Indian Knowledge System

1.Write a note on the overview of Vedic Corpus and explain.

The Vedic Corpus refers to the body of knowledge contained in the Vedas and associated
texts, forming the foundation of the Indian Knowledge System (IKS). These texts cover
philosophy, science, rituals, governance, health, and daily life practices.
Structure of the Vedic Corpus
Category Description Examples

Divine revelations directly received The Four Vedas (Rigveda,

Shruti (Heard)
by sages (Rishis). Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda)

Smriti Texts based on human memory and Dharma Shastras, Puranas, Epics
(Remembered) interpretation. (Ramayana, Mahabharata)

Auxiliary sciences that help Phonetics, Grammar, Astronomy,

Vedangas
understand the Vedas. Rituals

Philosophical texts exploring the Isha, Kena, Katha, Mundaka

Upanishads
nature of existence and self. Upanishads

The Four Vedas with Examples

Rigveda – The Knowledge of Hymns
 Oldest Veda (1500 BCE), composed of hymns praising deities like Indra, Agni,
Varuna, and Soma.
 Contains cosmology, philosophy, and spiritual knowledge.
 Examples:
o Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of Creation) explores the origins of the universe.
o Purusha Sukta describes the cosmic being and social order (Varna system).
Yajurveda – The Knowledge of Rituals
 Contains prose and verse detailing rituals and sacrifices (yajnas).
 Practical application of hymns from Rigveda in Vedic ceremonies.
 Examples:
o Instructions for Ashwamedha Yajna (horse sacrifice) for royal sovereignty.
o Agnihotra (fire sacrifice) for environmental and spiritual purification.
Samaveda – The Knowledge of Melodies
 Musical and melodic Veda, forming the basis of Indian classical music.
 Includes chants that were sung during rituals and yajnas.
  Examples:
o Dhrupad music evolved from Samaveda chants.
o The concept of "Swaras" (musical notes) originates from this Veda.
Atharvaveda – The Knowledge of Daily Life and Medicine
 Contains prayers, magical spells, healing methods, and folk traditions.
 Covers medicine, politics, governance, and ethics.
 Examples:
o Ayurvedic references: Descriptions of herbs like turmeric and neem.
o Epidemic control: Suggests preventive rituals and natural remedies.
o Social guidelines: Ethical principles for maintaining societal harmony.

Upanishads – The Philosophical Core of the Vedas

 Also called Vedanta (end of the Vedas), focusing on self-realization, consciousness,
and the ultimate reality (Brahman).
 Examples:
o Katha Upanishad: The story of Nachiketa and Yama, discussing death and
the immortal soul.
o Mundaka Upanishad: Introduces the two types of knowledge – higher
(spiritual) and lower (material).
o Chandogya Upanishad: Contains the famous "Tat Tvam Asi" (You are
That), explaining the unity of the individual soul (Atman) and the universal
soul (Brahman).

Vedangas – The Supporting Sciences of the Vedas

The Vedangas (limbs of the Vedas) are six disciplines that help in understanding and
preserving the Vedas.
Vedanga Field of Study Example

Shiksha Phonetics & Pronunciation Panini’s rules for Sanskrit pronunciation

Ashtadhyayi by Panini (basis of modern Sanskrit

Vyakarana Grammar
grammar)

Chandas Metrics & Prosody Study of poetic meters in Vedic hymns

Etymology & Word

Nirukta Yaska’s Nirukta explains Vedic words
Meaning

Jyotisha Astronomy & Astrology Surya Siddhanta – planetary calculations

Kalpa Rituals & Dharma Sulba Sutras – Vedic geometry for altar construction
Smritis – Ethical and Social Texts
 Smritis (remembered texts) help interpret and apply Vedic teachings in everyday
life.
 Examples:
o Manusmriti: Ancient Hindu law book governing social duties.
o Arthashastra by Kautilya: Guide on statecraft, economy, and administration.
o Bhagavad Gita (from Mahabharata): Explains Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga,
and Jnana Yoga.

Puranas – The Storytelling Tradition

 Puranas preserve historical, mythological, and cultural traditions.
 Examples:
o Vishnu Purana: Describes creation, avatars of Vishnu.
o Shiva Purana: Focuses on Lord Shiva’s stories and teachings.
o Bhagavata Purana: Explains the life of Lord Krishna.

