CONGRATULATIONS AND WELCOME TO THIS CLASS

1ST TERM DP SCHEME OF WORK 2023

WEEK TOPIC SUB – TOPIC

Wk 1 Data Model Definition of Data Models, Types of
Data Models
Wk 2 Data Modeling Creating Tables, Creating Forms,
Creating Queries, Creating Reports
Wk 3 Data Modeling Significance of Data Model, Examples
of Standard Data Models
Wk 4 Normal Forms Examples of tables in the first Normal
Form, Tables in Second and Third
Normal Forms, Problems of table in
first normal first.
Wk 5 Normal Forms Determinants of Normal Forms,
Foreign Keys
Wk 6 Entity Relationship Entities Attributes and Relationship

Wk 7 Entity – Relationship Additional Features of Entity Model

Model
Wk 8 Relational Model Creating Relations Using SQL,
Modifying Relations Using SQL
Wk 9 Relational Model Integrity constraints over relations

Wk 10 Relational Model Enforcing integrity constraints

Wk 11 Relational Model Querying relational data

Wk 12 File Organization Methods of file organization

Wk 13 Revision / Examination Revision / Examination
 SS 2 DATA PROCESSING NOTE
TOPIC: DATA MODELS
SUB-TOPIC: TYPES OF DATA MODELING

Data Model
A data model is a conceptual representation of the data
structures that are required by a database. The data
structures include the data objects, the associations
between data objects, and the rules which govern
operations on the objects. As the name implies, the data
model focuses on what data is required and how it
should be organized rather than what operations will be
performed on the data.

Data modeling is the process of structuring and

organizing the data. In addition to defining and
organizing the data, data modeling may also impose
constraints or limitations on the data placed within the
structure. Data model also describe structure data for
storage in data management system such as relational
database.

Concept of Data Modeling

Data model represents a real World situation about how
data is to be collected and stored in a database. A data
model also depicts the data flow and logical
interrelationships among different data elements. It
provides a structure for data used within the information
system by providing specific definition and format.

Data Structure
A data model describes the structure of data within a
given domain and by implication, the underlying
structure of that domain itself.

Data Organization
This describes how to organize data using a database
management technology.

APPROACH IN DATA MODELING

The following are different approaches to data modeling:
1. Conceptual Data Modeling: This identifies the
highest level relationships between different
entities. This approach specifies the kinds of facts or
propositions that can be expressed using the model
and it defines and allowed expressions in an artificial
language with a scope that is limited by the scope of
the model. Conceptual is the first step in organizing
the data requirement.
2. Logical Data Modeling: This illustrates the specific
entities, attributes and relationships involved in a
business functions. It serves as a basis for the
creation of the physical data model this consist of
 descriptions of tables, columns, object-oriented
classes and others.
3. Physical Data Modeling: This represents an
application and database specific implementation of
a logical data model and describes the physical
means used to store data. This is concerned with
partitions, CPUs, tables, space, etc.

TYPES OF DATA MODELING

We have the following types of Data Modeling:
1. Flat or table Data Model
2. Hierarchical Data model
3. Network Data Model
4. Relational Data Model
5. Object-Oriented Data Model.

Flat Data Model: The flat or table model consists of a

single, two-dimensional array of data elements where
all members of a given column are assumed to be
single value and all the members of a row are assumed
to be related to one another. This implies one to one
relationship (1 to one).

Hierarchical Data Model: This is a parent/child

relationship where by data is organized into a tree-like
structure, implying a single upward link in each record
to describe the nesting and a sort field to keep the
 records in a particular order in each same-level list.
The relationship here is one to many relationships (1 to
many).
Hierarchical Data Model Diagram

Pacement improvement

Reconstruction Maintenance Rehabilitation

Routine Corrective Preventive

3. Network Data Model: This model organizes data using

two fundamental constructs called Records and Sets.
Records contain fields and sets that define one – to many
relationships between records: one owner, many
members. It is similar to a hierarchical model except that
a child in the system can have more than one parent. The
relationship is one – to many relationships.
Network Data Model Diagram
Preventive Maintenance

