built using a multilayered neural
 174
Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection
Fig. 5 Distribution of (a) ‘Age_Mons’ of toddlers in months, (b) Age of individuals with ASD, (c) ‘Qchat-10-Score’ between male and female toddlers,
(d) count of toddlers with and without ASD traits across different ethnicities, (e) ‘Qchat-10-Score’ changes with age, separated by sex.
 A MOO Bio-Inspired Deep Learning Framework for ASD 175

network on a behavioural training dataset, ANN is designed to learn hierarchical

representations of data, which can be particularly useful for identifying complex
patterns in autism prediction data. The ANN framework is also fit to build on the
same training data using Rectified Linear Activation Function (RELU) and Binary
Cross-Entropy loss function. In order to enhance its performance, it is made to
train on 30 epochs which helps in reducing the error and loss. Further, to assess
the model, it is evaluated on test data which ensure its generalization by avoiding
overfitting or underfitting.

Data Preprocessing Feature Engineering - PSO

1. Cleaning data – missing
Dataset values and outliers
2. Data Conversion Select best parameters using
GridSearch
3. Labeling
4. Data Scaling
5. Normalize Split the data into train-test

Apply ANN and evaluate the

model

Fig. 6 Work Flow of ANN-GSOM with PSO.

An effective technique to fine tune the best fit parameters in supervised

models to avoid underfit or overfit is the grid search. Using PSO, the bio-inspired
algorithm, it is able to identify the relevant features of importance from the data.
These features once applied on the model with the best fit parameters using
GridSearch helps the model to improve the performance particularly in healthcare
domain. The objective of this proposed idea is to build a DL pipeline to classify
ASD traits in toddlers using a dataset of various features, including demographic
information, behavioural assessments, and test scores. It is the intersection of
healthcare and AI integrating with bio-inspired algorithms to demonstrate how
ML and DL models can enhance diagnostic processes.

4.2 Algorithmic Procedure to Build ANN-GSOM with PSO

The algorithm comprises of preprocessing, visualizing data, performing feature
selection using PSO, determine the best parameters using Grid Search optimization,
and model building and evaluation. The functionality of PSO converts the ‘features’
array into a Boolean array to select the features from the feature matrix ‘X’. Splits
the selected features (‘X_selected’, as in Figure 7) and the target variable (‘y’) into
train_ test sets using a ‘80:20’ split ratio.
176 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Selected Features by PSO

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 2 4 6 8
Feature index

Fig. 7 Feature selection using PSO.

It initializes an MLPClassifier (a type of ANN ) with a maximum of 1,000

iterations and a random state of 42. A parameter grid is defined, specifying
various hyperparameters for the MLPClassifier that includes hidden_layer_sizes,
activation, solver, alpha and learning_rate that describes the different configurations
and activation function of hidden layers, weight optimization, L2 regularization
parameter, and learning rate schedule for weight updates. The GridSearch with
cross validation (GridSearchCV) is used to accomplish an extensive search among
the specified hyperparameter grid with five folds (cv = 5). To increase the speed
on computation, the search is parallelized with n_jobs = –1 to utilize multiple
CPU cores. The best parameters are identified based on the highest average cross-
validated score on the completion of the search process. On fitting ANN on the
trained observations, the target case can be predicted by the assessment of the
model on unknown new observations. Finally, evaluate the model by calculating
its accuracy score of the forecasts.
To do so, install the pyswarm library for PSO and import all the necessary
libraries. To develop the model, following are the important steps to follow:
● Import Libraries (numpy, pandas, sklearn [model_selection, preprocessing,
metrics etc.], train_test_split, GridSearchCV, LabelEncoder, StandardScaler,
MLPClassifier, accuracy_score, pso, classification_report, confusion_matrix,
matplotlib, seaborn)
● Load the necessary behavioural autism Dataset for Toddler.
● Preprocess the data: Clean the data by checking for missing values and
duplications, visualize the data that ensures for feature selection and model
training.
● Transform the categorical data into numerical using label encoding technique.
● Feature Scaling using StandardScalar technique.
 A MOO Bio-Inspired Deep Learning Framework for ASD 177

● Define the objective function of PSO (Bio-inspired algorithm) for feature

selection that contributes the prediction of ASD with better measures.
● ‘objective_function (features, X, y) where features is a list or array of binary
values indicating which features to select, ‘X` is the feature matrix containing
all features and ‘y’ is the target variable or labels.
● Fine-tune the parameters of ANN model by applying the parameter grid of
ANN using GridSearch based Optimization.
● Using train_test_split function with ratio [80:20], divide the given data into
train and test.
● Build the ANN classification based model on best fit parameters on the selected
features from the bio-inspired algorithms to train the models effectively.
● Assess and validate the optimized model on unseen data to ensure the model
generalization.
■ Evaluate the framework on the unseen observations and measure its
performance of ASD prediction task using metrics of classification.
■ Relate its performance with other ML frameworks: “SVM, RF, DT, and
LR”.
Overall, by leveraging bio-inspired algorithms for feature selection and
combining them with various DL techniques, it is aimed to enhance the accuracy
of ASD prediction models using genomic and subjective characteristic. Also,
applying metaheuristic optimization algorithms inspired by biological processes
offers a more promising avenue for enhancing autism diagnosis procedures. By
applying these innovative approaches in these models which act as support systems
for healthcare professionals, it helps them to potentially and effectively personalize
their experience on their ASD diagnoses.

4.3 Results and Discussions

The evaluation of the model helps to determine its quality by using the confusion
matrix which is generally used to define the outcomes of a classification process.
It is represented in the table format that summarizes the actual count of right and
wrong predictions given by a classifier in binary classification situations. The
parameters that represent the class (output) are true-negative, true-positive, false-
negative, and false-positive. A user might assess the accuracy by visualizing the
confusion matrix and analysing the diagonal values to count the number of correct
classifications.
● True-Positive (TP): is the number actually had ASD and accurately anticipated
that the person had ASD.
● True-Negative (TN): is the count of ASD-not and accurately anticipated that
he or she did not have ASD.
● False-Positive (FP): is the measure of ASD-not, but it is wrongly anticipated
that the individual does referred as Type-1 error.
● False-Negative (FN): is the count of having ASD, but wrongly anticipated
that the individual did not have ASD referred as a Type 2 error.
178 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Figure 8 depicts the ANN-GSOM with PSO model’s confusion matrix in

which the individual is observed with ASD or not.
Confusion Matrix - Train Confusion Matrix - Test
140
500 120
257 0 69 0
0

0
400 100
80

True
300
60
200
0 586 0 142 40

1
1

100 20
0 0
0 1 0 1
Predicted Predicted

Fig. 8 Confusion Matrix.

The metrics used to assess the model performance are Precision, Accuracy,
F1 Score, and Recall and is defined as below:
● Accuracy: refers to how near the measured value is to the standard value and
is the proportion of the total number of correct forecasts.

TP + TN
Accuracy = ...(3)
TP + FP + TN + FN
● Precision: denotes the measure of quality of positive predictions.

TP
Precision = (4)
TP + FP
● Recall (Sensitivity): indicates the measure of quantity that defines how many
of the true positives a model catches from the total positive samples and it is
referred as TPR.

TP
Recall = ...(5)
TP + FN
● F1 Score: counts both false negatives and false positives and produces a
weighted average. In most cases, it is more valuable than precision due it’s
harmonic mean.

Precision × Recall
F1 – Score = 2X ...(6)
Precision + Recall
The classification report (Figure 9) provides the precision, recall, and F1 score
curves for a binary classifier. The F1 score curve is a harmonic mean of accuracy
and recall that balances both measurements.
 A MOO Bio-Inspired Deep Learning Framework for ASD 179

Fig. 9 Classification Report.

The tradeoff between the precision and the recall is captured by the F1-score
which achieves its maximum value when accuracy and recall are balanced.

Table 3 Comparison of ANN- PSO with other models.

Algorithm Accuracy Precision Recall F1-Score
SVM 100 100 100 100
Logistic Regression 100 100 100 100
Decision Tree 93.83 97.29 94.11 95.68
Random Forest 98.43 98.32 99.34 98.70
ANN -GSOM 100 100 100 100
ANN- PSO 100 100 100 100

The results after optimizing the model achieved an accuracy of 100%, a

precision of 100%, a recall of 100%, and an F1score of 100%. Additionally, the
performance of the proposed model was compared to the performance of the other
models, and the results showed that it is outperformed the other models in terms
of accuracy and other metrics (Table 3). The work aims to maximize the model’s
performance on the given dataset by ensuring robustness and generalization
capability. It is evident from the evaluation of the model that the objective of the
work is achieved with minimum features that in turn reduces the memory resource
and increase the computational effectiveness.

Conclusion with Future Enhancements

ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that can be detected as early as the age of
two. The lack of cost-effective diagnostic tools keeps families of autistic children
from seeking diagnosis and treatment becomes difficult. Their behavioural aspects
180 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

can be greatly improved if diagnosed early and developed effective tools makes it
simpler and more accessible to everyone to easily predict whether a child is autistic
or not. Integration of this tool with Clinical Practice can assist clinicians in early
diagnosis and monitoring of ASD.
The domain of this project is highly impactful, aiming to leverage optimized
Bio-inspired ANN algorithm with best parameter using GridSearch cross validation
is to improve the early diagnosis of ASD in toddlers. The entire workflow covers
from the data loading, preprocessing, ANN training with feature selection using
PSO, and model optimization using GridSearch, and evaluation and visualization
of results. The results of the proposed model are unique compared with other ML
models (SVM, LR, and ANN-GSOM) because of its bio-inspired multi-objective
functionality. The interpretability of this model states that it achieved maximizing
the model accuracy with minimizing the number of attributes which indicates
its potential for early diagnosis and intervention. In future, other bio-inspired
optimization techniques can be applied to diagnose autism on behavioural aspects
and as well as facial image dataset of toddlers.

Acknowledgements
I acknowledge sincerely with immense gratitude to all who supported and motivated
to complete this chapter.

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 Bio-Inspired Algorithms using
10 Machine Learning and Deep Learning
for Social Phobia Treatment
Abinaya M.,1 Vadivu G.,2 Balasubramaniam S.3 and
Sundaravadivazhagan B.4

Social phobia, sometimes called social anxiety disorder, has a significant role
in the domain of mental health and the challenges are the irrational fear or the
behavior of avoidance of any particular situation. Two different treatments
followed traditionally, cognitive-behavioural therapy and pharmacotherapy, are
efficacy in the mental health domain, some of the interventions are needed for
social phobia. This chapter delves into the combination of bio-inspired algorithms
along with Machine Learning and the Deep Learning techniques for social phobia
optimization. Natural systems produce the need for computational intelligence and
bio-inspired algorithms and they offer new innovative solutions for the treatment
and the challenges for the phobic people and the long-term medication people.
In this chapter, the clinical perspectives of social phobia and the challenges
are highlighted in the potential of bio-inspired optimization algorithms in
personalization of treatment, approaches of machine learning for the prediction of
therapy, and deep learning architectures to enhance the curatives and engagement.
Future gaps and directions are discussed in the bio-inspired algorithms for social
phobia treatment. Through the practical case studies, this chapter helps social
phobic students to come up with mental issues.

1. Introduction

1.1 Clinical Perspectives and Treatment Challenges

Social phobia is the fear of social situations or circumstances that make people fear
and make the fear irrational [1]. People with more social phobia have avoidance and
stress because of the social phobic situation, which ruins their day-to-day activity

1,2
Department of Data Science and Business Systems SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Kattankulathur, Chennai-603203.
3
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Kerala University of Digital Sciences, Innovation
and Technology (Formerly IIITM-K), Digital University Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala,
India.
4
Department of Information Technology, University of Technology and Applied Science-AL Mus-
sanah, Oman.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
184 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

and makes life chaotic. A lot of research is needed to analyse the implications and
the interventions of social phobia [2].
Social phobia has the following symptoms and the characterization:
self-fear, fear of criticism, avoiding social events like going to parties,
events, etc., and the various physical changes in the body such as palpitation,
diffusion of oxygen, and the like [3]. These occur due to different reasons
like going to public meetings, during a public speech, and many more.
The development of this particular situation is due to divergent characteristics
like biological changes, psychological changes, and different characters [4]. Some
traditional methods help to resolve this, but there are a lot more to rectify this issue
and the following parameters are checked [5].

1.2 Conventional Treatment Methods

For the effective treatment of social phobia, cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)
is widely considered as the prominent way. CBT always concentrates on capturing
a particular pattern of behaviour and focusing on the particular data related to
social anxiety [6]. In this method, the person is exposed to the environment they
fear and the situation. With the systematic systems they are exposed to the same
environment and by the individual in a more regulated manner [7].
Pharmacotherapy is selective in serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and
serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), which are frequently used
by social phobic students [8]. These medications are taken by the individual to
calm down the person and to talk to the students in real time. Sometimes the
medications will not produce the exact report result as that of the other individual.
Pharmacotherapy is not the exact medication for all social phobic individuals [9].

1.3 Importance of Tailored Interventions

Even though the interventions are effective in the traditional method, a lot of
intermediations are needed [10]. The social phobia manifestations and the nature
are the combination of variations, and the treatment outcomes are the effective
way, and the implications are the effective one [11].
The interventions for social phobia are the different aspects and the treatment
is dependent on the intensity level, duration of social phobia, and the delivery
format. Clinicians produce the best treatment and enhancement according to the
severity of symptoms, conditions of the scombroid, preferences of the patient, and
the history of treatment [12].
The progress of technology like telemedicine services, and data teleportation
gives the necessary data related to social phobia. Applications of mobile
phones, simulations of virtual reality, and community support offer adaptable
and conventional methods of treatment and for therapeutic, self-interventions
according to the user data and the particular situation of the data used [13].
In the forthcoming sections, we will discuss the new novel solutions and the
best methods and techniques to deal with social phobia and the interventions of this
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms using Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Social Phobia Treatment 185

data are incorporated with the new novel Bio-Inspired Algorithms, Deep Learning,
and Machine Learning methods. The main motto of this book is to combine the
multi-disciplinary and produce effective treatment for people with social phobic
people [14].

2. Algorithms for optimization Inspired by Biology

For effective treatment, the method like the hybrid one is used and combined with
the best optimal algorithms and solutions to produce the data in a more effectual
manner for the treatment of individuals with social phobia [15].

2.1 Evolutionary Computation for Personalized Treatment

The principles of natural selection and genetics draw the computational efficiency
and the techniques in a biological system to treat social phobia. By applying
various techniques like mutation, selection, and crossover, each and every concept
of genetic algorithms provides a more prominent and important technique. This is
the process that replicates the natural process that is taking place biologically [16].
This particular section deals with genetic algorithms and how they are connected
with biological systems [17]. There are plenty of applications with the help of genetic
algorithms like the exposure of construction hierarchies, dosages of medication,
and therapy session scheduling. The goal of this method is to reduce the effect and
the treatment of experience undergone during the therapeutic interventions [18].
Case Studies: A genetic algorithm is used to give the preferences of people with
social phobia and the interventions are produced in the area related to the domain
with the use of best optimal solutions of genetic algorithms [19].

2.2 Utilizing Swarm Intelligence for the Development of Adaptive

Therapy Planning
Swarm colony optimization is an algorithm that is derived by other algorithms like
bird flocks, ant colony optimization algorithm, and particle swarm optimization
(PSO). These algorithms are run in a novel solution that the spaces and the solution
are known, the treatment plans are adjusted, and the response from the patient are
known dynamically.
The decision-making and the utilization are the collective behaviours of
swarm particle optimization for the development of swarm particle optimization
algorithm. This particular algorithm plays an effective role in the optimization and
utilization of data and their behaviour [20].
The help of ant colonies and the particle swarm can be used for the treatment
of social phobia. These are possible by the treatment and the real-time adjustment
of data based on the response and the feedback of the patient and the response
obtained from the trajectories [21].
The combination of clinical decision support and the integration of this swarm
optimization is used in the planning of treatment and decision-making. This makes
the system more efficient and the outcome treatment [22].
186 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

2.3 Hybrid Algorithms for Optimizing Treatment Parameters

Various techniques and algorithms are combined and the computation algorithms
like computation evolutionary, local search methods, and the constraints of the
individual and the advantages are capitalized by the hybrid algorithm for increasing
the efficiency, reliability, and efficiency of the treatment optimization and for the
treatment of social phobia [23]. Figure 1 shows Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO) Algorithm for Adaptive Therapy Planning in Social Phobia Treatment.