Influence of the Vedic Corpus on Modern India

 Yoga & Meditation: Popular worldwide for mental and physical wellness.
 Ayurveda & Siddha Medicine: Used for holistic healing and alternative medicine.
 Vedic Mathematics: Utilized in competitive exams and quick calculations.
 Vedic Astrology (Jyotisha): Still influential in Indian society.

2. Explain the characteristics of Indian Knowledge system.

The character of IKS can be understood through the following key aspects:
Holistic and Interdisciplinary Approach
 IKS integrates science, spirituality, ethics, and practical knowledge.
 Example: Ayurveda is not just a medical system but also includes diet, yoga, and
mental well-being.
Sustainable and Eco-Friendly
 Focuses on natural harmony and sustainability.
 Example:
o Vrikshayurveda (ancient plant science) emphasizes organic farming and soil
conservation.
 o Traditional rainwater harvesting systems like stepwells (e.g., Rani Ki Vav,
Gujarat).
Ethical and Spiritual Orientation
 Rooted in Dharma (righteousness), Karma (cause-effect), and Ahimsa (non-
violence).
 Example:
o Jainism promotes Ahimsa (non-violence), influencing Gandhi’s ideology.
o Bhagavad Gita’s teachings on duty and selfless action inspire leadership and
ethics.
Oral and Written Traditions
 Knowledge was traditionally passed through oral transmission (Guru-Shishya
tradition) before being written in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and other languages.
 Example:
o The Rigveda was memorized and passed down through chanting before being
written.
Empirical Yet Intuitive
 Many ancient Indian discoveries were based on observation, experimentation, and
reasoning.
 Example:
o Aryabhata’s astronomical calculations accurately predicted planetary
positions.
Sushruta’s surgical techniques (e.g., cataract surgery) were based on detailed observations.

3. Explain the fields of Indian Knowledge Systems with examples.

Medicine – Ayurveda & Siddha
 Ayurveda is one of the oldest medical systems, emphasizing a holistic approach to
health.
 It is based on the Tridosha Theory (Vata, Pitta, Kapha – three bodily humors).
 Examples:
o Charaka Samhita: A key text in Ayurveda written by Charaka.
o Sushruta Samhita: Describes surgical techniques, including early plastic
surgery.
o Use of Herbs: Turmeric (anti-inflammatory), Neem (antibacterial),
Ashwagandha (stress relief).
Mathematics – Concept of Zero & Decimal System
 Indian mathematicians made significant contributions, including the invention of zero
and the decimal system.
 Examples:
o Aryabhata (5th century): Introduced concepts of trigonometry and calculated
the value of pi (π).
o Brahmagupta (7th century): Defined zero as a number and developed
algebraic methods.
o Vedic Mathematics: A set of mathematical techniques for rapid calculations,
still used today.
Astronomy – Planetary Motion & Cosmology
 Ancient Indian astronomers studied celestial bodies and developed advanced models.
 Examples:
o Surya Siddhanta: An ancient astronomical text that calculated planetary
positions with great accuracy.
o Aryabhata’s Earth Rotation Theory: Suggested that the Earth rotates on its
axis, centuries before Western scientists.
o Concept of Time Cycles: Yugas (epochs) in Hindu cosmology describe the
cyclic nature of time.
Architecture & Engineering – Vastu Shastra
 Traditional Indian architecture is based on Vastu Shastra, which aligns buildings
with cosmic energy.
 Examples:
o Temple Architecture: Brihadeeswara Temple (Tamil Nadu) and Konark Sun
Temple (Odisha) designed using Vastu principles.
 o Harappan Civilization: Advanced town planning with drainage systems,
granaries, and standardized bricks.
o Iron Pillar of Delhi: A rust-resistant iron structure, showcasing ancient
metallurgical expertise.
Agriculture – Organic Farming & Water Conservation
 Indian agriculture was based on organic methods, sustainable irrigation, and soil
conservation.
 Examples:
o Vrikshayurveda: An ancient Sanskrit text on plant science and agriculture.
o Stepwell Systems: Chand Baori (Rajasthan) and Rani Ki Vav (Gujarat) were
designed for water conservation.
o Crop Rotation & Companion Planting: Ancient farmers used mixed
cropping to maintain soil fertility.
Governance & Economics – Arthashastra by Kautilya
 Ancient Indian political and economic strategies were outlined in the Arthashastra
by Kautilya (Chanakya).
 Examples:
o Centralized Administration: Mauryan Empire had an efficient bureaucratic
system.
o Taxation System: Land revenue and trade taxation were well-structured.
Foreign Trade: India was a major player in the Silk Road trade, exporting spices, textiles,
and precious stones.