Rigid pavement Flexible pavement

Spall Repair Joint Seal Crack seal Patching

Sillicone Sealant
Asphalt Sealant

4. Relational Data Model: A relational data model uses

two-dimensional tables called relations to store
data. In the relational model, each row of the table
represents an entity, with the columns representing
attributes. Each attributes can have only certain
predefined values and these allowable values are
called the Domain. One distinctive feature of a
relational data model is that you can combine any
number of tables as long as there are common fields.
With relational model, it is relatively easy to perform
queries on the data without being constrained by
the actual structure of the data. Microsoft Access is
access is a relational database program. The
relationship in this model is many – to many
relationship.
5. Object – Relational Data Model: This is similar to a
relational database model but object classes and
inheritance are directly supported in database
schemas and in the query language. An object-
relational database can be said to provide a middle
ground between relational databases and object –
oriented databases. The relationship here is one to
many and many to many relationships.

ASSIGNMENT
1. With the aid of a diagram, differentiate between
the Relational Data Model and Object – Relational
Data Model
2. Write a comprehensive note on the hierarchical
data model stating its advantages over other data
models.
Topic: Data Modeling
Sub-topic: Creating tables, forms queries and reports.

Creating Database table Using Ms Access

A table is a set of columns and rows; each column is
called a field. Within a table, each field must be given a
name and two each fields can have the same name. After
Access creates a blank database, it opens in database
view and makes available the tools you need to create a
table.
When you view a blank database for the first time in
Datasheet View, you will see a column name ID. This
column is by default the primary key field.
How to create table
The steps are:
i. Load MS Access
ii. Click on blank database
iii. Click on Design View
iv. Type in the name of the table e.g. Students table,
etc
v. Click Ok to save your table and then under the field
name, enter all the field names and the data
types.
 Data Types
In MS Access, you use Data Types to specify the type of
data each field can capture. A field with a data type as
text can store alphabetic characters and numbers, but
the field specified as number cannot accept letters.
Below are the different Data types in MS Access:
1. Text: Alphanumeric data used for text and for
numbers that are not used in Mathematical
calculations. Used for names, addresses and other
relatively short piece of text. Text can store up to
255 characters.
2. Memo: Long text. Used for long pieces of text such
as note descriptions. Memo can store up to 64,000
characters.
3. Number: Numerical data. Used for numbers you
want to use in mathematical calculation. If you are
working with currency, use the currency type.
4. Date/Time: Used for dates.
5. Currency: This is used for currency.
6. Auto Number: Unique sequential numbers or
random numbers automatically inserted when you
create a record. This is used to create a primary key.
7. Yes/No: Logical data. Used when only one of two
values is valid. Yes/No, True/False, etc.
8. Hyperlink: Used to store hyperlinks
 9. Attachment: Used to store attachment, e.g. files,
images, etc.
10. OLE object: Used to attach an OLE object such as a
word document, Excel spreadsheet, or PowerPoint
presentation. OLE means Object Linking &
Embedding.
11. Look up Wizard: A look up wizard is a field in the
table whose value is retrieved from another table or
query.
Editing Data Types in fields
When creating tables, you should define the data types
of the tables to most closely match the type of data
that will be entered in the field.

How to edit Data Types in Datasheet View

The steps are:
1. Click on the field you wish to edit
2. Click on the datasheet tab on the ribbon
3. Choose the type of data that you want to enter into
the field.
How to edit Data Types in the Data View
The following are the steps:
1. Click on the Design View
2. Click on the field name you wish to edit, define or
create a new field
3. Click on the Data type
4. Choose the appropriate Data type
5. Format the field properties dialog Box.