2.3.1 Hybrid Algorithms

Hybrid algorithms are useful in facing large complex data and the optimization
algorithm is used in the effective treatment of data and the efficacy is shown in
the data.
Optimizing Treatment Parameters: This method is best suitable for the social
phobia treatment and for the best novel solution, and to get the new data more
optimally and the treatment in a superior way [24].
This chapter shows the efficacy of using these hybrid algorithms and their
effectiveness in a more unique way and the treatment of social phobia is discussed
later in this section. This combine provides a more effective and optimal solution
[25].

3. Methods of Machine Learning

3.1 Models for Predicting Outcomes Using Supervised Learning

3.1.1 Predicting Treatment Outcomes using Machine Learning

Approaches
Supervised Learning methods are very crucial in predicting the outcome of the
treatment in giving therapy for social phobia. The data and the label are achieved
by knowing the pattern, recognizing it, and the treatment response. There are
various supervised algorithms like decision trees, support vector machines, logistic
regression, and many more for using guidance in the outcome of treatment and also
in the decision-making in clinical settings [26].

3.1.2 Supervised Learning

This section deals with the methodologies and the principles of supervised learning
and the significance of using the data along with the label and the model is
predicted with the help of ground truth value.
In social phobia, the basic step is to use feature selection and engineering,
various techniques, and methods. It is used in the assessment of clinical parameters,
observation of behaviour, and the neurological imaging of data, and also in the
accuracy prediction [27].
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms using Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Social Phobia Treatment 187

Fig. 1 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) Algorithm for Adaptive Therapy Planning in
Social Phobia Treatment.

3.1.3 Model Training and Evaluation

This model is used in model training, pre-processing of data, best model selection,
hyperparameter tuning, and the cross-validation technique for improving the
performance prediction and for generalizing the ability [28].

3.1.4 Interpretability and Explainability

The evaluation of data interpretability and explain the ability of data metrics to
determine the data transparency and reliability of data for the predictive models, and to
ensure the clinicians interpret and comprehend the data from a clinical point of view.
In this chapter, a lot of real-time use cases are discussed to predict the model
outcome and the effective method in the treatment of social phobia [29].
188 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

The discussion focuses on challenges such as heterogeneity of data, sample size

limitations, and the interoperability model. It also deals with the future gaps and
the directions, including the data from multiple sources and its integration, its
longitudinal analyses of and its collaborating efforts in the predictive model in the
medical field [30].

3.2 Reinforcement Learning for Adaptive Treatment Strategies

Reinforcement learning (RL) plays an important role in improving treatment strategies
for the development of social phobia therapy. It produces the data and the learning
achievement from the environment and the feedback based on the data results which
we have obtained. RLalgorithms, such as data algorithms like Q-learning, data policy
gradient methods, and the data actor-critic architectures are capable of changing
the data dynamically and modifying treatment parameters, data reinforcement
schedules, and the protocols for intervention to optimize the effect longitudinally.
RL deals with the important parameter of the environment, the agent interaction,
the reward system for the interaction, and to make the decision about the clinical
parameter effectively [31].

3.2.1 Adaptive Treatment Planning

The treatment of social phobia therapy and its applications using RL algorithms is
focused. The optimization goal is to schedule the reinforcement, intensity exposure,
and interventions for therapeutic, and it is based on the trajectory response and the
feedback of the patient [32].
The exploration-exploitation mechanism and the trade-off in reinforcement
learning involve finding a new technique and a novel treatment for giving the
rewards and the trade-off options.
The potential of RL is analysed with the help of wearable sensors digitally
and for the preferences of the patients. The applications and the benefits of RL are
shown in the treatment planning and for the eradication of social phobia therapy,
the RL outcome, outcome of the treatment, patient engagement enhancement, and
therapy adherence [33].

3.2.2 Challenges and Future Directions

Let’s talk about the stuff we need to sort out, like making better use of samples,
figuring out incentives, and considering ethics. We’re also looking ahead at future
studies, such as creating personalized learning algorithms, using wearable tech,
and testing things out in real clinical settings [34].

3.3 Clinical Decision Support Systems: Integrating Predictive

Models
Clinical decision support systems (CDSS) are used to provide predictive analytics
and metrics and give therapy, especially for social phobia based on machine
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms using Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Social Phobia Treatment 189

learning. With the help of predictive models and different data training, CDSS
can give the young doctors personalized reports if needed, data in real-time
recommendations, assessing the risks, and plans for the treatment based on the
need [35].

3.3.1 Overview of Clinical Decision Support Systems

CDSS illustrate the basic data and the professional healthcare providers the
information to make decisions, and also for giving evidence-based advice, and
the insights received from them.
Predictive models’ integration into the CDSS set the goal on incorporating
new predictive models training for the decision systems clinically. The main motto
is to predict treatment and the outcomes accurately, to identify the prognostic
factors, and the patient classification based on the categorization and the treatment
response.

3.3.2 Clinical Workflow Integration

The main goal of the existing study is to analyse the clinical workflows, and the
data gathering in electronic health records, treatment of medical platform, and for
the planning of data, data monitoring, and the patient follow-up considered. The
recommendations of the data are analysed and gathered systemically and used to
predict it clinically along with the techniques of machine learning [36].

4. Deep Learning Architectures for Treatment Adherence

and Engagement

4.1 Utilizing Convolutional Neural Networks for the Analysis of

Multimodal Data
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) have a potential role in various techniques
like data multimodality, including the different data text, images as data, audio
data, and physiological data signals. Social phobia treatment is used in different
domains [37]:
● Analyse the different data
● Identify the features importantly
● Prediction of individuals adherence level and treatment engagement.

4.1.1. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs)

Three main components of CNNs [38]:
1. Convolutional layers: To extract the relevant data features input data is used
in this layer.
2. Pooling layers: Features are dimensionality reduced in this layer followed
by the feature extraction.
190 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

3. Fully connected layers: Learning of complex relationships are created by

connecting the previous layer to the next layer.
Hierarchical representations from raw data are learned automatically from
CNNs.

4.1.2 Combining Different Data Sources with CNNs

Social phobia therapy is used to integrate data from multiple sources of data [39]:
1. Transcripts of therapy sessions textually.
2. Patient-therapist interactions in audio.
3. Wearable sensors and the psychological signals.
The goal is to create a unified representation that captures important information
from each source and can be used to predict treatment adherence and engagement.
Improving Prediction Accuracy with CNNs
Investigation of various techniques for feature extraction and representation
learning and to improve the effectiveness are enhanced with the CNN. The
meaningful patterns and relationships are derived from various sources and within
the data [40].

4.1.3 Training CNN Models for Treatment Adherence and Engagement

Steps for training the CNN Model
1. Data pre-processing: Compatibility of the data is maintained and the essential
features are retrieved on this page.
2. Hyperparameter tuning: Model optimization and the performance are
adjusted in this stage.
3. Optimization techniques: Analysing and giving the best algorithms for the
effectiveness and the treatment of data.
The ultimate goal is for the predictive power and CNN model’s generalizability
for the engagement and the adherence [41].
Interoperability and the Explainability of the data and the predictive details
are using the CNN model for producing the result accurately. The recommendation
levels are predicted by the healthcare professionals.
Methods for making it interoperable include:
● Identifying and influencing the model to visualize the feature maps for
understanding the text or the image.
● Highlighting the attention mechanisms for identifying the sequence.
● Decisions and the rules are used to provide the explanation [42].

4.2 Recurrent Neural Networks for Temporal Modelling of

Treatment Progress
Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) are best for representing the data in time
series and for producing sequential data. This helps in monitoring the data about
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms using Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Social Phobia Treatment 191

the patient, the social phobia therapy interventions, and the progress of treatment
over time in social phobia therapy. RNNs can examine the data longitudinally
obtained from the overall therapy sessions, outcomes of the patient-report, and the
assessment of behaviour. The course of the data is forecasted and the interventions
and the crucial moments are pinpointed [43].

4.2.1 Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs)

RNNs consist of recurrent layers and different memory cells. RNNs are used in
processing the sequential data for capturing the temporal data [44].

4.2.2 Temporal Modelling of Treatment Progress

RNN progression and the treatment progress are known over the period by using
the time-series model. It utilizes the longitudinal data using the different therapy
sessions, data of the patient diaries, and data from the wearable in predicting the
similarity, data functional impairment, and the response of the treatment.
The Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) and Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU)
are the new two types of advanced variants in RNNs. They are used for designing
the gradient problem and capturing dependencies in the long term for the data
sequentially. To improve the progress, the data are used dynamically.
Integration of RNNs with feedback mechanism and the real-time monitoring
systems is a must for the clinicians to give the insights timely and to show the
progress of the treatment. The interventions and the ability of the data are known
in advance in the system [45].
RNNs case studies and the applications are useful and helpful for knowing the
treatment progress in social phobia therapy and to identify the follow-up session.
The strategies for getting the data and the personalized interventions are known in
advance with the help of RNN.

4.2.3 Challenges and Future Directions

Some of the challenges faced by the RNN are the quality of the data, interoperability
model, and data scalability. There is the possibility of developing this model by
merging the model with the new techniques and methods like machine learning,
digital health, and the new hybrid model by combining all the existing methods
and techniques. The data and the longitudinal validation are known with the new
digital health platforms [46, 47].

4.3 Using Virtual Agents and Wearable Sensors to Enhance

Treatment Delivery
Wearable sensors and virtual agents offer new innovative ways to improve the
data delivery and data monitoring in the treatment of social phobia therapy. A new
Virtual agent, powered by the trending artificial intelligence (AI) and the sub-
192 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

branch of AI Natural Language Processing (NLP), can be given tailored therapy

sessions, resources of educational data, and the information about the interactive
interventions customized to each patient’s unique needs and the data preferences.
Wearable sensors, such as smartwatches and biosensors, collect physiological
data from the biological data like heart rate, skin conductance, and the pattern of
movement for monitoring the patient and the data related to health and the real-
time assessment of the data [48].

4.3.1 Virtual Agents for Therapy Delivery

The virtual agents and the delivery of the therapy and the latest new techniques are
elaborated in this section, as new conversational AI technologies, the ability of the
personalized therapy sessions, interventions, and the implementation of cognitive-
behavioural provide emotional support to individuals with social phobia. It also
shows the method of how the techniques are used in analysing the characteristics
of the students along with the social phobia, the sentiment of the data, and speech
patterns in real time, emotion recognition is noted, perform sentiment analysis, and
psychotherapeutic dialogues analysis [49].
A new exploration in wearable sensors and the new techniques like biosensors
to detect physiological signals related to the person’s anxiety, stress level, and
emotional data arousal allows for the measurement of new and different treatment
progress and the development of personalized strategies for the interventions [50].

4.3.2 Integration with Treatment Platforms

The current part of the chapter deals with how the virtual agents and a different
wearable sensor help integrate into current treatment platforms, telemedicine
services, and applications in digital health to improve treatment of data delivery,
data engagement, and data adherence. It presents the new clinical applications and
case studies showing the virtual agents and wearable sensors in the treatment of
social phobia therapy, treatment, and effectiveness are discussed in this section
[51].
The new techniques also deal with the challenges like privacy concerns, data
user acceptance, and the data technical limitations, and the new future research
directions which include the development of data related to context-aware virtual
agents, clinical trials validation, and real-world scalability healthcare settings [52].

5. Challenges and Future Directions

5.1 Analysis of the Interpretability and Explainability of Algorithmic

Predictions
Interpretability and explainability are the new two critical factors to consider
when designing algorithmic predictions for social phobia treatment. The new
innovative techniques like machine learning and deep learning models are useful
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms using Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Social Phobia Treatment 193

in demonstrating exceptional predictive accuracy, internal mechanisms are

now opaque, that makes the clinicians to understand and trust the predictions.
Comprehensibility and clarity of algorithmic predictions are important in facilitating
transparent decision-making, clinicians trust, and the building of methodologies
in a clinical practice [53].
The Significance of Interpretability: Interpretability and the importance of
algorithmic forecasts for social phobia treatment, underline the clinicians’ trust
knowledge to predict the new models for further recommendations [54].
Explainability Techniques: The factors and the explainability of the data and the
algorithmic predictions offer the clinicians insights, which includes the feature
importance analysis, method of model-agnostics techniques like SHAP and LIME,
and the decision tree in post-hoc.
Examining the impact of data interpretability and explainability of data on the
clinical relevance and utility of algorithmic predictions is important, as it allows
clinicians to effectively include the predictive models in the decision-making
treatment and customize interventions for the specific need of the patient [55].
Challenges and Limitations: Some of the challenges faced by this technique
are trade-offs between data accuracy and data interpretability, using the model
complexity, and the opaque deep learning architectures need.

5.2 Ethical Considerations in Personalizing Algorithmic Treatment

Ethical considerations play an important role in the algorithm customizing and
the treatment of social phobia. Methods are very important in the clinical practice,
addressing the issues ethically and the related work like data privacy, algorithmic
bias, data transparency, accountability of data, and patient autonomy. Prioritizing
ethical treatment personalization in the practices is essential in the patient’s
safeguard, maintaining the trust in healthcare systems, and upholding professional
care standards.
Data personalizing algorithmic treatment, and safeguarding data privacy
and confidentiality are very crucial and is significantly paramount. This makes
the systems like data anonymization, data encryption, and secure data storage to
protect patient privacy.
This chapter focuses on the issue of algorithmic bias and data fairness
in predictive modelling in the treatment of social phobia. It underscores the
prediction’s bias for the healthcare access and outcome disparities. The study also
addresses the biases of the data in the preprocessing, data incorporating fairness
metrics in algorithms, and implementing transparency measures [56].
Ensuring the important informed consent and data transparency in algorithmic
treatment personalization involves getting the patients’ consent and the data
providing clear explanations about how the model is a predictive one. It is important
for the patient in algorithmic predictions and also to understand the data.
194 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

The chapter and the studies also concentrate on the importance of patient
autonomy and data shared decision-making in the algorithmic treatment of data
personalization. It highlights the necessity of the patient in the decision-making
process, respecting their data preferences and data values, and empowering them
to make data well-informed decisions about their treatment options.

5.3 Incorporation of Computational Methodologies into Clinical

Practice
The integration of data computational methods into clinical practice has its own
way of treating social phobia. Promising techniques like machine learning and
deep learning techniques increases the improvement in the treatment outcomes
and resource allocation, their real-world implementation focuses on the workflow
integration, data clinician training, data usability, and regulatory of data
compliance. Successfully incorporating the computational methods into the data
clinical practice calls for the new collaboration across disciplines, data in active
stakeholder involvement, and a commitment to evidence-based, patient-centred
care [57].
Workflow Integration: This article showcases the new strategies for integrating
computational methods into new clinical workflows, collection of electronic health
record systems, and data telemedicine platforms to ensure seamless exchange of
data and usability data for healthcare providers.
Clinician Training and Education: It’s crucial and very important to provide
clinicians with training in data and education in computational methods through
workshops, continuing data medical education programmes, and the integration of
interdisciplinary collaborations to enhance the ability to utilize predictive models
for treatment decisions.
Usability and User Experience: Designing and data-implementing computational
tools for the treatment of social phobia treatment in the user-friendly, need of the
data, and the preferences.
Regulatory Compliance and Quality Assurance: Examining the regulatory
requirements and data quality assurance measures for computational methods in
the data clinical practice, ensuring compliance with regulation of protection, ethical
guidelines, and the data best practices for model validation, data verification, and
the data monitoring.
Scalability and Generalization: Ensuring data scalability and generalization of data
of predictive models is crucial for effectively treating of social phobia. Challenges
in the data scalability and generalization of data requires rigorous model validation,
cross-validation techniques, data external validation studies, and the collaboration
among different research institutions, data healthcare organizations, and the data
regulatory agencies.
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms using Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Social Phobia Treatment 195

Model Validation Techniques: Discuss the data model validation techniques,

data performance metrics, and cross-validation data strategies used to assess
the scalability and generalization of predictive models across various patient
populations, clinical contexts, and healthcare settings.
External Validation Studies: These studies aim to ensure that predictive models
consistently perform well across different demographic groups, geographic
regions, and healthcare systems in real-world implementation trials.
Collaborative Research and Data Sharing: Exploring collaborative research
projects, data-sharing platforms, and the data consortia for combining different
datasets in comparing predictive models and in establishing best practices for
algorithmic personalization for social phobia.
Deployment and Implementation Challenges: Implementing and obtaining
the predictive models in clinical practice for the infrastructure needs, issues in
interoperability, data clinician acceptance, and data sustainability concerns.
To make progress in the future, interdisciplinary collaboration, stakeholder
involvement, and a focus on ethical and evidence-based practices are essential
for fully utilizing computational methods in treating social phobia and improving
outcomes for individuals affected by this condition.

