Answers for energy.

Python Variables and Data

Structures
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Intrinsic Types

Numbers Collections

Integers float Sequences Mappings

complex
int
Immutable Mutable dict
long

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str list
bool
tuple

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Intrinsic Types - Examples

Python has several built-in types

Description Type Example

Integer Int, long 5
Float float 3.141592654
Complex complex 1.23 + 4.56j
String str 'power flow'

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Boolean bool True, False
Tuple tuple (8, 'load', 4.78)
List list ['brn', 'area', 99, 3.78]
Dictionary dict {'bus' :101, 107:1.15}

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None NoneType None

Note: You can create your own classes of objects as well, or extend intrinsic types

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Dynamic Typing in Python

Variables do not need to be declared in Python!

a = 2
b = 17.6
c = 'This is a string'
d = c # c and d point to same object !
d = copy.deepcopy(c) # c and d are now different objects!
# (needs import copy before))

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Variables are simply names which refer to objects.
Names: a b c d

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Objects: 2 17.6 'This is a string'
(integer) (floating point) (string)

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Python Expression Operators

Math + - * / % **

Assignment = += -= *= /= %= **=

Comparison == != >= <= > <

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Logical and or not

Identity is is not

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Containment in not in

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Type Conversions

Functions exist to convert between types:

a = 5
b = 7
c = a * b # c = 35
d = float(a) * b # d = 35.0
e = float(a * b) # e = 35.0

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f = float(a / b) # f = 0.0
g = float(a) / float(b) # g = 0.714 ...

But not all conversions are possible:

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u = int('test') # Error
ValueError: invalid literal for int()

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Object Type Checking – type() and isinstance() functions

type() returns object's type (class) (Refer: type_checks.py)

>>> a = 5
>>> type(a)
<type 'int'>
>>> c = 2 + 5j
>>> type(c)
<type 'complex'>

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>>>

isinstance() is usually the better function to use and tells if object is

an instance of a given class or of a class derived from that class
>>> a = 5

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>>> b = isinstance(a,int) # returns True
>>> b = isinstance(a,float) # returns False

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Object Attributes and Methods

In Python, everything is an object

Objects have methods and attributes
Examples: complex and string objects

a = 5 + 7j # A complex number
r = a.real # Get the real part
i = a.imag # Get the imaginary part

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s = 'bus 101' # A string object
t = s.upper() # t = 'BUS 101'

Note: In PSS®E, MW and MVAR are often returned as a complex pq;

which can be accessed this way: p=pq.real and q=pq.imag.

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Python Strings

There are multiple ways to declare a string literal in Python

# single quotes: # triple single quotes:

s = 'A string' t = '''A string'''
u = '''This is
# double quotes:
a multi-line string'''

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s = "A string"

# double and single quotes: # triple double quotes:

s = "A 'string'" t = """A string"""
u = """This is

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a multi-line string"""

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Some String Operations

Concatenation ("addition"):

s = 'abcd' + 'efgh' # s = 'abcdefgh'

t = 'bus ' + str(576132) # t = 'bus 576132'

Replication ("multiplication"):

u = '-' * 10 # u = '----------'

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Indexing:

x = s[1] # x = 'b'

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Slicing:

y = s[2:5] # y = 'cde'

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Some String Methods

Python strings have many methods:

s.isupper() s.lower() s.strip(charstring)

s.islower() s.upper() s.replace(charstring)
s.isalpha() s.swapcase() s.center(10)
s.isdigit() s.title() s.split(separator)
s.isalnum() s.find(substring) s.join(listofstrings)
s.index(substring) s.format(variables)

Examples

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'abcxyz'.find('xyz') # 3
' abcxyz '.strip() # 'abcxyz'
'{0} + {1} = {2}'.format(2, 3, 5) # '2 + 3 = 5'

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For a complete list, use the help function (help(str) ) or go to
python.org (https: //docs.python.org/3/library)

Refer: string_methods.py
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Adding Comments

A hash character (#) and anything following it is taken to be a

comment.

# this entire line is a comment

area = 17 # this comment follows some code

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A hash character appearing in a quoted string is not interpreted as a
comment.

print('This # is not a comment') # but this is

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Commenting with Strings

A python string does not have to be assigned to a variable

'This unassigned string is treated as a comment.'

'''This multi-line unassigned string might contain

commented-out code or a long section of documentation
for a module, function, or class. '''

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1. Can be used to "comment out" long sections of code
2. Also used for documenting the code (via the help()function)
3. The created strings will be garbage-collected and not affect
memory

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tuple

A python tuple is an "ordered sequence" of things.