How to delete table

To delete any table from the list, open the desired
table, Right-click on the table and click on Delete.
Renaming the table
Open the particular table, Right-click on it and choose
Rename and type the new name.
CREATING FORMS
Access forms are much like paper forms; you can use
them to enter, edit or display data. When using a form,
you can choose the format, the arrangement and
which fields you want to display. Forms allow
controlling the look and feel of the screen for the input
of data and the report generated.
How to create forms using Form Wizard
You can create forms with the help of the form wizard,
the steps are as follows:
1. Click on create
2. Click on Form Wizard
3. Select the table and all the fields required
4. Click on Columnar or Tabular based on your needs
(form layout)
5. Click on next
 6. Click on open the form to view or enter information
or click on modify the form’s design
7. Click on next or finish depending on your choice in
No 6 above
8. Click on finish.
Creating Queries
A query allows you to select and filter data from multiple
tables. Queries can be saved and utilized as often as you
need them.

Creating queries using Query Wizard

The steps are:
1. Click on the create tab
2. Click on the query wizard
3. Choose the type of query you wish to run
4. Click ok
5. Click next
6. Select fields for the query
7. Click on next
8. Click details (showing every fields of every records)
9. Click on the fields you want or deactivate the fields
you need in the query.
10. Click on RUN.
Creating Report using report Wizard
The steps are:
1. Click create table and select Report Wizard
2. Choose the table you want and the fields you wish to
have
3. Click on Next
4. Click on Next
5. Select the sort order
6. Click on Next
7. Select report layout format
8. Click on Next
9. Select preview the report or select modify the
reports design
10. Click on finish.
How to delete table from the database
To delete the table, Right-click on the table and click
on delete and click Ok. Note that the table must be
closed before you can delete it.

How to insert and delete rows

The steps are:
1. Place the cursor where the rows is needed in the
design view page
2. Right-click on insert row or delete row
3. Click Ok.
How to have many tables in the database
i. Click on create
ii. Click on the table icon
iii. Save the table
 How to print your query
The steps are:
i. Select the query table
ii. Click on file
iii. Click on print
iv. Click on print preview to see the outlook of the
form or query
v. Click on print
vi. Select the printer and click OK or print
You can equally right-click on the print preview
and select print or click Save As to save the query
form into hard disk, desktop or external storage
device.

Assignment
1. Write out 30 data fields and their corresponding
data types
2. Explain query and list the steps to create report
using Report Wizard and queries using query wizard.
TOPIC: DATA MODELING
SUB-TOPIC: SIGNIFICANCE OF DATA MODEL

Significance of Data Model

Data model are a great communication tool because it
facilitates interaction and communication between the
designers, programmers and end user. In essence, it does
not allow one party’s bias towards a certain view of a
data (what they consider to be most important to take
hold.
Some of the significance of data model are:
1. A well-developed Data model can even foster
improve understanding of the organization for which
the database design is developed.
2. Data Model helps in structuring and organizing data.
These data structures management system which is
used mostly by organization for decision making.
3. In addition to defining and organizing the data, data
modeling will impose (implicitly or explicitly)
constraints or limitations on the data placed within
the structure.

Standard Data Model

A standard data model or industry data model (ISDM)
is a data model that is widely applied in some industry,
and shared amongst competitors to some degree. They
are often defined by standards bodies, database
vendors or operating system vendors. The most
effective standard models have model developed in
the banking, insurance, pharmaceutical and
automotive industries to reflect the stringent
standards applied to customer information gathering,
customer privacy, and customer safety or just in time
of manufacturing.

They enable easier and faster information sharing;

heterogeneous organizations have a standard
vocabulary and pre-negotiated semantics, format and
quality standards for exchanged data.
Examples of standard Data Models
We have the following examples of standard data
models:
1. ISO 10303: ISO 10303 is an ISO standard for the
computer-interpretable representation and
exchange of product manufacturing information.
2. ISO 15926: The ISO 15926 is a standard for data
integration, sharing, exchange and hand-over
between computer system.
3. IDEAS Group: The IDEAS Group is the International
Defense Enterprise Architecture Specification for
exchange Group. The deliverable of the project is a
data exchange format for Military Enterprise
Architecture.
TOPIC: NORMAL FORMS
SUB-TOPIC: EXAMPLES OF NORMAL FORMS

Database Management System

A database management system is a collection of
computer software that enables users to define, create
and maintain a database. Defining a database involves
specifying constraints for data stored in the database and
normalization is a logical method which minimizes,
duplicate or redundant, data and design flaws.