6. Analysis of Specific Instances and Practical observations

In examining specific instances, one cannot overlook practical observations that
complement theoretical frameworks. These observations provide tangible context
for abstract concepts. Consider, for example, phenomenon of social loafing. This
concept, extensively discussed in academic literature finds validation through
everyday experiences. Individuals tend to exert less effort when working in groups.
This is in contrast to working alone. Numerous studies have documented this
tendency [58].
For instance, a research conducted by Latane Williams and Harkins (1979)
involved participants clapping and shouting alone and in groups. They found that
individual output decreased as the group size increased. This finding aligns with
Diffusion of Responsibility theory. It posits that people feel less accountable when
they are part of larger group. Consequently, individual contributions diminish.
Another example is related to decision-making processes within organizations.
Studies indicate that consensus-based approaches often lead to better outcomes. A
2018 study on corporate board decisions found was significant correlation between
diversity of perspectives and the quality of decisions. Such findings underscore the
importance of inclusivity in group settings.
Practical observations further extend to the realm of marketing. Consumer
behaviour research shows that product placement significantly influences
purchasing decisions. For instance, products placed at eye-level shelves tend to
sell more. This insight is utilized by retailers to optimize product arrangements.
Maximizing sales is the primary goal.
196 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

In education, practical applications of theoretical principles also manifest

clearly. Constructivist approaches in pedagogy that emphasize active student
engagement have been shown to enhance learning outcomes. A 2020 study
compared classrooms that employed active learning techniques with those that
did not. Results indicated that students in active learning environments performed
better academically.
Thus, specific instances and practical observations offer invaluable insights.
They ground theoretical knowledge in concrete examples. This approach not only
enriches academic discourse but also importantly enhances real-world applications.
Through these instances and observations one can better understand complexities
of abstract concepts. And their practical ramifications.

Case Studies and Practical Insights

6.1 Utilization of Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Clinical Environments

Bio-inspired algorithms provide novel approaches to optimize treatment parameters.
They tailor interventions in the therapy of social phobia. Bio-inspired algorithms
have been proven effective in improving treatment outcomes. They promote
patient well-being in real-world clinical applications. Examining case studies that
showcase effective applications of bio-inspired algorithms offers valuable insights.
These insights reveal practical usefulness. They also reveal potential influence.
This potential is on the delivery of treatments [59].
This case study demonstrates the use of genetic algorithms to optimize
treatment parameters that include constructing exposure hierarchies and
determining medication dosages. The goal is to maximize the effectiveness of
therapy. It also aims to minimize the burden of treatment for individuals suffering
from social phobia.
This case study showcases the application of swarm intelligence algorithms.
Specifically, it looks at PSO and ant colony optimization. These algorithms enable
real-time modifications to treatment protocols. They achieve this by incorporating
patient feedback and response trajectories.
This case study demonstrates the integration of hybrid optimization algorithms.
These algorithms combine evolutionary computation swarm intelligence and local
search methods. They optimize treatment parameters. They improve treatment
personalization in social phobia therapy.

6.2 Application of Machine Learning Models in Real-World

Scenarios
Machine learning models are essential in forecasting treatment results. They help
track treatment advancement. Additionally, they guide clinical decision-making
in social phobia therapy. Real-world applications of machine learning models
showcase their practicality and the ability to handle large-scale data. Their efficacy
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms using Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Social Phobia Treatment 197

in clinical settings is clear. Case studies demonstrate successful implementations of

machine learning models. They offer practical insights regarding integration into
regular healthcare workflows.
Predictive Models for Treatment Outcome Prediction: This case study emphasizes
the incorporation of supervised learning models. This includes logistic regression
support vector machines and decision trees in CDSS. These models predict
treatment outcomes. They guide treatment planning in social phobia therapy.
This case study showcases the application of reinforcement learning algorithms,
specifically, Q-learning and policy gradient methods. These algorithms enable
personalized interventions. They optimize treatment adherence and engagement.
They also facilitate the development of adaptive treatment strategies [60].
This study demonstrates the use of RNNs and CNNs in temporal modelling.
They are used for tracking treatment progress. They also monitor patient well-
being in social phobia therapy.

6.3 Methods of Tailoring Treatment to Individual Patients

Treatment personalization in patient-centred approaches prioritizes specific needs
preferences and values of individuals suffering from social phobia. Patient-centred
care fosters engagement and empowerment. Satisfaction by actively involving
patients in treatment decision-making. It customizes interventions to their
characteristics and goals. Case studies demonstrate patient-centred approaches
to customizing treatment. These provide practical insights. They show how to
improve collaboration between patients and healthcare providers. They also
enhance treatment outcomes [61].
This case study emphasizes the significance of shared decision-making.
Tailoring treatment to individual needs enables patients to actively engage in
planning treatment. They set goals and select interventions according to their own
preferences and values.
Personalized Treatment Planning: This case study demonstrates the creation of
customized treatment plans. These are designed to address unique requirements
and abilities and difficulties of patients with social phobia. These plans incorporate
patient-reported outcomes treatment preferences and expertise of clinicians [62].
This case study showcases utilization of digital health technologies including
mobile applications, wearable sensors, and virtual agents. These tools continuously
monitor the progress of treatment. They provide immediate feedback to both
patients and clinicians. This approach enhances treatment adherence. It also boosts
engagement and accountability [63].
By integrating patient-centred methodologies into therapy for social phobia,
clinicians can enhance the efficacy of treatment. This also enhances patient
contentment, promotes sustained recovery and resilience in individuals grappling
with this demanding mental health condition [64–65].
198 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

7. Conclusion
The incorporation of computational methodologies such as bio-inspired algorithms
and machine learning models into social phobia therapy signifies notable progress
in tailored mental healthcare. Through utilization of data-driven insights,
predictive analytics, and adaptive interventions, clinicians have the ability to
customize treatments based on specific needs of each patient. They can maximize
the effectiveness of therapy. This approach improves overall well-being of patient.
Implementing individualized strategies in mental healthcare shows potential. It
enhances treatment effectiveness, and can lessen treatment demands. It fosters
resilience and recuperation in individuals with social phobia and other mental
health disorders.
Customized mental healthcare provides chances for cultivating resilience and
aiding recovery in individuals who have social phobia. Personalizsed interventions
effectively address specific needs and challenges of individual patients. This
leads to promotion of adaptive coping strategies. It also aids development of self-
efficacy. Improvement of social functioning follows by employing a comprehensive
strategy. This strategy combines psychological, pharmacological, and technological
methods. Healthcare professionals enable patients, help them manage social
difficulties and attain significant enhancements. in their quality of life. Personalized
mental healthcare empowers individuals to develop resilience and facilitate their
recovery. This allows them to lead fulfilling lives and excel in personal pursuits. It
is crucial to close the divide between research and practice to advance personalized
mental healthcare for social phobia. Collaboration among clinicians, researchers,
policymakers, and industry stakeholders is essential. This is for translating
scientific advancements into practical applications and implementing practices
supported by evidence, as well as encouraging widespread use of personalized
interventions. To effectively integrate computational methodologies into clinical
practice, it is necessary to invest in interdisciplinary research. Data infrastructure
and training programmes that provide clinicians with necessary knowledge, skills,
and resources is essential for promoting cooperation and creativity within the
healthcare system. We can utilize revolutionary capabilities of tailored mental
healthcare to enhance results for individuals suffering from social phobia and
propel advancement of mental health treatment as a whole.

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 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based
11 Machine Learning Models for Neural
Disorders Prediction
A Focus on Depression Detection
Tekulapally Shriya Reddy,1* Kishor Kumar Reddy C.,2
Manoj Kumar Reddy D.3 and Srinath Doss4

Depression and neurological disorders together can have a very negative effect
on a person’s life. The good news is that there is a workable solution in the form
of bio-inspired algorithms and machine-learning models. To more accurately
diagnose depression and other neurological disorders, scientists combine data from
behavioural hints, linguistic patterns, and physiological indicators with information
from biological systems like brain networks and genetic algorithms. Utilizing
machine learning models like Decision Trees, KNN (K-Nearest Neighbors),
and Naive Bayes can lead to a thorough detection and understanding of mental
health concerns. With the use of these state-of-the-art techniques, neurological
disease patients can receive a more personalized and comprehensive approach to
diagnosis and management. It offers an early diagnostic and treatment approach
for neurological illnesses based on data-centric prediction, which can improve
patient outcomes and raise living standards for millions of people globally. This
strategy is useful in recognizing early symptoms of depression and allowing for
intervention before the disease develops, as demonstrated by empirical study
and validation. A major advancement in neuroscience has been made possible by
combining machine learning methods and bio-inspired algorithms, which opens
new avenues for the early detection and treatment of neurological conditions. With
individualized care, improved results, and a higher standard of living for people
with neurological illnesses, we can all work together to build a more positive and
health-conscious society.

1. Introduction to Neural Disorders

Neural diseases refer to all the variants of diseases that affect people’s nervous
system in one way or the other. The latter includes the brain, spinal cord, and the

1,2
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Stanley College of Engineering and Technology
for Women, India.
3
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Vardhaman College of Engineering,
Hyderabad, India.
4
Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Botho University, Botswana.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
204 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

peripheral nerves. These diseases cause substantial amount of disability in physical,

cognitive, and even psychological compartment of an individual. It is important to
emphasize that neural developmental issues can be lifelong, and their effects are
restraining a person’s ability to have a fulfilling life, also, they pose a serious threat
to healthcare initiatives [11]. Neural disorders may be classified in many indices
based on the zone of the nervous system they are impacting or based on the sort of
condition. Neurological disorders can be grouped in different categories according
to the system involved or the process involved. Some neurodegenerative diseases
include Alzheimer, Parkinson, Huntington diseases; they slow down the neuron
destruction and substantially disorient clients in their thinking and movement
capability [1]. They are mostly chronic illnesses and a large percentage of them do
not have a known cure at the current times; this makes them a priority in medical
research.
The major neurodevelopmental disorders include intelligence disability,
attention deficit hyperactivity disorders, and autism spectrum disorders which are
usually because of improper formation of the brain and their signs are conspicuous
in the young stages of development. It leads to alterations in behaviour, social
relationships, and learning abilities and so should be diagnosed before the school-
going age because they would require inter professional approaches in their
management [3]-[4]. Ischemic cerebral injuries, also referred to as cerebrovascular
accidents, can be classified into stroke and transient ischemic attack which is
defined by focal cerebral infarction due to obstruction of a cerebral artery. These
conditions call for professional care for the patient to avoid further harm as they
progress later in life. Neuropathic infections are conditions that affect the nervous
system and can be treated; they include meningitis and encephalitis that result
from bacterial, viral, or ret fungi. Like any other diseases, these diseases have the
tendencies of causing acute and chronic neurological complications and hence
require vaccination and early treatment and management to be provided [5]-[6].
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the result of a physical injury that occurs to
the head when an external force, great enough to cause damage to the brain, is
applied to the skull and may result in either permanent or temporary loss of the
normal use of the brain. It may result from a fall, car accident, sports, and even
violence where a person may develop alteration in his physiologic, cognitive,
and psychologic competence. It appears that what patients need most after the
episode are physical and occupational therapy, and other forms of care, which
aim at trying to help people get back to their normal lives. Seizure disorders and
epilepsy are unique due to the tendency to recur and are characterized by the failure
of the human being to control the electric seizures that occur in the brain [7]-[8].
Epilepsy is a neurological disease that is associated with disorders of brain cells
with intermittent electric impulse irregularities requiring both short- and long-
term management with the help of drugs, special diet regimens, and sometimes
neurosurgery.
Crucially, neural networks can detect diseases at the early stages that can
lead to optimal treatment outcomes and patient prognosis. Additionally, they are
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 205

adaptive, allowing ongoing education from new cases so as to be updated with

what is happening in medicine all the time. Besides that, neural networks can
incorporate a wide range of medical information types like medical images, genetic
information as well as clinical records which help in providing comprehensive
diagnostic insights for medical cases. Enhancement of diagnostics reliability
through elimination of human faults and provision of consistent and objective
analysis is among their values. In addition to this, these systems over time save
costs by reducing unnecessary tests or lesser known diagnoses, thus cutting down
on overhead costs while ensuring quality diagnostics availability even in remote
or undeserved areas thus scaling up medical practices. Therefore, neural networks
are such a game-changing technology for diseases identification which guarantees
better healthcare deliveries.

1.1 Understanding Depression: Causes, Symptoms, and Diagnosis

Out of all the neurological disorders, depression is one of the most prevalent,
causing concerns depending on the extent of the occurrences and their effects on
society and the lives of the victims. Depression is commonly recognized as a broad
clinical mood disorder with effects on the patient’s emotions, thinking patterns,
and behaviours [9]-[10]. The factors causing depression are not clearly understood
although the development of depression is thought to be attributed to a combination
of hormonal, genetic, and environmental factors as well as psychological factors.
Some of these include: Gender, as women are at a higher risk than men due to
hormonal changes and other factors; genetic factors and heredity, as people who
have a family history of depression or any of the mood disorders are at a higher
risk. What this indicates is that the genetic factor could contribute to the tendency
of a person to develop a depression gene [11]. Apart from lifestyle factors, certain
biological causes also play a significant role in depression and include structural
and functional changes in the brain; hormonal dysregulation, and differences in
neurochemistry.
For instance, disruptions in some neurotransmitters as serotonin,
norepinephrine, and dopamine have been linked to depressive disorders [12]-[13].
These biological components indicate that medical and pharmacological approaches
should play a role in dealing with depression. Environmental indicators are also
another factor that needs to be considered. Among the identified factors that might
cause or worsen depressive episodes, various life changes can be recognized,
including financial difficulties, loss of a close person, traumatic experiences, or
long-term stress. This highlights the need for supportive environment and stress
intervention measures in managing depression. Other available data show that
it is also linked to anxiety disorders, and other psychological factors affect the
risk of depression. Self-destructive thoughts and behaviours as well as low self-
esteem or excessively critical attitudes make a person even more susceptible
to depression. It is essential to recognize these psychological aspects to create
therapeutic modalities that engage and treat both the cognitive and the affective
domains of clients’ personalities [14].
206 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

The following are some of the mild to severe symptoms of depression:

● Depressive mood can therefore be described as a constant state of hopelessness
or feeling of having no control over whatever is going to happen, or at worst,
a complete lack of hope [15]-[17].
● Inert, not a lot of fun doing things that were once enjoyable or interesting the
patient has no interest in most of the things that previously used to fascinate
him/her [18].
● Difficulty in swallowing and alterations in hunger (increased appetite/food
craving or total loss of appetite).
● One can turn into a night creature, or an afternoon slumbered; or they may
be an insomniac or a person who sleeps much in the daytime [19]. This is a
condition that makes a student to develop a difficulty in concentrating, solving
a problem, or in remembering.
● Exhausted, either mentally or physically, because of being conquered by the
feeling of guilt or feeling that one does not deserve anything [20].
● Desire to commit suicide and ideas associated with it.
● Diagnostic symptoms that cannot be viewed as having a medical root, which is
that people experience everyday distress, flu-like discomfort, and restlessness
that are often chronic [21].
Anxiety medical diagnosis needs an extensive assessment by an accredited
healthcare company, typically a psychotherapist or psychoanalyst. The American
Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) has the analysis standards for clinical depression. These demands consist
of problems in social work or various other crucial domain names of working,
along with the presence of certain signs and symptoms such as anhedonia or
clinical depression that take place for the most part of the day practically each day
for a minimum of 2 weeks.
Healthcare specialists might do a complete psychological analysis, a summary
of case history, a health examination, and research laboratory screening along with
analysing signs to eliminate hidden clinical troubles that might appear like clinical
depression signs and symptoms. To evaluate the extent of anxiety and track the
performance of therapy testing tools like the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)
coupled with Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) might be made use of. To
properly deal with and sustain those influenced by this prevalent psychological
problem, comprehending clinical depression needs a holistic strategy that takes
into consideration the complex communications in between organic, mental, plus
ecological variables along with exact signs and symptom acknowledgment and
medical diagnosis.