4. Mention and explain six Classical Schools (Darshanas) of Indian Philosophy.

1. Nyaya (Logic and Reasoning)
 Founded by Gautama (Aksapada).
 Focuses on logic, reasoning, and epistemology (study of knowledge).
 Uses Nyaya Syllogism (logical inference) to validate knowledge.
 Example:
o "If there is smoke on a hill, there must be fire."
o This reasoning is fundamental in Indian logic and law.
 Modern Influence: Used in Indian jurisprudence and debate methodologies.

2. Vaisheshika (Atomic Theory and Natural Sciences)

 Founded by Sage Kanada.
  Proposes that everything in the universe is made of atoms (Paramanu).
 Explains cause-effect relationships in the physical world.
 Example:
o Early atomic theory: Atoms combine to form compounds, much like modern
chemistry.
o Predates Dalton’s atomic theory by centuries.
 Modern Influence: Concepts of elements and motion influence physics and
chemistry.

Samkhya (Dualism – Matter and Consciousness)

 Founded by Sage Kapila.
 One of the oldest philosophical systems, based on dualism:
o Purusha (Consciousness/Spirit) – The eternal, unchanging observer.
o Prakriti (Matter/Nature) – The changing, material world.
 Example:
o A lamp that lights up a room but itself remains unchanged is like Purusha
witnessing the transformations of Prakriti.
 Modern Influence: Foundational in psychology and cognitive sciences.

Yoga (Discipline for Self-Realization)

 Based on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras.
 Focuses on self-discipline, meditation, and mind-body harmony.
 Describes Eight Limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga):
1. Yama – Ethical disciplines (e.g., non-violence).
2. Niyama – Personal observances (e.g., self-discipline).
3. Asana – Physical postures (e.g., Yoga poses).
4. Pranayama – Breath control.
5. Pratyahara – Withdrawal of senses.
6. Dharana – Concentration.
7. Dhyana – Meditation.
8. Samadhi – Liberation (ultimate awareness).
 Example:
o Bhagavad Gita describes three types of Yoga:
 Karma Yoga – Path of action (selfless service).
  Bhakti Yoga – Path of devotion.
 Jnana Yoga – Path of knowledge.
 Modern Influence: Yoga is now a global wellness practice.

Mimamsa (Vedic Rituals and Ethics)

 Founded by Sage Jaimini.
 Emphasizes rituals, dharma (duty), and karma (actions and their consequences).
 Asserts that correctly performed rituals bring material and spiritual benefits.
 Example:
o Agnihotra (fire sacrifice) is believed to purify the environment.
o Karma theory: Good actions lead to good outcomes (Punya), bad actions
lead to suffering (Paapa).
 Modern Influence: Ethics, law, and religious studies draw from Mimamsa
concepts.

Vedanta (The Ultimate Knowledge – Brahman & Atman)