Normalization
Normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data
in a database. The primary purpose of normalization is to
allow updates, insert and delete operations to be
performed on a single database table and propagated
through the database by means of the defined
relationships.

Goals of Normalization
There are two major goals of normalization process,
there are:
1. Eliminating redundant data (for example, storing the
same data in more than one tables
2. Ensuring data dependencies make sense (only
storing related data in a table).
 Normal Forms
The normal forms (NF) of relational database theory
provide criteria for determining a table’s degree of
vulnerability to logical inconsistencies and anomalies.
The higher the normal form applicable to a table, the less
vulnerable it is, each table has a highest normal form
(HNF); also by definition, a table fails to meet the
requirements of any normal form higher than its HNF.

Normal Forms Theory

Normal Forms Theory deals with how to reduce the
amount of redundancy of data within a given table. Each
normal form represent a level, the requirements for the
previous level must be met. To reach the optimal normal
form for the table within a database, the creator starts
with a large list of all the data that is held in the database
and then works through the normal forms until it can no
longer break the data down into smaller tables.
We have:
First Normal Form (1NF): First Normal Form says that all
column values must be atomic. 1NF dictates that for
every row-by-column position in a given table, there exist
only one value, not an array or list of values i.e in 1NF,
the following rules are observed;
i. Eliminate repeating information
ii. Create separate tables for related data.
If you think about the flat table design with many
repeated sets of fields for the students and course
database, you can identify two distinct topics which are
students and courses. Taking your students and course
database to the first normal form would means that you
create two tables: one for students and the other for
courses as shown below.
Primary Key
Student ID

Student Name

Address
Student ID

Course ID

Course Name

Course Instructor

The two tables now represent a one-to-many

relationship of one student to many courses. Students
can take as many courses as they want and are not
limited to the number of StudentID\CourseName\
courseInstructor groupings that existed in the flat table.
SECOND NORMAL FORM (2NF): The rule for the second
normal form (2NF) is that second normal form further
addresses the concept of removing duplicate data as
follows:
i. Remove subsets of data that apply to multiple
rows of a table and place them in separate tables.
 ii. Create relationship between these new tables and
their predecessors through the use of foreign
keys.
These rules can be summarized in a simple statement as
follows: 2NF attempts to reduce the amount of
redundant data in a tables and creating relationship
between those tables.
For example, imagine a company that maintains
customer information in a database. They might have a
single table called customers with the following
elements:
In a 2NF-compliant database structure, this
Cust Num
redundant information like zip, city and state
First Name

Last Name can be extracted and stored in a separate table.

Address Our new table can be called Zips table below.
City
Zip

Phone
Zip
E-mail City

Customer table State

Zip table

Now that we have removed the duplicate data from the

customers table, we have satisfied the first rule of
second normal form. We still need to use a foreign key to
tie the two tables together. We will use the zip code (the
primary key from the zips table) to create that
relationship.

Cust Num Zip

First Name City

Last Name State

Address From these relationship now, the new

Phone
Customers table can look like.
E-mail

Pk Cust Num

First Name

Last name

Address

Zip

Phone

E-mail

THIRD NORMAL FORM (3NF)

There two basic requirements for a database to be in
third Normal form:
i. The requirement of both 1NF and 2NF have been
met
ii. Remove columns that are not fully dependent
upon the primary key. Let’s assume that we have a
table of orders that contains the following
attributes.

Pk order Number

Customer Num

Unit Price

Quantity

Total
Topic: Determinates of Normal Forms
Determination of Normal forms
Normalization is a technique for producing a set of
suitable relations that support the data requirements of
an enterprise. Characteristics of a suitable set of relations
include:
1. The minimal number of attributes necessary to
support the data requirements of the enterprise.
2. Attributes with a close logical relationship are found
in the same relation
3. Minimal redundancy with each attribute
represented only once with the important exception
of attributes that form all or foreign keys

Concepts of Foreign keys

A foreign key can be referred as a field in a relational
table that matches a candidate key of another table. A
foreign key (FK) is a column or combination of columns
that is used to establish and enforce a link between the
data in two tables. You can create a foreign key by
defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint when you create or
modify a table.
The foreign key identifies a column or set of columns in
one (referencing or child) table that refers to a column or
set of columns in another (referenced or parent) table.
The columns in the child table must reference the
columns of the primary key or other super key in the
parent table.
For example, if the student table in a database has a link
to the student course table because these is a logical
relationship between sales order and sales people. The
student ID column is the primary key in student table and
is the foreign key to the student course table.