1.2 Importance of Early Detection and Intervention

Timely diagnosis and treatment are major factors that are applicable to most several
diseases and medical conditions in the healthcare sector. This approach focuses
on the assessment of visible symptoms when they are most apparent and probably
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 207

even before they have developed into extreme conditions. Better diagnosis and
diagnosis at an early stage is very effective in improving patients’ prognosis
and reduction of the prevalence of diseases, mortality among patients, as well as
reducing costs for the healthcare sector. This is so because the nature of diseases
differs and some are easy to diagnose and treat, when identified early. There are
those that may be too complex in their nature for early diagnoses and treatment. For
instance, cancer, cardiovascular illnesses, and the human immunodeficiency virus/
acquired immune deficiency syndrome can be better managed once diagnosed in
the earlier stages [22]. It also allows healthcare practice to diagnose illnesses in
its early stage and early treatment, risk reduction, change in lifestyles, and the
evidence-based practices to reduce further advancement of the diseases and to
increase the healthy life of the patients.
Moreover, since children are involved, then the strategies must strongly
emphasize early identification and treatment. Early diagnosis of the Developmental
delays, genetic disorders, and congenital malformations ensure that children can
be offered timely therapies, medications, and proper care and this fairs well
for the development of children. Altogether, the significance of screening and
assessment are extremely important and cannot be underestimated in any sector,
including healthcare. In essence, about disease control and treatment, population
health promotion and management, it provides a foundation for these goals that
can enhance health outcomes and therefore the quantity and quality of life across
the human life span.
As shown in the Figure 1, the prevalence of depression is high in teenagers who
are sensitive of matter. Therefore, decreasing preconception related to psychological
wellness, broadening accessibility to very early testing and treatment solutions, and

Prevalence of Depression Across Different Age Groups

80+

70-79

60-69
Age Groups

50-59

40-49

30-39

20-29

10-19

0 5 10 15 20

Prevalence of Depression (%)

Prevalence(%)
Fig. 1 Prevalence of depression across different age groups.
208 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

raising public understanding are all necessary components of alternative healthcare

programmes. As a whole, very early recognition and treatment are important to
promoting psychological wellness. The development of mental wellness problems
improving the top quality of therapy plus decreasing the general toll that mental
disease has on people coupled with culture.

2. Machine Learning Techniques in Healthcare

2.1 Evolution of Machine Learning in Healthcare

Featuring major milestones in the advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) and
machine learning (ML) in the context of healthcare, the technology has found its
feet in a field characterized by strong evidence of its applicability and tremendous
potential for shaping the future of healthcare services delivery. The idea of using
ML in healthcare was pioneered by the expertise systems and rule-based algorithms
in the 1970s and 1980s; MYCIN is an example of the latest discovery which was
used to diagnose bacteria. New methods also entered the scene in the 1990s with
the use of new statistical procedures such as Decision tree and Logistic regression
for better forecasting.
There was the beginning of the ideas of data mining and of the concept of big
data in the early 2000s because the fields of healthcare generated large amounts
of electronic health records (EHRs), genetic study, and uses of imaging. The past
decade in the 2010s started a new epoch with the progression of ML and deep
learning algorithms especially the convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and
the recurrent neural networks (RNNs) that showcased possibilities in the medical
image analysis and the natural language processing of the medical notes. There
was further development in the concept of personalized medicine and predative
analytics using ML algorithms that studies in-depth genetic, clinical, and lifestyle
data with a view to enhance the physician’s approach in developing the best
treatment plan that would yield positive patient results.
The combination of ML with IoT (internet of things) and wearable devices
facilitated constant health check and chronic ailment management for users to
adhere to a constant stream of information on their health and potential illnesses.
Research within recent years has also placed efforts for explication into more
explanation and an ethical agenda like data privacy or algorithmic bias. Future
developments are expected in an even greater extent with regards to multimodal
data fusion as well as new, sound, and autonomous ethical AI solutions within the
medical field where physicians, developers, and researchers are working hand-
in-hand.
As shown in the Table 1, significant advancements in the application of ML
techniques within the healthcare sector over the past few decades is outlined. Each
year represents a milestone where ML technologies have contributed to various
aspects of healthcare, from medical image processing to personalized medicine
and telemedicine. These advancements have revolutionized patient- care, diagnosis
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 209

accuracy, medication research, and healthcare delivery systems. By examining

these key advancements, one can gain insights into the transformative impact of
ML on healthcare practices and the continuous evolution of AI-driven solutions to
address healthcare challenges.

Table 1 Evolution of Machine Learning advancements in healthcare.

Year Key Advancements in Machine Learning for Healthcare
The application of machine learning techniques to the processing of medical images
1980
has advanced computer-aided diagnosis.
Creation of clinical decision support systems that use machine learning algorithms
1995
to assess patient data and recommend courses of action.
Use of machine learning in personalized medicine and genomics, which makes
2000 it possible to analyse vast amounts of genetic data for the purpose of optimizing
treatment and predicting disease.
Machine learning integration with electronic health records (EHRs) enables
2005 data-driven insights into patient health outcomes, trends, and population health
management at scale.
Development of deep learning algorithms for the interpretation of medical images,
2010 which has improved the accuracy of diagnosis for diseases including cancer and
neurological problems.
Increased use of machine learning in medication research and discovery, leading to
2015 quicker identification of new therapeutic targets and potential uses for repurposing
drugs.
Machine learning-driven telemedicine and remote patient monitoring are on the rise,
2020
allowing for proactive patient care and real-time patient health metrics monitoring.
Constant improvements in AI-powered healthcare delivery systems, with a stronger
2024 emphasis on precision medicine, predictive analytics, and AI-assisted screening
and diagnosis.

3. Bio-Inspired Algorithms for Neural Disorders Prediction

3.1 Introduction to Bio-Inspired Algorithms

Bio-inspired formulas which are based upon all-natural procedures and organic
systems have shown substantial capacity for projecting neurological conditions.
These formulas utilize sensations like development, crowd habits, and neural
task to tackle hard medical care issues, especially in the forecast of neurological
conditions such as clinical depression, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s condition.
Benefits of each are defined thoroughly listed below:
Hereditary Algorithms
● Principle: These algorithms simulate a choice by creating, establishing, and
enhancing a populace of remedies throughout succeeding generations.
● Application: In a neurological condition forecast, hereditary algorithms are
made use of to choose along with enhance functions. It boosts the version,
210 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

anticipating precision by choosing one of the most pertinent attributes from

large datasets (such as hereditary information and mind imaging). As an
example, they can aid in recognizing hereditary pens connected to a raised
threat of clinical depression or Alzheimer’s illness [23].
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
● Principle: PSO is designed after the social habits of birds gathering or fish
education. It enhances an issue by permitting a populace (group) of prospective
remedies (bits) to move around in the search area making use of fundamental
mathematical ideas based upon their very own and their next-door neighbours’
experiences.
● Application: PSO is utilized to maximize the specifications of AI versions that
anticipate neurological illness. It can effectively look for the ideal criteria in
intricate versions, leading to boosted efficiency in jobs like spotting Parkinson’s
condition based upon movement signs plus mind-imaging information [24].
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and Deep Learning
● Principle: Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are computer system designs
motivated by the human mind that include adjoined devices (nerve cells)
that refine information in layers. Deep discovering, a kind of synthetic neural
network contains countless layers that enable the understanding of complex
patterns.
● Application: Deep discovering versions, RNNs are commonly utilized to
evaluate neuroimaging information (e.g., MRI, fMRI) to spot very early
signs of neurological issues. They can spot complicated patterns in imaging
information that might show problems such as clinical depression also prior
to medical signs show up.
Ant Colony Optimization (ACO)
● Principle: ACO was motivated by ants’ foraging habits and capacity to find the
quickest courses to food resources. Chemical routes are utilized as an indirect
interaction technique to locate suitable services.
● Application: In conditions of neurological problems, ACO can be utilized to
enhance paths in mind link networks. As an example, it can aid in recognizing
exactly how neural circuits are changed in problems such as schizophrenia by
enhancing the look for irregular patterns in mind link information.
Transformative Techniques and Differential Evaluation
● Principle: These techniques are all-natural evolution-inspired optimization
methods that look for ideal options by focusing on the flexibility and
advancement of people within a populace.
● Application: These formulas are utilized to enhance advanced versions that
project neurological illness. For instance, they can make use of longitudinal
individual information to enhance the criteria and framework of neural network
versions that anticipate the programme of illness like numerous scleroses.
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 211

Swarm Intelligence (SI)

● Principle: SI formulas are motivated by the cumulative habits of decentralized,
self-organized systems, such as pests or birds.
● Application: SI techniques are made use of, to gather and classify large
datasets pertinent to neurological diseases. As an example, they can team
clients based upon resemblances in their mind task patterns or hereditary
accounts which can aid recognize subtypes of anxiety or various other neural
ailments.
As shown in Table 2, Bio-inspired algorithms leverage mechanisms and
principles observed in natural systems to address complex computational problems.
These algorithms draw inspiration from biological processes, adapting them into
computational strategies to find optimal solutions in various domains. Here is a
brief overview of several bio-inspired algorithms, their foundational inspirations,
and common applications, particularly in medical fields such as depression,
epilepsy, Parkinson’s, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer’s disease.

Table 2 Overview of Bio-inspired algorithms for neural disorder prediction.

Bio-Inspired Description Sector-Inspired Common
Algorithms Algorithmic Application
Innovation
Genetic Uses principles of natural Natural selection Depression,
Algorithm (GA) selection and genetics to find and genetics Epilepsy
optimal solutions.
Particle Swarm Models the social behaviour of Swarm Parkinson’s,
Optimization birds flocking or fish schooling to behaviour of Depression
(PSO) find optimal solutions. birds/fish
Artificial Neural Simulates the neural structure of Human brain Depression,
Networks the human brain to learn from structure Schizophrenia
(ANN) data and recognize patterns.
Ant Colony Mimics the behaviour of ants Foraging Alzheimer’s,
Optimization finding paths to food sources to behaviour of ants Depression
(ACO) solve optimization problems.
Evolutionary Encompasses various algorithms Darwinian Depression,
Strategies (ES) inspired by natural evolutionary evolution Schizophrenia
processes to solve complex principles
optimization tasks.
Differential Uses mechanisms of natural Evolutionary Depression,
Evaluation (DE) evolution such as mutation, strategies Epilepsy
crossover, and selection for
optimization problems.
Swarm Utilizes the collective behaviour Collective Parkinson’s,
Intelligence (SI) of decentralized, self-organized behaviour of Depression
systems like ant colonies or bird social organisms
flocks.
212 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

As shown in Figure 2, a comparative overview of several bio-inspired

algorithms is depicted, along with a CNN for depression identification. The
algorithms used are GA, PSO, ACO, Swarm Algorithm (SA), DE, and CNN.
The performance criteria evaluated include accuracy, precision, specificity, and
efficiency, as measured by execution time. This comparison emphasizes the pros
and disadvantages of each strategy, allowing you to choose the best algorithm
depending on your individual accuracy, precision, and computational efficiency
needs.

Performance Metrics of Bio-Inspired Algorithms and Neural

Networks in Depression Detection
94
92
Performance Metrics

90
88
86
84
82
80
78
76
Ant Colony Differential Genetic Particile Swarm Convolutional Swarm
Optimization Evolution Algorithm Optimization Neural Network Intelligence
Algorithms

Accuracy (%) Precision (%) Specificity (%)

Fig. 2 Performance metrics of Bio-Inspired Algorithms and neural networks in depression

detection.

3.2 Principles and Applications of Bio-Inspired ML Models in

Mental Health
The use of bio-inspired artificial intelligence (ML) versions in psychological
wellness is rapidly broadening incorporating the concepts of all-natural and organic
systems to resolve the intricacies of psychological health and wellness conditions.
These versions, influenced by transformative procedures, swarm knowledge plus
neural networks supply unique strategies to the forecast, medical diagnosis along
with administration of psychological health and wellness conditions [25]. Listed
below is a thorough introduction of their applications:
Recognition and Forecasting of Depression
● To determine and projection of clinical depression, a selection of information
resources consisting of wearable sensing units, digital wellness documents,
coupled with patient-reported results are examined making use of bio-inspired
AI formulas.
● GAs improve the accuracy of clinical depression forecast designs by helping in
the recognition of hereditary pens and the option of one of the most significant
elements from big datasets.
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 213

● Deep Learning techniques like fabricated neural networks (ANNs) evaluate

detailed patterns in behaviour together with neuroimaging information to
detect very early advising signals of clinical depression and track the efficiency
of therapy.
Tracking Stress along with Anxiety
● Mobile wellness applications that assess information from heart price
irregularity, galvanic skin reaction coupled with various other physical
indicators to supply real-time responses and therapies are implemented by
PSO formulas.
● SI formulas collection coupled with categorize stress-related information to
find patterns along with projection stress and anxiety episodes.
Medical Diagnosis of Schizophrenia
● Neural network-inspired deep understanding designs specifically, are vital for
detecting schizophrenia because they can recognize both architectural and
practical irregularities in the mind by reviewing neuroimaging information.
● CNNs evaluate fMRI together with MRI information to spot distinctive mind
patterns connected to mental illness, helping with very early medical diagnosis
and surveillance the training course of the ailment.
● ACO, which makes best use of mind network connection courses, can be used
to recognize constant disruptions related to mental illness.
Administration of Bipolar Disorder
● Making use of a selection of information resources such as state of mind
journals plus sensing unit information, bio-inspired AI designs projection state
of mind swings in individuals with bipolar affective disorder.
● Sequential information might be refined well by RNNs and Long Short-Term
Memory (LSTM) networks to prepare for manic together with depressive
episodes. This enables punctual treatments and individualized therapy
programmes.
Autism Spectrum Disorders and ADHD
● To determine and deal with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
autism spectrum disorders (ASD) bioinspired formulas analyse behaviour and
neuroimaging information [26].
● DE and Evolutionary Strategies (ES) maximize designs to discover hereditary
together with mind link patterns symptomatic of ASD and ADHD.
● ANNs and deep understanding designs review neuroimaging information and
behaviour assessments to discover very early biomarkers and sustain tailored
treatment strategies.
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
● Device finding out formulas utilize information from army soldiers, injury
survivors along with various other at-risk teams to forecast the start along
with development of PTSD.
214 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

● GAs and PSO maximize designs that analyse physical information historic
information, and emotional analyses to determine individuals that might go
to threat of establishing PTSD and to personalize therapy in action.
Real-Time Surveillance and Supervision
● Utilizing details from wearable innovation plus mobile wellness applications,
bio-inspired AI designs permit real-time monitoring together with therapy of
a series of psychological health and wellness concerns.
● ANNs and deep learning versions keep an eye on rest patterns task degrees
together with physical actions by evaluating constant streams of information
from wearable sensing units.
● SI approaches make it much easier to develop flexible systems that respond
to changes in an individual’s mind state and give customized, real-time aid.
Information Integration Using Multiple Modes
● To improve the forecast and medical diagnosis of psychological wellness
health problems GAs and ACOs maximize the option and assimilation of
multimodal information (e.g., hereditary, neuroimaging, professional, coupled
with behaviour information).
● Diverse datasets are refined and assessed by deep understanding designs which
expose fancy affiliations and patterns that might not show up with standard
evaluation.
As shown in Table 3, details of numerous usages of bio-inspired formulas in
medical care are listed. These formulas, influenced by organic systems are being
used throughout various domain names to change condition, medical diagnosis,
medication exploration individualized medication, positive modelling wellness
surveillance, clinical robotics, and automation. By taking advantage of the power
of bio-inspired formulas, medical care experts can improve client treatment, boost
therapy results, and simplify healthcare procedures. Table 3 offers a thorough
summary of just how these formulas are being used to attend to varied healthcare
obstacles.

Table 3 Applications of Bio-inspired algorithm in healthcare.

Application Description
Disease Diagnosis Bio-inspired algorithms are used to assess medical imaging data (e.g.,
MRI, CT scans) to identify irregularities that may indicate cancer or
tumours.
Drug Discovery Bio-inspired algorithms facilitate virtual screening of chemical
compounds to identify prospective medication candidates and optimize
molecular structures for increased efficacy.
Personalized Bio-inspired algorithms examine genomic data to find genetic markers
Medicine related to illness susceptibility, therapeutic response, and treatment
outcomes in specific patients.
Contd.
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 215

Prognostic Bio-inspired algorithms anticipate disease progression and patient

Modeling outcomes based on clinical data, biomarkers, and physiological signals,
which aid in treatment planning and management.
Health Monitoring Bio-inspired algorithms evaluate data from wearable devices (e.g.,
and Wearables smartwatches, fitness trackers) to monitor vital signs, detect anomalies,
and give consumers with real-time health insights.
Medical Robotics Bio-inspired algorithms drive robotic devices to perform minimally
and Automation invasive surgeries, aid in rehabilitation exercises, and automate
healthcare chores such as medicine administration.