 Based on the Upanishads and later expanded by scholars like Adi Shankaracharya,
Ramanuja, and Madhvacharya.
 Asserts that the individual self (Atman) is identical to the supreme reality
(Brahman).
 Three main schools of Vedanta:
1. Advaita Vedanta (Non-Dualism – Adi Shankaracharya)
 Brahman is the only reality; the world is an illusion (Maya).
 Example: A rope mistaken for a snake—our senses mislead us.
2. Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (Qualified Non-Dualism – Ramanuja)
 The individual soul is distinct but dependent on Brahman.
 Example: Wave and ocean—the wave is part of the ocean but not
identical to it.
3. Dvaita Vedanta (Dualism – Madhvacharya)
 God (Brahman) and individual souls are separate and real.
 Example: Like sunlight and the sun—connected but distinct.
 Modern Influence: Influenced modern spirituality, mindfulness, and self-inquiry.
5. Explain briefly the Indian Knowledge and its relevance in context to ancient
knowledge of physics.
Atomic Theory from Bhagavad-Gita:
 Acharya Kanad the Indian sage who gave the atomic theory.
 Atomic theory was originated about 2,600 years ago by an Indian sage and
philosopher. It is believed that the sage lived between the 6th century to 2nd century
BCE.
 Rishi Kanada, an Indian philosopher who drafted the ideas about the atom in a
systematic manner. His real name was to be known as "Kashyap". He is being been
called as the father of the atomism, who propounded the parmanu (atoms)
 His primary area of study was Rasavadam, which is known to be a type of alchemy.
He said that all livings beings are composed of 5 elements: water, fire, earth, air, and
ether.
 He proposed that Gurutva (gravity) was responsible for the earth, rising of fire and
heat upwards, the growth of grass, the natural rainfall, and thunderstorm.

The concept of anu(atom)

 Kanada propounded that parmanu (atom) is an indestructible particle of matter.

 The atom to be indestructible and hence eternal.
 Vaiseshikas further claimed that atoms of the same substance combined with each
other create dvyanuka(diatomic molecules) and tryanuka(triatomic molecules).
 Kanada also further put forward that the idea of atoms could be combined in various
ways to produce chemical changes in the presence of other factors such as heat.
 Kanada recommended that atoms as buildings blocks differ both qualitatively and
quantitatively.
 Physics is related to matter in the Indian Nyaya-Vaisheshika school, which will
subsequently be called “Indian physics”. Kanada, the originator of Vaisheshika, begins
by claiming that “classification of things” is the primary task in his system.
 Indian physics considers both the objective universe, which is taken to be atomic, and
the subjective universe of the experimenter or the observer, which is taken to be non-
atomic.
History of Electricity: From Ancient Times to the Modern Times
 Electricity has been cited in the 5th Mandal of Ṛigveda. Example: Oh people! The day and
night can be spent in comfort, if electricity and fire, just like the Sun God are used tactically.

 The three main sources of Light and Energy mentioned in the Ṛigveda are:
i. The Sun
ii. Electricity
iii. Fire inside the Earth
 The great Sage Agastya mentioned the process of making Battery in his composition Agastya
Saṃhitā (around 8000 BCE).

Different kinds of electricity

i. TAḌITA –Generated by rubbing silk cloths
ii. SAUDĀMINĪ –Generated by rubbing two gems
iii. VIDYUT–Generated from thunder
iv. ŚATAKUMBHĪ–Generated by hundred cells of pillars
v. HṚDANI–Stored electricity with portable properties
vi. AŚANI - Generated from magnetic rods

 Electricity is also described in Mahābhārata composed by Vedavyāsa. The great sage