Defined with commas and/or parentheses.
Contents of a tuple cannot change

tup1 = () # an empty tuple, doesn't need a comma

tup2 = (55,) # comma is important, without comma integer
tup3 = (5, 8, 'with parentheses' , 628.7)
tup4 = 5, 8, 'no parentheses' , 628.7
tup5 = (a, [1, 2, 3], 'AREA' , (7, 8, 9.1))

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tup6 = (x, y, z) # packing
(a, b, c) = tup6 # unpacking
(a, b, c) = (x, y, z) # implicit unpacking/repacking

Functions can return multiple values as a tuple of values:

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rtple = psspy.busint(bus, 'AREA')
ierr, bus_area = psspy.busint(bus, 'AREA')
ierr, (number,) = psspy.abusint(string='NUMBER') # note length-1 tuple
ierr, (base, pu) = psspy.abusreal(string=['BASE', 'PU'])

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list

A python list is an "ordered sequence" of things.

Defined with [square brackets] and commas,
The contents of a list can be change

lst1 = [] # an empty list

lst2 = [5] # length 1
lst3 = [5, 8, 'with parentheses', 628.7] # mixed types
lst4 = [a, [1, 2, 3], 'AREA' , (7, 8, 9.1)] # nested

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lists are mutable (can be modified):

a = [1, 2, 3] # a = [1, 2, 3] (init)

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a.append(4) # a = [1, 2, 3, 4] (append)
a.insert(0, 99) # a = [99, 1, 2, 3, 4] (insert)
a[0] = 77 # a = [77, 1, 2, 3, 4] (set)
del a[0] # a = [1, 2, 3, 4] (delete)

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list Methods and Operators

x = [3, 2, 3, 4]

x.append(7) # x = [3, 2, 3, 4, 7]
x.insert(0, 8) # x = [8, 3, 2, 3, 4, 7]
x.extend([5, 6]) # x = [8, 3, 2, 3, 4, 7, 5, 6]
x.remove(3) # x = [8, 2, 3, 4, 7, 5, 6]
Y = x.pop(4) # x = [8, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] # returns y = 7
x.sort() # x = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8] # in place!

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x.reverse() # x = [8, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2] # in place!
c = x.count(3) # returns c = 1
i = x.index(4) # returns i =3

x + [9, 10] # x = [8, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 9, 10] (concat)

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x = x[:2] # x = [8, 6] (slice)
x * 3 # x = [8, 6, 8, 6, 8, 6] (replicate)
8 in x # True (in operator)
del x[4:] # x = [8, 6, 8] (delete slice)

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list Methods and Operators (cont.)

Difference between remove, del and pop :

x = [5, 2, 3, 4, 3, 0]

x.remove(3) # removes the first “3” in the list

# x = [5, 2, 4, 3, 0]

del x[1] # removed 2nd list item

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# x = [5, 4, 3, 0]

a = x.pop(2) # returns 3rd list item and remove from list

# x = [5, 4, 0] and a = 3

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Type checking with list and tuple

These names can be used for type checking

with the type() function

if type(x) == list:
# do something
elif type(x) == tuple:

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# do something

Note: type checking is typically unpythonic

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Converting a Sequence into a list or tuple

list() returns a list given a sequence.

x = list((1, 2, 3, 4, 5)) # x is [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

y = list('abcd') # y is ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']

tuple() returns a tuple given a sequence.

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x = tuple([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) # x is (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

y = tuple('abcd') # y is ('a', 'b', 'c', 'd')

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Note: strings are sequences

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Sequence-related Python Functions

y = (3, 2, -3, 4, 0)

len(y) # Returns 5
min(y) # Returns -3
max(y) # Returns 4
sum(y) # Returns 6
sorted(y) # y = [-3, 0, 2, 3, 4]

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reversed(y) # Returns an iterator in revered order
any(y) # True (have non-zeros/Trues)
all(y) # False (not all non-zero/True)

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Converting a Sequence into a String

str() also returns a string given a sequence

…but may not do what you want or expect

x = str([1, 2, 3]) # x is '[1, 2, 3]'

y = str((1, 2, 3)) # y is '(1, 2, 3)'
z = str(['a', 'b', 'c']) # z is "['a', 'b', 'c']"

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What you probably want: to specify a “joiner” string and use its
join() method to join a list of strings

s = '-'.join(['a', 'b', 'c']) # s = 'a-b-c'

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Indexing in Sequences

Indexing is accomplished using square brackets.

Indexing starts at 0.

0 1 2 positive (from beginning)

-3 -2 -1 negative (from end)
x = [222, 111, 333]

Retrieval

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print(x[1]) # prints 111
print(x [-1]) # prints 333

Assignment

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x [0] = 444 # Change element 0
x [-2] = 555 # Change element 1
print(x) # prints [444, 555, 333]

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Slicing a Sequence

Slice indices: start, stop, and an optional step.

Slicing selects up to, but not including, the stop index.
0 1 2 3 4
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
x = ['Arthur', 'D.W.', 'Buster', 'Muffy', 'Francine']

print(x[1:2]) # ['D.W. ']

print(x[2:4]) # ['Buster', 'Muffy ']

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print(x[:3]) # ['Arthur', 'D.W.', 'Buster ']
print(x[2:]) # ['Buster', 'Muffy', 'Francine ']
print(x[-3:]) # ['Buster', 'Muffy', 'Francine ']
print(x[1:-1:2]) # ['D.W.', 'Muffy ']
print(x[::-2]) # ['Francine', 'Buster', 'Arthur ']

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y = x[:] # creates a new list (copy)
z = x # doesn't create a new list (reference)

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Python Exercise 1: String Slicing

Given the string:

s = ‘Insert a number ## here!’