3.3 Evaluating the Advantages and Limitations of Bio-Inspired

Approaches
● Strength and Versatility: Bioinspired approaches are fundamentally durable
and adaptable, making use of ideas discovered in all-natural systems to adjust
to ever-changing and challenging circumstances.
● International Optimization: Bio-inspired formulas such as PSO coupled with
hereditary formulas can undergo huge option rooms together with recognizing
around the world optimum response to testing optimization concerns. These
formulas can properly look for the maximum options without ending up being
entrapped in regional optima by imitating the procedures of all-natural option
together with advancement [26].
● Parallelism plus Scalability: A great deal of bio-inspired formulas is normally
identical coupled with scalable which allows them to successfully make
use of calculation sources and address complicated jobs. These techniques
can manage large information troubles and increase convergence by being
parallelized over various CPUs or dispersed computer systems.
● Interpretability and Explainability: A variety of bio-inspired designs supply
reasonable descriptions for their decision-making treatments and options,
such as genetic formulas and ant swarm optimization. This explainability
enhances client expertise and self-confidence particularly in essential sectors
like financing and healthcare where responsibility and visibility are important.
● Imagination and Innovation: By contrasting numerous organic systems and
all-natural occasions, bioinspired techniques often produce initial remedies to
testing problems. These techniques advertise initial idea and the examination
of unique methods with interdisciplinary teamwork which causes imaginative
explorations coupled with breakthroughs in scientific research along with
innovation.
Despite its capacity, bio-inspired approaches additionally deal with numerous
difficulties.
● Level of Sensitivity and Specification Adjusting: Bio-inspired formulas
generally consist of a collection of criteria that need to be effectively readjusted
to run at their finest. These formulas can be tough to set up because of their
216 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

level of sensitivity to specification options; in order to get superb outcomes a

lot of trial and error and subject experience are needed.
● Computational Complexity: Large-scale optimization troubles call for
computationally costly together with taxing bio-inspired formulas specifically
those that depend on move knowledge or transformative calculation.
● Early Convergence and Stagnation: Search procedures in bio-inspired
formulas might experience untimely convergence or stagnancy which avoids
them from completely analysing the entire option area or from ending up being
stuck in less-than-ideal solutions. Poor populace range, wrong criterion setups,
or misleading physical fitness landscapes can all add to this trouble.
● Restricted Transferability: The specific concern domain name and the
residential or commercial properties of the underlying information are
regularly important consider the success of bio-inspired methods. Although
some techniques could operate well in some scenarios their transferability and
larger efficiency might be restricted if they do not do continually throughout
datasets or generalize well to various other locations.
As shown in Table 4, Bio-inspired approaches leverage natural processes
to solve complex problems in computer science, engineering, and applied
mathematics. These methods offer numerous advantages, such as robustness to
noisy environments and adaptability, but also come with limitations like high
computational complexity and sensitivity to parameters. Table 4 provides a concise
overview of the key advantages and limitations of bio-inspired approaches, aiding
in the assessment of their suitability for various applications.

Table 4 Evaluating the advantages and limitations of Bio-inspired approaches.

Advantages Limitations
Robustness to noisy or uncertain environments High computational complexity
Adaptability to changing conditions Sensitivity to parameter settings
Ability to handle complex, nonlinear Difficulty in interpreting and explaining
problems model behaviours
Parallel processing capabilities Lack of scalability for large-scale problems
Exploration of novel and innovative solutions Overfitting or underfitting of models
Flexibility in problem-solving Limited understanding of convergence and
optimization dynamics
Inspiration for interdisciplinary research Vulnerability to local optima
Potential for mimicking natural processes Challenges in integrating with existing
systems and methodologies
Efficient global search strategies Dependency on domain-specific knowledge
and expertise
Ability to find near-optimal solutions Ethical considerations regarding the use of
living organisms or natural processes
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 217

4. Integration of Bio-Inspired Algorithms with Machine

Learning

4.1 Understanding the Synergies between Bio-Inspired Algorithms

and Traditional ML Techniques
Bio-inspired formulas give unique methods to problem-solving by taking
motivation from organic systems and all-natural sensations. On the various other
hand, typical AI strategies are based upon mathematical formulas and analytical
concepts. Even though these two techniques can show up various, they both intend
to make use of information to find out to projection or choose. The complementing
top qualities of bio-inspired formulas and traditional device discovering strategies
are where they function best with each other. Solutions with organic motivation,
such hereditary formulas, bit guidebook optimization and ant swarm optimization,
are very competent in maximizing and checking out complex search locations.
They are durable, adaptable, and with the ability of taking care of transforming
and uncertain problems.
Nevertheless, much more traditional AI techniques such as neural networks,
decision trees and SVMs use efficient devices for anticipating modelling, pattern
recognition, and information evaluation. They are extensively made use of in
various applications since they supply scalability, performance and interpretability.
The benefits of both strategies can be used by scientists and specialists via the
combination of bio-inspired formulas with traditional maker finding out methods.
Genes for example, can be put on semantic network hyperparameter optimization
and attribute option. For category troubles, assistance vector makers can do far
better when enhanced with bit guidebook optimization. Ant swarm optimization
can boost information collections decision tree strategies.

4.2 Benefits of Integrating Bio-Inspired Algorithms with Machine

Learning
ML designs that make use of bioinspired concepts should very carefully incorporate
these principles with present formulas and strategies. Here’s a summary of just how
to attain this assimilation perfectly:
● Hybridization of Algorithms: One technique includes standard artificial
intelligence approaches with bio-inspired formulas. This strategy uses the
benefits of both standards to create even more resistant and effective designs.
As an example, transformative formulas can be paired with neural networks
to choose functions or maximize design criteria.
● Hyperparameter Adjusting and Optimization: Bio-inspired optimization
strategies, such as bit throng optimization along with substitute annealing can
be utilized to play hyperparameters and enhance design efficiency. By swiftly
discovering the search room and determining ideal options for these formulas
replicate all-natural procedures such as throng actions or thermal annealing.
218 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

● Neuromorphic Computing: This cutting-edge technique of ML design layout

is based upon the style together with procedures of the mind. Contrasted to
standard computer designs, neuromorphic systems have the ability to execute
jobs quicker and adaptably since they mimic the identical handling coupled
with connection of nerve cells.
● Self-Organizing Maps (SOM): SOMs apply for without supervision
discovering and organizing troubles as they are influenced by the framework of
neural networks in the mind. These designs keep the topological partnerships
in between information factors by arranging the inbound information in a low-
dimensional area. In device-discovering application, this approach container
assistance with information visualization and pattern acknowledgment.
● Developmentary Strategies and Formulas: Developmentary strategies and
formulas, like genetic formulas simulate the procedures of all-natural option
in order to discover the most effective options or enhance version criteria. In
time these formulas enhance version efficiency by over and over choosing,
interbreeding coupled with changing a populace of possible options.

4.3 Case Studies Demonstrating Successful Integration

Approaches in Depression Detection
Studies showcasing reliable assimilation methods in anxiety discovery give
instances of exactly how AI strategies and bio-inspired formulas have been
effectively incorporated to boost the accuracy, efficiency, and stability of clinical
depression discovery designs. Right here are some instances to assist you recognize:
● Assistance Vector Device and Hybrid Hereditary Formula Design: In this
study, researchers integrated making use of assistance vector makers (SVM)
and hereditary formulas (GA) to produce a crossbreed design that utilizes
electroencephalography (EEG) information to detect clinical depression [6].
By selecting one of the most making clear EEG functions connected with
clinical depression, the hereditary formula was used to enhance the function
option treatment. In order to compare individuals that were dispirited and
those that weren’t based upon their EEG patterns the picked functions were
ultimately fed right into the SVM classifier.
● PSO for Neural Network Feature Selection: In this study, multimodal
information was made use of to refine the function option treatment in neural
network-based anxiety discovery versions with making use of bit movement
optimization (PSO). PSO was used to discover the very best part of functions
from a range of information resources, such as demographics, neuroimaging
information, and scientific assessments. After that, a neural network classifier
was educated with the selected functions to forecast anxiety state from the
amount of the information. The incorporated version went beyond versions
without attribute option regarding category precision and generalization
efficiency by making use of PSO for function option. This suggests that bio-
inspired optimization strategies can be efficiently made use of to boost clinical
depression discovery designs.
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 219

● Ant Swarm Optimization for Signs Pattern Collection Evaluation: Ant

swarm optimization was utilized in this situation research to classify
individuals according to their signs accounts and determine certain subgroups
within a populace. Ant Swarm Optimization was utilized to team individuals
right into collections according to common signs patterns as established by
medical meetings or self-reported surveys. This highlights the worth of bio-
inspired formulas in revealing concealed patterns and substructures in anxiety
information.
As shown in Table 5, lifetime frequency prices of different DSM conditions
classified by sex is depicted. These occurrence prices supply understandings right
into the regularity of incident of various mental wellness problems amongst women
and men. Recognizing the occurrence prices of these conditions is vital for doctors,
policymakers, and scientists to establish efficient treatment techniques along with
designate sources properly to deal with psychological wellness difficulties within
various market teams.

Table 5 Comparative case study of DSM disorders.

DSM Disorder Lifetime Prevalence Rates
Females Males Total
Major Depressive Disorder 20 12.8 17.4
Drug Abuse 5 12.3 7.6
Social Anxiety Disorder 12.7 11.9 12.4
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 9.8 4 7
Panic Disorder 6.9 2.9 4.9
Specific Phobia 16 9 12.5
Dysthymia 2.7 2 2.5
Alcohol Abuse 7.5 19.9 12.8

5. Application of Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Depression

Detection

5.1 Overview of Studies Utilizing Bio-Inspired Algorithms for

Depression Prediction
The application of bio-inspired algorithms in developing anxiety is an example
towards very simple applicative development, towards improving the precision
and the performance of any existing models. Together with the capability to
perform feature selection and thus improve the interpretability of a model and
avoid overfitting, tools of GA for important features selection from different data
sources. This makes the resulting prediction models to be realistic and can be of
practical use. In this case, PSO aids in improving in relation to hyperparameters
of the model and the general effectiveness and flexibility of the model. These
220 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

approaches are helpful in anticipating even specifics and aspects of anxiety that
are attached to a calculus.
Ensemble learning in ACO is worthwhile in the following way since it
makes input to the improvement of the Generalized Predictive Accuracy since
it comprises of several models with weights set depending in their efficiency.
This ties up rather strong set of models that assists to reduce the overfitting issue.
Integration of swarm-based heuristics like ant colony and PSO results in a model,
which was earlier learned, that can adapt to the changing anxiety manifestation to
make interventions earlier. Techniques such as genetic programming, in explicit
terms, provide a superior level of interpretability and accuracy than normal model
analysis and help in enhancing the usage of a superior therapeutic model for
treatment as well as making better decisions for practicing.

5.2 Comparative Analysis of Bio-Inspired Algorithms against

Traditional Methods
Standard and buffed formulas are compared to one another, and it is described
what advantages and disadvantages accompany working with each of them, and
how they comport themselves in practical implementation. Strategies such as
logistic regression, SVM, decision tree have been used in the past to carry out the
depression prediction. Such methods are based input metrics like demographics,
clinical lab results, and self-reported symptoms to categorize a person as being
depressed or not. Several criteria are considered when comparing these approaches.
Analysing flexibility, it can be mentioned that bio-inspired formulations are more
flexible and adjustable than the classic approach. It is for this reason that they are
generally better suited for interaction and higher order terms such as quadratic and
cubic, which in essence are nonlinear relationships, and they capture more of the
details of the data than linear models. Unlike deterministic algorithms, stochastic
bio-inspired algorithms can travel over the space of solutions and recognize more
consistent patterns even if they are located within a noisy environment.
This factor assumes significance as the sizes and volume of the data encounter
in scenarios continue to expand. Optimization methods inspired by nature and
by some principles such as evolution or SI capabilities are higher than those of
traditional methods may face difficulty at large datasets. One is the difficulty in
providing interpretations of bio-inspired solutions because these are usually looked
at as black boxes, which hinders people’s ability to understand why decisions were
made in a certain way. On the other hand, approaches that have been previously used
more often provide obvious interpretability with clear rules or model coefficients
that can signal the importance of characteristics. Lastly, it is essential to evaluate
how well an induction performance or the predictive model to learn from previous
inputs to predict inputs not used in the learning process which is fundamental to the
applicability of computer learning in real-world applications. The generalization
performance of both traditional statistical techniques and bio-inspired algorithms
must be compared on different datasets for the task to analyse success.
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 221

Table 6 depicts the comparative performance measures for traditional and

bio-inspired algorithms in healthcare applications. Traditional methods, such as
logistic regression and decision trees, go up against bio-inspired algorithms like
as GAs, PSO, and ACO. Each algorithm’s accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity
are highlighted, providing information about its usefulness in many different
types of healthcare jobs. By comparing these results, healthcare professionals can
make more informed decisions about algorithm selection for various healthcare
applications.

Table 6 Comparative evaluation of Bio-inspired algorithms with conventional

approaches.
Algorithm Traditional Method Accuracy (%) Sensitivity Specificity
(%) (%)
Genetic Algorithm Logistic Regression 87 80 91

Particle Swarm Support Vector 84 78 90

Optimization Machine
Ant Colony Decision Trees 88 81 92
Optimization

5.3 Comparison of Different Algorithms in Terms of Accuracy and

Efficiency
This research clarifies the concessions in between design efficiency together
with source usage in the context of anxiety forecast where both accuracy and
computational sources are substantial elements. In this contrast, the efficiency of
numerous formulas may be as compared with:
Logistic Regression
● Accuracy: Although extremely uncomplicated and user-friendly, logistic
regression might have difficulty determining elaborate connections in the
information. Specifically, when the relationships in between forecasters and
anxiety are nonlinear its efficiency in anxiety forecast might be modest.
● Efficiency: Large-scale applications and real-time forecast jobs can gain from
logistic regression’s reduced training together with induction source needs and
calculating performance.
Support Vector Devices
● Accuracy: When incorporated with appropriate bit features assistance vector
makers (SVMs) can accomplish high precision in anxiety forecast jobs
and excel in recognizing nonlinear choice limits. Nevertheless, the bit plus
hyperparameter choice might have an influence on exactly how well they
work.
● Efficiency: SVMs could need a great deal of sources particularly when taking
care of substantial datasets or function areas that have many measurements.
222 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

SVM training can take longer and make use of even more calculating power
than educating even more simple designs like logistic regression.
Decision Trees
● Accuracy: Decision trees function well for anxiety forecast issues with
nonlinear connections since they can properly catch intricate communications
in between variables plus results. However, choice trees are at risk to overfitting
which might jeopardize their capacity to generalize.
● Efficiency: Decision trees, specifically throughout induction, are reliable in
regard to computer system sources. Nonetheless, choice tree training can be
computationally costly especially if huge trees are made use of if set strategies
such as arbitrary woodlands are used.
Random Forests
● Accuracy: By integrating forecasts from numerous trees arbitrary woodlands
enhance generalization efficiency by solving the overfitting trouble with
choice trees. Also, amidst complicated activities and sound they typically do
well on anxiety forecast examinations.
● Efficiency: Because arbitrary woodlands need educating several trees all at
once, they might be computationally more pricey than specific choice trees.
When contrasted to a few other set methods, such as slope improving, they
are still reliable, nonetheless.
Neural Networks
● Accuracy: In a selection of maker finding out jobs consisting of anxiety
forecast, neural networks and particularly deep understanding designs, have
revealed state-of-the-art efficiency. From unprocessed information they can
recognize innovative patterns plus adapt to complex partnerships.
● Effectiveness: Deep semantic network training can be computationally
stressful especially for huge datasets plus detailed frameworks. However,
renovations in innovation (such as GPUs [graphic processing units] plus
TPUs [tensor processing units]) together with optimization approaches have
enhanced their efficiency making sensible use them in real-world applications
feasible.
Easier designs like logistic regression or choice trees could provide a
reasonable give-and-take in between precision and effectiveness specifically in
resource-constrained contexts even though much more advanced formulas like
neural networks might use greater precision.