Vedavyāsa described the method of generating electricity from the atmosphere.
 The two technical terms ‘Rayi’ and ‘Prāṇa’ are used to mean ‘Positive’ and ‘Negative’
charges in ancient language
Laws of Motion:
 There are two great scientists behind the invention of law of motion: (1) Rishi Kanada
and (2) Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727).
 The laws were discovered by Indian scientist and philosopher Rishi Kanada who had
given Vaisheshika Sutra in 600 BCE which describes the relation between force and
motion.
Matter States:
 Paramaanu corresponds to the organic molecular size
 As mentioned in the Upanishads, the five elements of the nature are -
i. Earth
ii. Water
iii. Air
iv. Fire and
v. Akasa
Laws of Motion and Theory of Gravitation:
 The laws were discovered by Indian scientist Rishi Kanada who had given
Vaisheshika Sutra in 600 BCE which describes the relationship between force and
motion.
 The first principle of gravity was stated by Bhaskaracharya and not Newton.
 Bhaskaracharya stated the laws of gravity in the book Surya Siddhanta in 11th
century.
Light:
 The concept of light has been an important part of Hindu shastras, and is associated with
various philosophical, spiritual, and scientific ideas. These include Jyotish (Vedic
Astrology), Prakasha (Illumination), Jnana (Knowledge), Surya (Sun), and Tejas
(Radiance).
Sound in vedic science:
 Sound plays a major role in various aspects of life. The field of acoustics deals with
generation, transmission and reception of sound.
 Acoustics has also received a very high importance in Vedas and Vedic literature.
 In Vedas and Vedic literature several terms such as Nāda and Shabda are used. These
terms cannot be translated directly as sound as they refer to vibrations including both
physical and spiritual aspects.
 The field of acoustics deals with generation, propagation and reception of sound.
 The Vedas and Vedic literature, which deals with all aspects of life including sciences
and arts.
 Fig: Lindsays wheel of acoustics showing the presence of acoustics in various
field
 The term nāda and śabda are referred to indicate both audible and inaudible sounds.
This can be referred as Sound Field.
  The production of speech is seen as a four-fold process of sound generation namely
para, pashyanti, madhyama and vaikhari.
 The svaras in music refer to the basic seven notes found in the seven sounds
produced from animals in nature. They are Sa from a peacock, Ri from a bull, Ga
from a goat, Ma from a curlew, Pa from a cuckoo, Dha from a horse and Ni from
an elephant.
Indian Scientist in Physics:
 Bhaskara II, also known as Bhaskaracharya
 Aryabhatiya
 Acharya Kanada
 Chandrashekhara Venkata Raman (C V Raman)
 Satyendra Nath Bose
 Homi Jehangir Bhabha
 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
 Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai
 Meghnad Saha

6. Explain briefly the Indian Knowledge and its relevance in context to

ancient knowledge of mathematics.

Mathematics on the Indian subcontinent has a rich and long history going back over 5,000 years
and thrived for centuries before advances were made in Europe.

Concept of Zero:
 ‘Zero’ was discovered by an anonymous Indian. The concept of zero in India holds
significant historical and mathematical importance.
 Zero is an integral part of the decimal numeral system, and it was developed in ancient
India.
i. Early Development: India's earliest recorded use of a decimal system and zero can be
traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization, which existed around 2500-1500 BCE.
ii. Brahmagupta's Contributions: Brahmagupta, lived around 598-668 CE. He defined
zero as a number and discussed its mathematical properties. He introduced rules for
arithmetic operations involving zero, such as the addition and subtraction of zero,
which are now fundamental concepts in mathematics.
 iii. Aryabhata's Work: Aryabhata lived around 476-550 CE, Aryabhata used a symbol to
represent zero and recognized its importance in mathematical calculations.
iv. Spread to the Islamic World and Europe: The concept of zero and the decimal numeral
system with its place-value notation spread from India to the Islamic world. Islamic
scholars like Al-Khwarizmi further developed these ideas.
v. Importance in Modern Mathematics: Zero is now considered one of the most
fundamental concepts in mathematics. It serves as a placeholder in the decimal system,
enabling us to represent numbers of varying magnitudes efficiently.

Concept of Pi:
The concept of π (pi), which represents the mathematical constant approximately equal to
3.14159, has a long history in India.
i. Ancient Texts: Indian mathematicians and astronomers in ancient times made references
to pi in their texts.
ii. Example: The "Shulba Sutras," which are a collection of ancient Indian texts dealing
with geometry and construction.
iii. Aryabhata: Aryabhata calculated an approximate value of pi as 3.1416 in his work
"Aryabhatiya." He used a geometric method to estimate pi.
iv. Bhaskara I: Bhaskara I, who lived in the 7th century CE, also provided an approximation
of pi in his work "Mahabhaskariya." He used a different method involving a polygon
with 384 sides to estimate pi more accurately.
v. Madhava: Developed series expansions for trigonometric functions.

Number System:
One of the most influential contributions is the decimal numeral system.
i. Indus Valley Civilization: The earliest known evidence of a numerical system in the
Indian subcontinent can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization (around 2500-
1500 BCE). Archaeological findings indicate the use of symbols for counting and
recording quantities.
ii. Brahmi Numerals: The Brahmi script, dating back to around the 3rd century BCE,
played a significant role in the development of numeral systems in India. It had symbols
for numbers, and these symbols are considered some of the earliest written
representations of numerical values in India.
iii. Kharosthi numeral system: (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE): The Kharosthi numeral
symbols included various lines and curves to represent different numbers. They had
symbols for numbers from 1 to 9, and a symbol for zero, making it a decimal system.
 iv. Decimal System: This system is based on the number ten and uses ten symbols (0-9) to
represent all possible numbers.