# 0 1 2
# 012345678901234567890123

use slicing to insert the integer ‘12’ at string positions 16-17

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s1 = s[:16] + str(12) + s[18:]

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Python Exercise 2: String Slicing

Given the string:

'[NUC-A 21.600]'

use slicing or string methods to:

a) Retrieve the bus name
b) Retrieve the bus kV base (string) and convert it to float

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Indexing clarification: Python indexing starts with 0

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The 1st character is character number 0.
Character number 9 is the 10th character.

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Python Exceptions

Python raises an "exception" when there is an error.

x = 13.3 / 0.0 # ZeroDivisionError

The traceback shows where and what:

Traceback (most recent call last):

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File "<pyshell#12>", line 1, in -toplevel-
x= 13.3/0.0
ZeroDivisionError: float division

This traceback message is useful for debugging code.

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We will learn to handle (intercept) exceptions later.
For now, we rely on the default handler's message.

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Dictionaries

A python dictionary maps keys to values (objects)

Defined by {braces}
Contents can change, but are unordered
Dictionaries are easier and more useful than you think

dict0 = {} # an empty dictionary

dict1 = {'abc':13, 'xyz':25}

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A key can be any immutable object.
(Must be hashable (able to map) too.)

dict2 = {'N':7, (200, 310, '1'):'N.Sub', 100:3.0}

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dict2 ['N'] # 7
dict2 [100] # 3.0
dict2 [(200, 310, '1')] # 'N.Sub'

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Examples of Dictionaries

# Bus voltage look-up table # Binary to decimal

# busnum:voltage # lookup-table
# (bits):value
busvolts = { 101 : 1.036,
151 : 0.988, bits2bytes = { (0,0,0) : 0,
154 : 1.063 } (0,0,1) : 1,
(0,1,0) : 2,
print busvolts [101] # Get (0,1,1) : 3,

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(1,0,0) : 4,
busvolts [151] = 0.95 # Set (1,0,1) : 5,
(1,1,0) : 6,
busvolts [152] = 1.01 # Add new (1,1,1) : 7 }

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del busvolts [154] # Delete digit = bits2bytes [(1,0,1)]

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Ordered Dictionaries

A python dictionary that remembers insertion order, i.e., the order of

the key:value pairs added to this dictionary

How to create ordered dictionary? Ordinary dictionary:

>>> import collections >>> d2 = {}

>>> d1 = collections.OrderedDict() >>> d2[1] = 1
>>> d1[1] = 1 >>> d2[2] = 2
>>> d1[2] = 2 >>> d2[11] = 11
>>> d1[11] = 11 >>> d2[12] = 12

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>>> d1[12] = 12 >>> d2[3] = 3
>>> d1[3] = 3 >>> d2[4] = 4
>>> d1[4] = 4 >>> d2
>>> d1 {1: 1, 2: 2, 3: 3, 4: 4,
OrderedDict([(1, 1), (2, 2), (11, 11), 11: 11, 12: 12}

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(12, 12), (3, 3), (4, 4)]) >>> d2.keys()
>>> d1.keys() [1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12]
[1, 2, 11, 12, 3, 4]

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Dictionary Methods

Commonly-used methods of dictionaries:

busnames = {101:'abc' ,102:'pqr' ,103:'xyz'}

k = busnames.keys() # [103, 101, 102]

# not necessarily the same order!
v = busnames.values() # ['pqr', 'abc', 'xyz']
pairs = busnames.items() # [(103, 'xyz'),
# (101, 'abc'),

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# (102, 'pqr')]

for k, v in busnames.iteritems():# returns an iterator

print k, v

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h = busnames.has_key(102) # True
h = 102 in busnames # True

Refer: lists_tuples_dictionaries.py

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True/False Value Testing

Most built-in objects can be tested for True/False status,

for use in an conditional expression (if, while)
or as operand of a Boolean operation (and, or, not)

The following values evaluate to False:

None
False

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zero of any numeric type, for example: 0, 0L, 0.0, 0j
any empty sequence, for example: '', (), []
any empty mapping, for example: {}

To check, use the bool() function, e.g. bool('hello')

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Python Programming: Line-continuation Character

Line-continuation character:
x = variable1 * variable2 + variable3 \
+ variable4 + a + lot + of + other \
+ variables inside * this / run-on \
* equation

x = (variable1 * variable2 + variable3 +

variable4 + a + lot + of + other +
variables inside * this / run-on * Better

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equation)

Rarely needed and discouraged (hard to read). Python already

handles multi-line statements code enclosed by:
(Parentheses) tuples, function arguments, grouping

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[Brackets] lists, array indexing
{Braces} dictionaries
'''Triple-quotes ''' multi-line strings

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