6. Future Directions and Challenges in Bio-Inspired ML

Models for Depression Detection
Using bio-inspired artificial intelligence designs to anxiousness discovery
encounters a number of considerable difficulties. The top quality as well as
accessibility of information are significant obstacles, as clinical depression
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 223

information originated from varied resources like genes, neuroimaging plus

patient-reported results, making complex reliable assimilation. In addition,
the interpretability of intricate designs, such as hereditary formulas along with
neural networks is frequently restricted preventing their approval in medical
setups. Overfitting stays an essential problem, where versions succeed on training
information however stop working to generalize to brand-new information. Making
certain strength as well as dependability throughout various populaces and also
atmospheres is necessary. Computational intricacy is an additional difficulty, as
bio-inspired formulas typically need substantial sources for training as well as
release. In addition, ethical factors to consider consisting of information personal
privacy together with possible predispositions in ML designs, require cautious
administration to make sure reasonable along with fair usage. Attending to these
difficulties is important for the effective application of bio-inspired ML designs in
clinical depression discovery.
Bio-inspired formulas as well as artificial intelligence (ML) in medical care
are swiftly developing driven by technical breakthroughs plus raising information
schedule. An essential fad is incorporating multimodal information, incorporating
hereditary, neuroimaging, medical and also behaviour information for even more
precise anticipating designs. Scientists are likewise concentrating on creating
interpretable ML designs that equilibrium precision with openness, making them
extra trustworthy for medical professionals. Transfer finding out is getting grip
enabling designs educated on one information to be adjusted for usage in an
additional, maximizing restricted information sources. Real-time information
incorporation from wearable tools and also mobile wellness applications is boosting
vibrant tracking plus forecast of mental wellness problems. Improvements in
computational power as well as formulas are making it possible for the release
of innovative bio-inspired ML versions at range. These fads jointly assurance to
enhance individual end results as well as expand the effect of ML in medical care.
There will be a major leap in the future for detecting depression with advancements
driven by technology, better data integration and in-depth knowledge of mental
health issues. These new systems are likely to combine multiple data sources
such as social media activity, wearable device metrics, voice analysis, or facial
recognition to give a comprehensive and accurate understanding of one’s mental
well-being. Furthermore, there should be new applications for ML and AI that
would allow personalized diagnostics and customized treatment recommendations
free from other considerations like unique genetic make-up, environmental factors
or behavioural issues. There will be improved algorithms for early detection and
prediction of depressive episodes leading to timely interventions among patients
affected by this condition.
Figure 3 demonstrates the new developments, how bio-inspired algorithms
coupled with machine learning pose the capability of profoundly revolutionizing
the practice of medicine in every aspect from drug design and precision diagnosis
and targeted therapy to health management by remote monitoring and AI-based
clinical decision support. These strategies are creating the path for a positive
224 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

change in the existing healthcare system one that is better optimized, improved,
and enhanced from focusing on the patient-centred computing intelligence and
integrated insights.

Future Trends Analysis: The Impact and Feasibility of Bio -Inspired

Machine Learning in Healthcare
Impact and Feasibility Scores

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Personalized Longitudinal Multimodal Data Explainable AI Cross-Domain Ethical
Medicine Analysis Integration Collaboration Considerations
and Governanace
Future Trends in Bio -Inspired ML for Healthcare

Impact Feasibility

Fig. 3 Upcoming developments in Bio-Inspired Machine Learning for healthcare.

7. Ethical Considerations and Implications

7.1 Ethical Considerations in Using Bio-Inspired ML Models for

Healthcare
Applying Bio-inspired ML in healthcare settings involves facing several ethical
because it indirectly deals with the patient’s safety and identity, while at the same
time interfering with patients’ liberty. The sombre concern arising out of this is the
security and privacy of data. Secure access to and transmission of personal patient
data including genetic data, EHRs, and diagnostic images is imperative. Possible
solutions, such as strong security and encryption, access control mechanisms, and
anonymization approaches should be applied to counter threats to privacy and
ensure patients’ data protection from illicit use and leakage. Respect for patient’s
self-determination and right to receive adequate information are basic ethical
pillars in research and practice of medicine. It has also found that patients must be
fully informed of the goals, potential harm or risks which are involved, and possible
benefits when using bio-inspired ML models in research, diagnosis, or therapy.
Describing how patient data will be used, by whom, and what consequences it may
lead to educating the patient and allowing them to deliberate on whether they are
willing to be involved in the utilization of ML in their healthcare.
One major aspect of ML that must be handled carefully is the questions of
fairness and avoiding bias when feeding the algorithm and in its outcomes. It is
noteworthy that the same set of training data that is used to develop predictive
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 225

models may contain pre-existing inequalities in terms of healthcare access,

treatment, or demography; this makes these models detrimental to patients as
they serve to prolong such prejudices and disparities. To optimize the fairness and
justice in the healthcare system, the use of fairness-sensitive algorithms, different
training datasets, as well as bias-detection tools, will allow minimizing the problem
and developing the equitable healthcare policies. Accountability, collaboration,
and trust are essential in the current and future healthcare setting, and compelling
understanding and explication of this are expected to guide clinical informatics
research and practice by emphasizing explainability and transparency. It is not
sufficient for patients, physicians and other actors in the healthcare environment
just to get a prediction from the ML algorithm; they have to know about the factors
that comprise this prediction and about potential weaknesses and vagueness of
the prediction. It has been pointed out that framing logical explanations, training
and reports, figures and tables promote meaningful communication and informed
consent in clinical management.
Sufficiency, accountability, and liability issues are crucial when incorporating
bio-inspired ML models in the healthcare domain. It is essential also to determine
who bears the responsibility for the accuracy, reliability, and consequences of the
predictions, diagnosis, or proposed treatment arrived at through the use of the ML
applications in the varied healthcare setting, including ML developers, practitioners
in the field of healthcare, regulatory bodies, and healthcare institutions. Using risk
management processes, legal responsibility models, and complaint mechanisms
may further reduce the ethical and legal implications which affect the application
of ML in the healthcare system. Therefore, providing right resources for fair
distribution and access to the healthcare products and aides empowered by ML
is critical in availing healthcare delivery equity. By considering these ethical
factors, healthcare stakeholders can sufficiently unlock the possible positive impact
of bio-inspired ML models on patient experiences, patient treatment and care,
clinicians’ decisions, and public health and achieve the ethical goals and principles
of adequately handling patients’ data, promoting their rights, and rewarding justice
in healthcare systems.

7.2 Implications of Bio-Inspired ML Models in Depression

Diagnosis and Treatment
Modern AI and bio-inspired ML approaches are improving clinical decision-
making in diagnosis and management of depression great outcomes and changing
the entire landscape of mental healthcare. Due to these models, the behavioural
patterns such as the actions and interactions can be observed, monitored and early
signs of depression detected using the physiological signs, the neuroimages so
that the treatment is enhanced, and the misery of the untreated mental disorders
advances reduced. The fourth element relates to individualized treatment plans as
an advantage. Through the focus on patient characteristics, the results achieved
by treatments, and heritable markers, bio-inspired ML prescribes customized
226 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

depression therapies respecting patients’ needs and preferences. These models

combine multiple parameters, including clinical risk indicants, genetic data,
characterization of patient’s medication past with the goal to boost the compliance
and effectiveness of the therapy.
Risk assessment and prognostic markers are also promoted with these models
that identify the path of the disease, relapse, and therapy effectiveness. This enables
recognition of the vulnerable persons, theologians, decedent providential track,
and fundamentals, hence enhancing the organizational efficiency and patient
well-being. Clinicians and researchers need ML-based decision support systems
as they help clinicians diagnose depression, select relevant treatments, and track
the progression of the disease. These tools help in gathering real-time information,
scientific information, and alerts to help in improving treatment plans and overall
quality of care that is offered. Telemonitoring and telepsychiatry solutions use
all strategies that mimic bio systems to evaluate signs as well as the response to
treatment and other management plans. Sensors, applications installed in mobile
devices, and telehealth sessions offer ways to provide constant tracking of the
mental state of patients, predict relapses, and respond to them, increasing patient
participation in the recovery process and improving access to the necessary
healthcare services [27-28].
Moreover, self-evolving ML algorithms foster advancement in knowledge on
the one hand by processing data regarding the depressive disorder and its treatment
and, on the other hand, the prospects of using bio-inspired algorithms create a new
generation of analytic instruments. This enhances the discovery of both diagnostic
biomarkers and prospective indicators, in addition to therapies geared towards
specific patient subpopulations. Altogether, the bio-inspired ML models contribute
to offering patient-specific care to mental diagnosis and treatment, increasing the
patients’ benefits, decreasing the inequalities, and substantially contributing to
improving the role and efficacy of depression treatment interventions, thus likely
to promote the welfare of those struggling with depression.

Conclusion
To conclude the applications of bio-inspired AI versions stand for an appealing
frontier in psychological wellness. Attracting motivation from all-natural and
organic systems these versions use cutting-edge options for anticipating, identifying,
plus taking care of a vast array of psychological health and wellness problems.
Using strategies such as hereditary formulas, bit can swarm optimization, and
man-made neural networks, scientists and doctors have the ability to utilize large
quantities of information to get much deeper understandings right into the hidden
systems of psychological problems.
By incorporating multimodal information resources consisting of hereditary,
neuroimaging, professional along with behaviour details, these designs give a
holistic strategy to recognizing psychological health and wellness and customizing
therapy techniques. Furthermore, the real-time tracking plus treatment abilities
 Bio-Inspired Algorithms Based Machine Learning Models for Neural Disorders Prediction 227

of bio-inspired ML versions provides the prospective to reinvent psychological

medical distribution making it possible for prompt treatments, and boosting
individual results. Nonetheless, obstacles such as information personal privacy,
version interpretability plus honest factors to consider should be very carefully
attended to guarantee the liable release of these modem technologies.
Continuing the development of collaboration in terms of the initiatives of
scientists, medical practitioners, policymakers, and industries is important to
enhance the use of bio-inspired AI models for mental healthcare and deterioration
of patients’ lives due to mental disorders. Such collaborations can help to cease
developing bio-inspired AI by making sure that the major findings put into
practice to serve the core issues in mental health. This allows one to avoid the
siloed mentality that is present in some professions, and different views, being
incorporated into a project, will lead to it becoming more well-rounded and
efficient. Also, incorporating ethical issues as an early area of concern will assist
to ward off possible risks attached to these technologies. This includes preventing
abuses in the development and use of AI solutions to respect the users’ rights to
privacy, equity, and clarity. Semantically complex and often multifactorial, mental
health problems can benefit from the permanent progress of bio-inspired ML
models as more accurate diagnostic aids, treatment plans, or long-term monitoring
solutions.
While these models are continuously refined and developed, it remains
critical to ensure their transparency, the responsibility of its developers, and its
adherence to patients’ best interest. The implementation of transparency in AI
model development and operation provides an opportunity for explaining to
the stakeholders how the decision is made and helps in easier integration of AI
into clinical practice. Accountability involves holding the developers and the
consumers of the applicable technology to heed for the consequences, which helps
in the avoidance of misuse of the technology and rectifying the impact from its
wrong use. Patient-centred care puts the individual, their needs and preferences,
first; guaranteeing that progressive innovations in the field directly and positively
impacts those with mental health afflictions. Through the application of state of the
art technology alongside clinical and empirical knowledge, a new and progressive
idea can be presented regarding the provision of mental healthcare to people in the
future. Moreover, it improves the quality of care provided to the patients as well
as positioning the technologies that are planned to be implemented to fit better
into the patient’s interests in terms of their mental state and, as a result, a better
quality of life.
Progressing collective initiatives in between scientists, medical professionals,
policymakers plus sector stakeholders will certainly be vital to take advantage
of the complete capacity of bio-inspired AI designs in changing psychological
medical and boosting the lives of people affected by mental disease. By promoting
interdisciplinary partnerships and focusing on honest factors to consider can
optimize the influence of these modern technologies while lessening possible
threats. The recurring development of bio-inspired ML designs holds assurance
228 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

for resolving the complicated and complex nature of psychological wellness

problems. As remained to modify and create these versions it is essential to focus
on openness, responsibility, and also patient-centred treatment. By integrating
cutting-edge modern technology with understanding and evidence-based methods,
can lead the way for a future where psychological medical is a lot more available,
reliable, and fair for all people.

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 Research Directions and Challenges
12 in Bio-Inspired Algorithms for
Machine Learning and Deep Learning
Models in Healthcare
Mani Deepak Choudhry,1* Sundarrajan M,2 Akshya Jothi3 and
Seifedine Kadry4

In the recent past, there has been growing interest in bio-inspired algorithms
for their potential to enhance machine learning and deep learning models,
especially for applications in healthcare. This chapter covers the nascent domain
of bio-inspired algorithms applied in healthcare, discussing research directions
and challenges. This chapter discusses several bio-inspired techniques: genetic
algorithms, artificial neural networks, evolutionary strategies, swarm intelligence,
and ant colony optimization—underpinning their flexibility and efficiency in
optimizing complex healthcare systems. The chapter also describes how
these algorithms have been combined in machine learning and deep learning
frameworks that exhibit the ability for feature selection challenges, parameter
optimization, and model explainability on healthcare datasets. Moreover, the
chapter looks into the state-of-the-art application of bio-inspired algorithms in
healthcare, including disease diagnosis, medical image analysis, drug discovery,
and recommendation systems for personalized treatment. While there have
been promising developments, several challenges persist, involving algorithm
scalability, computational complexity, robustness to noise and uncertainty, ethical
consideration, and regulatory compliance. The chapter suggests potential research
directions that could overcome those challenges, emphasizing an interdisciplinary
approach among computer scientists, healthcare professionals, and domain experts.

1. Introduction to Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Healthcare

Although the application of computers to biology is relatively recent, the increased
use of computers means that the application of computers to healthcare is also
1
Department of Computing Technologies, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankal-
athur, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, India.
2
Department of Networking and Communications, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kat-
tankalathur, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, India.
3
Department of Computational Intelligence, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankal-
athur, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, India.
4
Department of Applied Data Science, Noroff University College, Norway.
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Research Directions and Challenges in BIA for ML, DL Models in Healthcare 231

almost as old as computing itself. In the past few years, one of the most promising
in developing more advanced decision-making systems in healthcare is applying
algorithms inspired by natural processes and evolutionary principles [1]. These
algorithms simulate the adaptive and optimization mechanisms of biological
systems for novel solutions to complex problems in medical diagnosis, treatment
optimization, and healthcare management.
A long tradition of computational biology and evolutionary computing has
inspired the development of bio-inspired algorithms in healthcare [2]. These ideas
have motivated scientists to construct algorithms based on the fundamentals that
Charles Darwin set for natural selection, genetic mutation, and survival of the
fittest in optimization problems. The obvious ones are genetic algorithms (GAs),
evolutionary strategies (ES), and ant colony optimization (ACO), all of which
base their working models on the principles of natural selection in the sense of
iteratively improving solutions by adapting to changes in the environment. In so
doing, bio-inspired algorithms capture the essence of evolution to provide a flexible
and powerful means of optimizing healthcare processes and decision-making [3].
The development of big data and machine learning (ML) has opened doors
for bio-inspired algorithms to be applied to more areas, one of which is healthcare
analytics and predictive modeling. Data generated in healthcare assumes an
exponentially large proportion, and, in general, traditional computational methods
are usually not able to address the complexity and variability of medical datasets
[4]. On the other hand, bio-inspired algorithms naturally perform extremely well
when optimizing over large-scale, high-dimensional data, making them suitable
candidates for feature selection, parameter optimization, and pattern recognition
tasks in healthcare [5]. From there, scientists can merge bio-inspired techniques
with ML and deep learning (DL) models in health systems to make them more
accurate, effective, and interpretable for better patient outcomes.
Combining bio-inspired algorithms with ML and DL models in healthcare
analytics is changing the game. GAs, particle swarm optimization (PSO), and
artificial bee colonies are examples of bio-inspired algorithms that mimic some
natural processes’ evolution, swarming, and foraging and delivering solutions
for complex optimization problems. They perform very well in the context of
large-scale, high-dimensional data spaces that emerge with the numerous and
complex data sources that characterize healthcare today. For example, GAs have
previously been used for feature selection, where they extract the most relevant
features from patient data that contribute to disease prediction or diagnosis. It
reduces data dimensionality while at the same time enhancing model performance
and interpretability because it will highlight the most important variables in
the modeling process. On the other side of the coin, the integration of PSO for
hyperparameter tuning within ML models has yielded improved accuracy with
reduced computational costs.
Using bio-inspired algorithms to supplement the model of ML and DL creates
robustness and adaptability. Quite often, the data associated with healthcare tends
to be very noisy, heterogeneous, and incomplete, which poses a big challenge
232 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

for classical computational methods [6]. Such complexities make bio-inspired

algorithms flexible and adaptive, hence coming up with robust solutions that
are supplied even in an uncertain environment. For example, ACO has been
utilized in improving the medical resources’ routing and scheduling to optimize
the system for healthcare services. Moreover, bio-inspired techniques can be
integrated with neural networks to form hybrid models, which possess the benefits
of both approaches. Such hybrid models can learn automatically from data while
optimizing their structure and parameter values through bio-inspired processes
and produce better performance for disease progression modeling and prediction
of treatment outcomes [7].
Another critical aspect of the application of bio-inspired algorithms could be
interpretability in healthcare models. ML models, especially DL, are predominantly
considered “black boxes”, due to the complex and non-transparent mode of making
decisions [8]. Bio-inspired algorithms would increase interpretability in a way that
insights toward feature importance and decision rules are derived from data. For
instance, evolutionary algorithms can result in easy-to-understand and trustable
rule-based systems, which would be understandable for clinicians [9]. Systems
will be able to explain why a certain decision was made, thereby improving
transparency and ensuring better clinical decision-making. At the same time, bio-
inspired algorithms can be further fused with ML to give way to the development
of personalized medicine in which treatment and intervention are tailored to
individual patients based on their unique data profiles. Such synergy brings a
further improvement in the accuracy and effectiveness of healthcare delivery while
maintaining the interpretability and trustworthiness of the models, and so leads to
further enhancement in patient outcomes [10].
In addition, beyond its promise for bio-inspired algorithms, such widespread
adoption in healthcare will also come with challenges in terms of collaboration
that would be required from the computer scientists, healthcare professionals,
and domain experts; concerns on scalability and computational efficiency of the
algorithms; ethical concerns; and so on. These create combined research efforts
of the researchers, policymakers, and industry toward the development of robust,
ethical, and clinically validated bio-inspired solutions. The current chapter has
focused on applying bio-inspired algorithms within healthcare and discussing
how such works are strong and have their limitations in transforming the face of
medical practice and research.