Pythagoras Theorem:
The Pythagorean theorem, which states that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the length of
the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the other
two sides, is a fundamental theorem in geometry.
i. Sulba Sutras: The Sulba Sutras are a collection of ancient Indian texts that date back to
around 800 BCE to 200 BCE. These texts primarily deal with geometry and provide
rules for the construction of altars for religious ceremonies. Some of these rules involve
right-angled triangles and the application of what we now recognize as the Pythagorean
theorem.
ii. Baudhayana and Apastamba: Baudhayana, an ancient Indian mathematician, and
Apastamba, a sage and mathematician. They provided geometric methods for
constructing right angles and calculating diagonal measurements that align with the
principles of the Pythagorean theorem.
iii. Aryabhata: In his work "Aryabhatiya," he discussed the relationships between the
lengths of chords and the radii of circles, which are related to the Pythagorean theorem.

Vedic Mathematics:
i. Sutras: Vedic Mathematics is said to be based on a set of 16 Sutras (aphorisms) and 13
Upa-sutras (sub-sutras) extracted from the Vedas.
ii. Mental Calculation: Vedic Mathematics emphasizes mental calculation and claims to
offer techniques that allow individuals to perform complex mathematical computations
in their heads quickly. Proponents of Vedic Mathematics argue that these techniques can
lead to faster and more efficient calculations compared to traditional methods.
iii. General Applicability: Vedic Mathematics is said to be applicable to a wide range of
mathematical problems and is not limited to specific areas of mathematics.

The Kerala School of Mathematics and Astronomy:

The Kerala School of Mathematics and Astronomy was a prominent center for mathematical and
astronomical research and scholarship that flourished in the southern Indian state of Kerala
between the 14th and 16th centuries CE. This school of thought made significant contributions
to various fields of mathematics, astronomy, and related sciences.
Key aspects and contributions of the Kerala School of Mathematics and Astronomy include:
 i. Trigonometry: The Kerala School is renowned for its contributions to trigonometry. The
mathematicians of this school developed elaborate trigonometric theories and methods
for calculating various trigonometric functions. One of their most significant
achievements was the discovery of infinite series expansions for trigonometric functions
like sine, cosine, and tangent, which predated European developments in calculus.
ii. Calculation Techniques: The Kerala mathematicians developed innovative and efficient
calculation techniques for complex mathematical and astronomical problems. These
techniques included methods for the rapid calculation of planetary positions, lunar
eclipses, and other celestial phenomena.
iii. Astronomy: The Kerala School made notable advancements in observational and
computational astronomy. They developed models for predicting planetary motions and
eclipses and contributed to the understanding of celestial events.
iv. Mathematical Literature: The scholars of the Kerala School produced numerous
mathematical and astronomical texts. Some of the well-known texts include
"Yuktibhāṣā" by Jyesthadeva, "Tantrasangraha" by Nilakantha Somayaji, and "Karana
Paddhati" by Sankara Variar.
v. Calendar Reforms: The Kerala School played a role in calendar reforms. They made
adjustments to the Indian calendar system.
vi. Connection to Earlier Indian Traditions: The Kerala School built upon earlier Indian
mathematical and astronomical traditions, including contributions from scholars like
Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and others. They expanded upon existing knowledge and
developed new methodologies.

Dattatreya Ramachandra Kaprekar:

He was well known for “Kaprekar Constant” 6174. Take any four-digit number in which all digits
are not alike. Arrange its digits in descending order and subtract from it the number formed by
arranging the digits in ascending order. If this process is repeated with reminders, ultimately
number 6174 is obtained, which then generates itself. Kaprekar discovered the Kaprekar constant
or 6174 in 1949. Thus, starting with 1234, we have
432−11234 = 3087, then
8730−0378 = 8352, and
8532−2358 = 6174.
Repeating from this point onward leaves the same number (7641−1467 = 6174).