Student table
Student ID Foreign Key

Student name

Address
Student ID

Course ID

Course Name

Course Instructor
TOPIC: ENTITY – RELATIONSHIP ENTITIES
SUB – TOPIC: ENTITY – RELATIONSHIP MODEL

Entity – Relationship Model

Entity – Relationship Model is a graphical representation
of entities and their relationship to each other. Entity
Relationship Diagrams (ERDs) illustrate the logical
structure of databases.
For example, the ER Model would say that you are an
entity and each phone number is an entity and the
relationship between you and the phone number.
The diagrams created to design these entities and
relationships are called Entity Relationship Diagrams or
ER diagrams.
Entity relationship diagrams are used for the following:
i. To identify the data that must be captured, stored
and retrieved in order to support the business
activities perform by an organization.
ii. Identify the data required to derive and report on
the performance measures that an organization
should be monitoring.
Components of Entity – Relationship Diagram
Entity Relationship Diagrams have these different
components. These are:
1. Entities
2. Attributes
3. Relationship
Entities: Entities are object or concepts within the data
model. Each entity is represented by a box with the ERD.
Entities are abstract concepts, each representing one or
more instances of the concept in questions.
Attributes: Attributes is a unique distinguishing
characteristic of the entity. For example, a student
identification number might be the student’s attributes.
Relationship: A relationship is an association among the
instance of one or more entity types that is of interest to
the organization.
A relationship is the association between entities or
entity occurrence. For instance, a meaningful
relationship exists between two different types of entity
e.g, Employees work in a Department, a teacher teaches
subjects, Lawyers advise clients, etc.
Cardinality
The cardinality defines the relationship between the
entities in terms of numbers. There are several different
types of cardinality notations; crow’s foot notation, used
here is a common one. In crows foot notation, a single
bar indicate one, a double bar indicates one and only
one.
Types of cardinality Relationship
We have three types of cardinality relationship; these
are:
1. One – to – one Relationship
2. One – to – many Relationship
 3. Many – to – many Relationship

One – to – one Relationship: This type of relationship

takes place when a single occurrence of an entity is
related to just one occurrence of a second entity. For
example, a roof cover one building.
One – to – many Relationship: This type of relationship
takes place when a single occurrence of an entity is
related to many occurrence of a second entity. For an
example, an employee works in one Department, a
department has many employees, a teacher to many
students, Pastor to members, etc.
Many – to – many Relationships: This type of
relationship takes place when many occurrences of an
entity are related to many occurrences of a second
entity. For example, Equipment is allocated to many
projects, a project is allocated many items of equipment.
Assignment
1. Summarize Normal forms and explain the
requirements for the form to be in the 1NF, 2NF and
3NF
2. Produce student record to satisfy the requirement of
first normal form (1NF) with the aid of diagram.
3. Differentiate between Entity – Relationship model
and Cardinality with good examples.
Topic: Relational Model
Sub – topic: Creating relations Using SQL
Relational Model
RDBMs stand for relational Database management
System. RDBMs is the basis for SQL, and for all modern
database system like MS SQL, Server, IBM DB2, Oracle,
MYSQL and Microsoft Access.
A relational database management System (RDBMs) is a
database management system that is based on the
relational model.