2. overview of Machine Learning and Deep Learning Models

in Healthcare
The health sector has been revolutionized to become data-driven by insights and
decisions, which emanate from ML and DL, with a resultant trickle-down effect
of better care to the patients and improved diagnoses and treatments. ML is the
broad application of artificial intelligence (AI) for training the algorithm with large
datasets to recognize patterns or make predictions or decisions about the outcomes
 Research Directions and Challenges in BIA for ML, DL Models in Healthcare 233

of the processes under consideration, without being explicitly programmed. In

healthcare, ML involves everything from predicting outbreaks to personalizing
treatment plans and advancing diagnoses. It learns models from historical data,
including electronic health records (EHRs), medical images, genomic sequences,
and much more, to dig out trends and correlations that are unknown to human
clinicians. DL is a more advanced subset of ML that employs deep artificial neural
networks for the analysis of many-layered data: in the medical field, images,
audio recordings, and text. DL has resulted in very impressive improvements
with the models based on convonutional neural networks (CNNs) and recurrent
neural networks (RNNs) in applications related to image and speech recognition.
Specifically, for healthcare, CNNs are widely used in the interpretation of medical
imaging, such as X-rays, MRIs, and CTs, with accuracy almost always equivalent
to or even better than that of human experts. RNNs, further extended to models
such as long short-term memory (LSTM) networks, are good at learning sequential
data and are therefore an excellent fit for predicting patient outcomes using time-
series data from wearables or continuous monitoring systems.
Integrating ML and DL into healthcare portends great advances in personalized
medicine, early disease detection, and operation efficiencies. For example, ML
models can analyze genetic information and subsequently tailor individual
treatments for optimal benefits to an individual in personalized medicine. For
example, the early diagnosis of diseases, such as cancers and diabetic retinopathy,
is greatly enhanced by DL models that spot changes in medical images effortlessly
traversable by the human eye. Besides, ML models can optimize health operations
by planning resources, admissions of patients, and streamlining administrative
procedures. Continuous development of these technologies is likely to reshape
healthcare delivery to be more predictive, preventive, and precise. Various ML
and DL algorithms involved in healthcare are depicted in Figure 1 followed by
subsequent subsections describing ML and DL models in detail.

2.1 ML Models for Healthcare

ML is the wide range of statistical learning and study that allows computer systems
to learn from experience and hence improve their way of operation without being
programmed for specific activities. This learning involves modifying the way the
machine behaves. For instance, an ML system may be capable of learning how to
recognize faces by combing over a set of images. The two main subdivisions of
ML are unsupervised learning and supervised learning. One of the sectors poised
to gain tremendously from such a move is healthcare [11, 12, 13]. Over the last
century, the development of technology has played a large role in pushing the
average human lifespan higher. Even the slightest details of operations can be
optimized today because of the power of computing. AI and ML, with growing
technology, are set to drastically change healthcare. Currently, ML is playing a
role in the sector; the scope for future implementation remains unlimited [14, 15].
The healthcare industry has embraced the cutting edge of modern technologies,
234 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

Fig. 1 ML and DL algorithms.

and AI and ML are no exceptions. It has many applications in health, just like the
way it plays roles in business and e-commerce. ML is changing the healthcare
industry through new, innovative applications combined with Big Data tools, such
as Electronic Medical Records, for advanced data analytics. ML tools have the
potential to upgrade automation and intelligent decision-making for patient care
and public health systems, thus improving the quality of life for billions across
the globe [16,17,18].

2.1.1 Revolutionizing Healthcare by ML

ML can analyze and interpret complex medical data more efficiently and accurately
than traditional methods. The possibilities that could be opened in the process
of improving patient care are diverse. Here are some key ways in which ML is
revolutionizing the healthcare industry:
● ML algorithms are very competent at detecting patterns and even minute
correlations in huge datasets. The result in healthcare will be improved by
 Research Directions and Challenges in BIA for ML, DL Models in Healthcare 235

early disease detection and timely diagnosis. ML algorithms are now applied
in revealing early indicators of diseases missed by the human doctor through
patient data—medical histories, genetic profiles, and imaging. This can
be tantamount to prompt intervention, saving lives, and improving patient
outcomes.
● Different people have distinct natures and may respond differently to varied
treatments. ML algorithms could look through the characteristics of patients,
their medical history, and the results of the treatment provided to define an
individualized treatment plan. Considering all factors, from genetic markers
and lifestyle to environmental factors, ML can help healthcare providers
personalize the treatment of patients in such a way as to maximize the
possibility of their successful recovery.
● ML algorithms learn from historical data of patient cases to predict disease
course and high-risk potential for certain conditions. Analyzing trends and
factors of risk, such models provide healthcare professionals with important
insights for proactive intervention. For example, in chronic conditions, such
as diabetes or hypertension, ML can predict when a patient’s condition might
get worse, enabling physicians to take precautionary measures and avoid
complications.

2.1.2 Benefits of using ML in Healthcare

● Improvement in accuracy and efficiency.
● Personalized Treatment.
● Real-Time Monitoring.
● Data-Driven Insight.

2.1.3. Challenges of using ML in Healthcare

● Data Quality and Availability
■ Fragmented and inconsistent data across different systems.
■ Difficulty in aggregating and preprocessing data.
Sensitivity and privacy concerns regarding patient data.
Compliance with regulations like HIPAA.
● Model Interpretability
■ Advanced ML models, particularly DL, often act as “black boxes”.
■ Lack of transparency in model decision-making processes.
■ Need for clear explanations for clinical validation and trust.
■ Physicians require interpretable outputs to integrate ML into patient care.
● Generalizability
■ ML models may not generalize across different patient populations or
clinical settings.
■ Variability in demographics, genetics, and healthcare practices.
■ Extensive need for validation and retraining with diverse datasets.
236 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

■ Challenges of integration into existing clinical workflow.

■ Ensuring that the models augment, rather than interfere with, the decision-
making processes.

2.2 DL Models for Healthcare

AI, including ML and DL, is one of the latest technologies transforming healthcare
today. It involves the training of artificial neural networks in a tremendous amount
of data to learn complicated patterns and predict with great precision. Healthcare
is a unique sector that has benefited, for the last couple of years, from DL models
in medical imaging and diagnostics, personalized treatment planning, and drug
discovery [19]. These models are most relevant in healthcare data because of
their ability to handle and analyze large datasets with a huge number of variables.
The most popular application of DL in healthcare has been within the domain of
medical imaging. CNNs are important types of DL models that specialize in image
recognition and classification tasks. Such models have been applied to the task of
detecting and diagnosing diseases from medical images like X-rays, MRIs, and CT
scans. For example, CNNs can detect tumors, fractures, and other abnormalities
more accurately, if not better, than human radiologists. This not only results in an
improvement in the accuracy of diagnoses but also in faster diagnosing, hence
enabling early intervention in the treatment process. Apart from diagnostics, DL
models transform personalized medicine. By studying the patient’s genetic data,
EHRs, and other data, these models can predict the risk of acquiring some diseases
and provide personalized treatment plans. The best models for this function are
RNNs and LSTMs, as they can handle sequential data and recognize temporal
patterns. This is pretty important for estimating the disease course and delivering
patient-tailored treatment plans, not only to improve the patient’s state but also to
reduce the cost of healthcare.
DL also forms significant contributions to the discovery of drugs and their
subsequent development. The traditional approaches toward drug discovery are
time-consuming and expensive, but DL models predict how different molecules
will interact with biological targets and, hence, dramatically speed up this process.
Generative adversial networks (GANs) and other DL techniques can generate fresh
drug candidates and simulate the potential effects these drugs are likely to elicit.
This has the impact of significantly reducing the development timeline. These
models could also reveal existing drugs that could be repurposed to treat other
conditions, thereby offering new hope for diseases with few options. However,
implementation comes with a lot of challenges [20]. Data privacy and security
are key aspects since data within healthcare are sensitive. It is very important to
ensure that the models are trained on representative quality data to avoid biases,
which then lead to inaccurate predictions and care disparities. Another area of
concern is the interpretability of DL models since these models normally operate
as a “black box” with decision-making processes not easily understandable by a
human. These challenges need continual collaboration between AI researchers,
 Research Directions and Challenges in BIA for ML, DL Models in Healthcare 237

healthcare professionals, and regulatory bodies to ensure the technologies of DL

are safe, effective, and fair to patients in general.

2.2.1. DL in Medical Imaging

DL techniques in medical imaging enhance the image acquisition and pathology
identification process. They improve the quality of images from different modalities
and enable effective detection of pathological markers. As an illustration, CNN
improves the resolution of MRI images to visualize possible pathologies [21].
In addition to increasing resolution, CNNs are great for processing acquired
images to detect features that point to specific pathologies [22]. That is, this
technology has a dual ability to enhance acquisition while supporting pathology
identification. The high-dimensional structure of data and the imbalance between
positive and negative samples make many diseases, especially tumors, relatively
rare, posing a great challenge for the model-training task in these problems.
DL has brought profound changes to medical imaging in the last few years in
addressing the classification, segmentation, and detection tasks in MRI, CT, and
PET modalities [23, 24, 25]. It is notoriously true that training DL algorithms is
data-thirsty in the low-sample scenario. Data augmentation comes as a solution
by providing the artificial generation of new samples, a paramount procedure in
DL fields characterized by sparse rich datasets. This is also useful for missing
modalities in multimodal image segmentation, hence generalizing the model
and reducing overfitting. PyTorch supports data augmentation on the fly, which
makes the process efficient without needing a physically larger dataset. The basic
augmentation operations are rotations, crops, flips, and noise injection, but these
are often not sufficient for complex medical images. Advanced techniques and
domain-specific augmentation strategies are necessary to effectively enhance the
training process for DL models in medical imaging.

2.2.2 Challenges faced by DL models

DL models in healthcare, particularly in medical imaging, face several challenges,
including:
● Data Privacy and Security: Ensuring the protection of sensitive patient data
and complying with regulations like HIPAA and GDPR.
● Limited Training Data: The scarcity of annotated medical data, especially
for rare diseases, hampers the effective training of DL models.
● Data Quality and Variability: Variations in imaging protocols, equipment,
and patient populations can lead to inconsistencies in data quality.
● Interpretability: The “black box” nature of DL models makes it difficult to
understand and explain their decision-making processes.
● Bias and Fairness: Models trained on unrepresentative datasets may exhibit
biases, leading to disparities in diagnosis and treatment.
● Computational Resources: High computational power and memory are
required to train and deploy DL models, which can be costly and resource-
intensive.
238 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

● Integration with Clinical Workflows: Incorporating DL solutions into

existing clinical workflows and ensuring user acceptance among healthcare
professionals.
● Regulatory Approval: Meeting stringent regulatory standards for medical
device approval and demonstrating clinical efficacy and safety.
● Generalization: Ensuring that models generalize well across different
populations, healthcare settings, and imaging modalities.
● Ethical Concerns: Addressing ethical issues related to AI in healthcare,
including informed consent, accountability, and the impact on healthcare jobs.
Table 1 defines various models involved in DL with their uniqueness.

Table 1 Different DL models with their uniqueness.

Various DL Models
S. No. DL Models Uniqueness
1. CNN ● Excellent at image recognition and classification.
● Capable of automatic feature extraction.
2. RNN ● Effective in handling sequential data.
● Suitable for time-series analysis and predicting disease
progression.
3. LSTM ● Maintains long-term dependencies in data.
● Ideal for patient monitoring and EHR analysis.
4. GAN ● Generates synthetic data to augment training datasets.
● Useful in drug discovery and personalized medicine.
5. Autoencoders ● Effective in unsupervised learning and dimensionality
reduction.
● Useful for anomaly detection in medical images.
6. Deep Belief ● Combines multiple layers of stochastic latent variables.
Networks ● Useful for pre-training and initializing deep networks.
7. Restricted ● Efficient in learning a probability distribution over its input.
Boltzmann ● Can be used for collaborative filtering in medical
Machines recommendations.
8. Transformers ● Highly efficient in processing large-scale data.
● Excellent for natural language processing tasks like medical
text analysis.

3. Bio-Inspired optimization Techniques for Healthcare Data

Bio-inspired optimization techniques, drawing inspiration from natural processes
and biological systems, offer innovative solutions to complex problems in various
fields, including healthcare [26–30]. These techniques emulate the efficiency,
adaptability, and resilience of biological systems to optimize decision-making
processes. In healthcare, where data is vast, complex, and often uncertain, bio-
inspired algorithms can enhance data analysis, predictive modeling, and resource
 Research Directions and Challenges in BIA for ML, DL Models in Healthcare 239

management. They provide robust frameworks to tackle challenges such as disease

diagnosis, treatment planning, and patient management. Figures 2 and 3 provide
an overview and describe the various bio-inspired techniques.

Fig. 2 Different classifications of Bio-inspired methods.

Bio-inspired algorithm

Evolution based algorithm Ecology based algorithm

GA, EP&ES, DE BBO, IWO

Swarm intelligence based algorithm

PSO, ACO, BFA, GSO, ABC, FFA, SOA

Fig. 3 Taxonomy of Bio-inspired algorithms.

One of the most prominent bio-inspired techniques is GAs, which,

inspired by natural selection by selection, crossover, and mutation, aim
to solve the optimization problem [31, 32]. Healthcare applications of
GAs include staff schedule optimization, resource allocation in hospitals,
240 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

and personal treatment planning, all to arrive at workable, high-quality

decisions that will improve patient outcomes and operational efficiency.
Another popular technique is the PSO, inspired by the social behavior of birds and
fish. It employs numerous particles, which refer to potential solutions, moving
throughout the search space and guided by their own and neighbors’ experiences
searching for an optimal solution [32]. In healthcare, PSO optimizes medical
imaging, such as enhancing MRI and CT scans, and bioinformatics tasks, like gene
selection for disease classification. The coordination of PSO toward achieving
a common goal makes it powerful in solving high-dimensional optimization
problems common in healthcare data.
ACO, inspired by the foraging behavior of ants, is another bio-inspired
technique used in healthcare. ACO algorithms simulate the pheromone-laying
and following behavior of ants to find optimal paths through graphs, making
them suitable for network optimization problems [32, 33]. ACO is also used in
healthcare to optimize the routing of emergency vehicles, design efficient patient
referral networks, and improve the logistics of drug delivery systems. This is
justifiable because the algorithm can come up with near-optimal solutions, even
with complex and dynamic environments, making it appropriate for real-time
decision-making in healthcare logistics.
Another field that follows the human immune system learning and memory
approach is that of Artificial Immune Systems (AIS). AIS will contribute to
anomaly detection and diagnostics since they are able to recognize patterns,
remember interactions, and adapt to new challenges. For instance, in medicine,
this technology is used in the detection of disease outbreaks, personalized
medicine, and adaptive control systems in medical devices. These abilities make
AIS a powerful tool for improving healthcare monitoring and response systems.
These bio-inspired optimization techniques are applied to ML and predictive
modeling in healthcare. Techniques such as Differential Evolution and Bee
Colony Optimization can be used to improve ML techniques with optimized
hyperparameters and feature selection processes during training. These methods
improve the accuracy and efficiency of predictive models to be used for disease
prognosis, patient risk assessment, and treatment outcome prediction. These bio-
inspired algorithms allow the model development by healthcare data scientists to
be more reliable and interpretable because of their adaptive and exploratory nature.

4. Applications of Bio-Inspired Algorithms in Healthcare

The next frontier where bio-inspired algorithms have found applications in health
is by revolutionizing the field of health care [34–38]. Bio-inspired algorithms have
come as a result of the phenomena in nature, and they offer solutions to various
complex problems. Noteworthy applications of bio-inspired algorithms in health
are outlined below:
● Disease Diagnosis and Prognosis: In disease diagnosis and prognosis, bio-
inspired algorithms, such as GAs and AIS, are used. Such algorithms look at
 Research Directions and Challenges in BIA for ML, DL Models in Healthcare 241

patient data—that is, history of sickness, symptoms, and results of diagnosis

tests—so that doctors can diagnose the disease at an early stage and predict
the course of the disease.
● Personalized Medicine: Personalized medicine is the use of therapeutics by
taking into account patient molecular characteristics along with lifestyle and
environmental influences. In this regard, bio-inspired algorithms might offer
a way to adequately explore the huge space of genomic and clinical databases
to devise optimal treatment strategies for a target patient population. The
use of techniques for optimization of treatment plans, dosage regimens, and
combinations of drugs includes PSO and ACO to make the outcomes of the
patients better and to alleviate their adverse effects.
● Medical Imaging: Bio-inspired algorithm applications have been found in
several medical imaging problems, where quality and efficiency both are
increased in the diagnostic imaging techniques. These techniques are mostly
based on MRI, CT, and PET scans. Examples are swarm-inspired algorithms,
PSO, and ACO that help in processes of image reconstruction and noise
reduction, as well as helping in optimization for feature extraction, processes
that lead to clearer and more informative images in the medical field. These
improved imaging techniques help radiologists to diagnose accurately and to
plan the right course for treatment.
● Healthcare Resource Allocation: One of the important components of timely
and effective patient care is the efficient allocation of resources in healthcare,
in terms of medical staff, equipment, and facilities. Several bio-inspired
algorithms have been researched in the optimization of resource allocation
processes within health systems, including GAs and ACOs. The algorithms
take into account parameters like demand, resource availability, and operating
constraints in areas of scheduling, staffing, and facility layout. In this way, the
best healthcare delivery is rendered and made most cost-effective.
● Drug Discovery and Development: Bio-inspired algorithms are increasingly
being used in the processes of drug discovery and development to speed up
the identification of potential drug candidates and optimum drug designs.
Techniques like (GAs), PSO, and Evolutionary Strategies (ES) are put to
work for tasks in virtual screening, molecular docking, and pharmacophore
modeling toward the identification of new drug-target interactions and lead
compound identification.
● Healthcare Logistics and Supply Chain Management: Effective healthcare
logistics and supply chain management is the key to the timely supply of
medical supplies, medicines, and equipment to healthcare providers. Bio-
inspired algorithms like ACO and PSO are used in this process of optimization
of routing, scheduling, and inventory management processes in healthcare
logistics.
● Healthcare Data Analytics and Decision Support: Healthcare data analytics
and building decision support systems is one of the applications where
bio-inspired algorithms are very popular. They develop predictive models,
242 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

risk stratification algorithms, and treatment recommendation systems with

techniques like GAs, artificial neural networks, and evolutionary computation.
These algorithms pave the way toward the adaptability and self-learning of
healthcare organizations to increase their analytics capabilities to improve
patient care outcomes.

5. Challenges in Implementing Bio-Inspired Algorithms

Application of bio-inspired algorithms can be a very difficult task due to their
complexity and the nature of the biological systems they are based on [39–45].
The following are typical challenges:
● Complexity of Biological Systems: Biological systems are usually of very high
complexity and dynamism, which is why representing them in an algorithmic
form turns out to be very difficult. Translating such systems’ complexity into
computationally tractable algorithms requires deep domain and computation
understanding to be effective.
● Parameter Tuning: Most bio-inspired algorithms have one or more parameters
that have to be tuned very carefully for well-performing assignments. Getting
good parameter configurations is not easy because it is highly experimental,
and, in most cases, this necessitates a large amount of previous experience
and domain knowledge on the subject.
● Scalability: The bio-inspired techniques are pretty good at most small-scale
problems. However, the problem of scaling large problems or those involving
large datasets or complex problems with bio-inspired algorithms can be
quite formidable. The increase in scale of a problem naturally increases the
computational complexity and memory requirements.
● Premature Convergence: This is a problem from which bio-inspired algorithms,
notably evolutionary algorithms, unfortunately, suffer. A suboptimal solution
usually arises from early stagnation before reaching a global optimum.
● Selection of Algorithms: There are so many different bio-inspired algorithms
that work best for different types of problems. Designing the most appropriate
one for a particular problem requires a sound understanding both of the
strengths and weaknesses of each algorithm and the problem domain.
● Interpretability: Some bio-inspired algorithms, like artificial neural networks,
can be difficult to interpret and understand. This makes interpretability a
barrier to their adoption, especially in applications where the rationale behind
the decision is important.
● Computational Resources: Bio-inspired algorithms are sometimes very
computationally intensive and require many computational resources for
effective running. This may be limiting, especially in the case of those
applications where time and resource constraints have to be adhered to strictly.
● Validation and Benchmarking: Performance evaluation of bio-inspired
algorithms against other techniques is hard. One has to devise appropriate
validation methodologies and benchmarking datasets that are effective, and
this is very important but nontrivial.
 Research Directions and Challenges in BIA for ML, DL Models in Healthcare 243

● Robustness and Adaptability: The biological systems often depict these

characteristics in robustness and adaptability to variations in environments.
In robustness and adaptability to variations in environments, the biological
systems often depict these characteristics. Designing algorithms that have
these properties is tough, especially in environments that are dynamic and
uncertain.
● Ethical and Social Implications: The more influential and pervasive bio-
inspired algorithms become, the more important the ethical and social
implications. From algorithmic bias to fairness and transparency, problems
will need to be properly tackled to ensure that such algorithms will be used
responsibly.
Addressing these challenges requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining
insights from biology, computer science, mathematics, and other fields. It is
impossible to make progress in this exciting and rapidly developing field without
cooperation between researchers of different specializations.

6. Future Research Directions and Innovations

Future research and innovation in bio-inspired algorithms are expected to focus
on current challenges and push the envelope of feasibility [46–47]. Some potential
areas of interest include:
1. Hybridization and Integration: The combination of several bio-inspired
algorithms, or simply integration, may lead to the development of stronger and
more versatile optimization methods when combined with other optimization
techniques. A hybrid approach would make it feasible to capture the strong
points of different algorithms while alleviating the weaknesses of individual
members.
2. Explainability and Interpretability: Bio-inspired algorithms, particularly ML,
for instance, neural networks, require an additional level of interpretation to be
interpretable and explainable in the application domain under considerations
where transparency and accountability is a concern. Future research might
contribute to the development of techniques that make the reasoning of such
algorithms interpretable to humans.
3. Adaptive, Self-learning Systems: Bio-inspired algorithms that adapt and
self-learn in the face of a changing environment—very much like biological
organisms—are a very attractive subject in research. Robust self-learners,
capable of improving their functioning without human interaction, could be
explosively applied in the fields of robotics, autonomous driving, and care
applications.
4. Ethical and Fairness Considerations: The broader the deployment of
bioinspired algorithms, the more urgency the ethical and fairness issues
impart. So, an expected area of important research in this facet would be
the development of methodologies that can be helpful in the mitigation of
244 Bio-inspired Algorithms in Machine Learning and Deep Learning for Disease Detection

issues related to algorithmic bias, promotion of fairness and transparency, and

injecting ethical consideration into design and deployment.
5. Biologically Plausible Computing: The research in the direction of bio-
inspired algorithms should give immense jumps to the next plane in the
fields of AI and cognitive sciences. Computing of this kind, inspired by
the structure and working of the brain, does enable the understanding of
biological intelligence, and it also makes much more efficient and robust AI
systems.
6. Robustness and Resilience: Designing bio-inspired algorithms to be robust
and resilient against adversarial attacks, noise, and uncertainty are some of
the foremost research areas. It is important to design algorithms capable of
handling unpredictable perturbations and maintaining the performance of the
system under difficult conditions for real-world application.
7. Multi-objective and Multimodal Optimization: It is important to continue the
process of extension of bio-inspired algorithms to deal with multi-objective
optimization problems where multiple objectives may conflict with each
other. Similarly, the development of algorithms that will effectively explore
and exploit multiple search spaces (multimodal optimization) might yield
more effective and efficient optimization techniques.
8. Applications in Emerging Technologies: It also opens the doors to exploring
applications for such bio-inspired algorithms in emerging technologies, be it
quantum computing, nanotechnology, or biotechnology, that might open up
avenues for out-of-the-box innovation. The algorithms can be put to use in
solving complicated optimization problems in these domains and in aiding
to break barriers in the spheres of drug discovery, material science, and
renewable energy.
Furthermore, future research on bio-inspired algorithms will be inspired
by interdisciplinarity collaboration, pushing the limits of what can be done and
solving, with innovative solutions inspired by nature, true real-world problems.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we have taken an interesting exploration through bio-inspired
algorithms and their application in health. It begins with the very basics of bio-
inspired algorithms and the importance of these algorithms to the health sector.
It then goes further in-depth regarding ML and DL models, considering their
huge influence on medical diagnosis, patient treatment, and care. Then, we saw
the world of optimization, particularly health data optimization, and brought to
light how the techniques developed for optimization are capable of effectively
handling the complex optimization challenges emanating from health analytics.
We then consider diverse applications of bio-inspired algorithms in health, ranging
from medical image analysis and disease diagnosis to personalized treatment
planning and healthcare resource management. On one hand, the potential for these
algorithms seems vast; yet, challenges always come hand-in-hand. Starting from
 Research Directions and Challenges in BIA for ML, DL Models in Healthcare 245

the complexities of biological systems to algorithm selection and scaling issues,

we review some of the issues researchers and practitioners have to face to make the
most out of these novel methodologies. Looking toward the future, we outline some
very exciting research avenues and advancements that could revolutionize the
challenges faced now and have the potential to take bio-inspired algorithms in health
to new heights. From hybridization to explainability and ethical considerations
to emerging technologies, the landscape is rife with the opportunity to drive
forward the frontiers of healthcare analytics with interdisciplinary collaboration
and creative exploration.

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 Index

A COVID-19 107, 109, 114-118, 122, 166

Alex-Net 143, 144
D
Algorithm 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 16, 17, 23, 25, 29, 31,
Data-Centric Prediction 203
48-60, 62, 63, 66, 85, 88, 92, 95, 98, 100,
Decision Trees 27, 53, 56, 128, 136, 186, 197,
101, 107, 109, 111, 113, 116, 123, 125,
203, 217, 221, 222
130, 132, 137, 141, 147, 151, 160, 161,
Deep Learning 1, 2, 23, 29, 34-36, 39, 41, 44,
166, 185, 203, 209, 211, 217, 219, 221,
45, 48, 52, 54, 71, 78, 80, 84, 89, 90, 91,
230, 234, 240, 241, 245
97, 102, 107, 108, 112, 116, 141, 143,
Artificial Neural Networks 4, 27, 48, 78, 89,
147-155, 158, 159, 164, 183, 189, 192-
112, 113, 133, 159, 210, 211, 230, 233,
194, 230-232
236, 242
Depression 203, 205-207, 209-213, 218-220,
Autism Spectrum Disorder 158, 173, 204, 213
222, 223, 225, 226
B Diabetic diagnosis 141-147, 156
Bio-inspired 1-5, 7, 10, 11, 17-19, 23, 24, 34, Diagnosis 5, 10, 23, 34, 41-43, 51, 52, 70-72,
37, 39, 41, 48, 50-53, 66, 70, 79, 80, 88, 107, 108, 113, 114, 116, 118, 122, 123,
89, 94, 97, 99, 100, 107, 109, 122, 123, 127, 128, 130, 131, 134, 135, 137, 141,
130, 141, 147, 148, 149, 151-154, 158- 142, 145, 147, 156, 158, 159, 163, 165,
168, 173, 175, 177, 180, 209, 211, 214, 179, 180, 203, 205, 207, 208, 212, 213,
215, 220, 224, 230, 232, 242, 245 223, 225, 231, 233, 239, 240, 244
Bio-inspired Algorithms (BIAs) 1-5, 7, 9-11, Disease Detection 41, 42, 44, 45, 83, 100, 159,
17-19, 23, 26, 88, 93, 94, 101, 102, 107- 164, 166, 233, 235
110, 113, 114, 116, 117, 183, 185, 196, DL-based Accuracy 64-66
198, 203, 209, 211, 212, 214, 215, 217,
E
219, 220, 221, 223, 226, 230, 231, 239-243
Early Diagnosis 10, 42, 72, 88, 117, 166, 167,
Bio-inspired Intelligence 122, 123
180, 207, 233
Bio-inspired Optimization 34, 41, 49-52, 59,
Electronic Health Records 73, 189, 208, 233
108, 117, 130, 134, 165, 166, 168, 180,
Ethical Decisions 73
183, 217, 238, 240
Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs) 7, 10, 11, 23,
C 24, 26, 28, 52, 77, 78, 92, 123, 125, 232,
Cancer Diagnosis 50, 82, 92, 122, 123, 129- 242
138 Explainable AI 38, 39, 83, 84, 224
Cardiac Health Monitoring 88, 91-95, 97-99,
F
101, 104
Feature Selection 25, 27, 32, 34, 38, 41, 42,
Comparative Analysis 80, 220
51, 53, 77, 78, 81, 92-95, 97, 99, 101,
Computational intelligence 1, 33, 102, 135,
123, 124, 134, 136, 146, 158, 165, 166,
183
170, 173, 175, 177, 178, 180, 218, 230
Convolutional Network 5, 42, 52, 71, 76, 116,
Fuzzy DL 53
142, 159, 189, 208
250 Contents

G 92, 94, 97-99, 103, 107, 108, 112, 113,

Genetic Algorithms 1, 2, 9, 11, 23, 24, 29, 48, 116, 128, 130, 133-136, 141, 142, 145,
54, 70, 90, 93, 100, 125, 133, 161, 185, 158, 159, 165, 189-191, 204, 205, 208,
196, 203, 230, 231 210, 213, 217, 218, 222, 223, 226, 230,
Genetic Programming 15, 24, 30, 51, 77, 125, 232, 233, 236, 242, 243
133, 220 Neurological Disorders 5, 73, 166, 203-205
GridSearch Optimization 158
O
H Optimization 1, 2, 5-7, 9-11, 14, 16-19, 23-26,
Healthcare 2, 4, 7, 10, 18, 38, 39, 41, 48-50, 28-30, 48-55, 60-63, 65, 66, 70, 71, 74,
52, 61, 80, 83, 84, 89, 100, 103, 104, 137, 78, 80, 88, 91-97, 99, 100, 104, 107, 108,
145, 162, 166, 167, 175, 177, 189, 190, 117, 125, 130, 131, 133, 134, 147, 158,
192, 193, 195, 197, 198, 204-208, 214, 160-163, 168, 175-177, 183, 185, 188,
215, 221, 224, 225, 227, 230, 232, 233, 190, 210, 215, 217, 218, 222, 226, 230,
235, 236-238, 240-242, 245 231, 238-241, 243, 244
Optimization Models 23
K
Optimization Techniques 19, 33, 43, 49, 50,
KNN (K-Nearest Neighbors) 203
52, 53, 63, 66, 89, 92, 93, 97, 160, 180,
L 190, 238, 240, 243, 244
Learning 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 12, 23, 25, 27, 33,
P
34, 36, 39, 49, 53, 71, 73, 75, 77, 78,
Particle-Swarm Optimization 1, 2, 6, 23, 24,
80, 83, 85, 102, 107, 108, 111, 123, 128,
31, 32, 34, 48, 51, 71, 78, 89, 91, 94, 133,
135, 143, 147, 155, 158, 168, 183, 186,
158, 159, 161, 185, 186, 210, 231
188, 191, 196, 203, 208, 220, 230, 233,
240, 243 R
Res-Net 143, 144
M
Machine Learning 1, 2 23, 25, 27, 28, 35, 37, S
39, 43, 48, 50, 107, 108, 111, 113, 122, Social Anxiety 183, 184, 219
123, 128, 130, 136, 141, 145, 150, 158, Social Phobia 183-186, 188, 189, 191-193,
159, 170, 183, 185, 186, 189, 191, 192, 196-198
196-198, 203, 208, 209, 217, 223, 224, SVM 53, 55, 62, 63, 66, 101, 107, 108, 113,
230-231 114, 118, 129, 130, 136, 143, 145, 146,
Medical Diagnosis 34, 71, 78, 79, 206, 212, 150-153, 155, 165, 166, 177, 180, 217,
214, 231, 244 218, 220, 221
Mental Health 183, 197, 198, 203, 212, 223, Swarm intelligence 1, 2, 4, 11, 14, 15, 31,
225, 227 38, 45, 48, 51, 77, 88, 91, 98-100, 103,
ML-based Accuracy 62, 63 110, 122, 133, 134, 160-162, 185, 196,
211, 230
N
Swarm Intelligence Algorithms 11, 14, 45, 98,
Neural Network 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 14, 27, 29, 34, 36,
99, 133, 134, 196
42, 48, 52, 54, 71, 74, 76, 78, 83, 88, 90-