Creating and modifying Relations using SQL

A database relation is a predefined row/column format
for storing information in a relational database. Relations
are equivalent to table.
SQL
SQL stands for Structured Query Language which is a
computer language for storing, manipulating and
retrieving data stored in relational database. SQL is a
language of database which includes database creation,
deletion, fetching rows and modifying rows, etc.
SQL is a standard language for Relational Database
System and all relational Database Management System
like MYSQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix postgres
and SQL Server uses SQL as standard database language.
 SQL COMMANDS
The standard SQL Commands that interact with the
relational database are:
i. CREATE
ii. SELECT
iii. INSERT
iv. UPDATE
v. DELETE
vi. DROP
vii. ALTER
viii. REVOKE
ix. GRANT, etc.
CREATE: This command creates a new table, a view of a
table or other object in database.
ALTER: ALTER Command modifies an existing database
object such as a table.
DROP: DROP Command deletes an entire table view of a
table or other object in the database.
INSERT: This command creates a record.
UPDATE: This command modifies records.
DELETE: This command deletes records.
REVOKE: This command takes back privileges granted
for users.
GRANT: This command gives privilege to a user.
SELECT: This command retrieves certain records from
one or more tables.
 CONSTRAINTS
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on
the table. These are used to limit the type of data that
can go into table. This ensures the accuracy and
reliability of the database.
Constraints could be column level or table level; column
level constraints are applied to the table.
Constraints in SQL
The following are commonly used constraints in SQL:
1. NOT NULL Constraint: Ensure that a column cannot
have NULL value.
2. DEFAULT Constraint: This provides a default value
for a column where none is specified.
3. UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all value in a
column is different.
4. PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identifies each row/record in
a database table.
5. FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identifies a row/record in
any other database table.
6. CHECK Constraint: The CHECK Constraint ensure that
all values in a column satisfy certain conditions.
7. INDEX Constraint: Use to create and retrieve data
from the database very quickly.
Constraints can be specified when a table is created
with the CREATE TABLE statement or you use ALTER
TABLE statement to create constraints even after the
table is created.
 Integrity Constraints over Relation
Integrity Constraints are used to ensure accuracy and
consistency of data in a relational database. There are
many types of integrity constraint that play a role in
referential integrity (RI). These constraints include:
Primary key, foreign key, Unique Constraints and other
constraints.
Enforcing Integrity Constraints
1. Primary key constraints: Primary key is a field in a
table which uniquely identifies the each row/record
in a database table. Primary keys must contain
unique value; a primary key column cannot have
NULL value.
A table can have only one primary key which may
consist of single or multiple fields. When multiple
fields are as a primary key, they are called a
Composite Key.
2. UNIQUE Constraint: The unique constraint prevents
two records from having identical values in a
particular column.
3. DROP a UNIQUE Constraint: To drop a UNIQUE
Constraint, use SQL, ALTER TABLE.
4. CHECK Constraint: The CHECK Constraint enables a
condition to check the being entered into the record.
If the condition evaluates to false, the records
violates the constraint and is not entered into the
table.
5. NOT NULL Constraint: By default, a column can hold
NULL values. If you do not want a column to have a
NULL value then you need to define such constraint
on this column specifying that NULL is now not
allowed for that column.
6. INDEX Constraint: The INDEX is used to create and
retrieve data from the database very quickly. Index
can be created by using single or group of columns in
a table.
TOPIC: FILE ORGANIZATION
SUB – TOPIC: TYPES OF FILE ORGANIZATION

File Organization
A file is a collection of data usually stored on a disk. File
organization is a way of organizing the data or records in
a file. It does not refer to how files are organized in
folders but how the content of a file are added and
accessed.

Types of file Organization

There are several types of file organization, the most
common types are:
1. Sequential File Organization
2. Relative File Organization
3. Indexed file Organization
Sequential File Organization
In a sequential file organization, records are organized in
the sequence by which they were added. You cannot
insert a new record between existing records, but only
the end of the last record. It is a simple file organization
that allows you to process batches of records in the file
without adding or deleting anything.
Searching for a record, especially when these are
thousands of entries, may be time consuming, also
inserting or deleting records would mean rearranging the
entire sequence.
Relative File Organization
Another type of organizing files would be relative to the
location where the file begins. A relative key is assigned
to determine the order of files. The first record would
have a relative number of 1; the second record would
have a relative number of 2 and so on.
It is also called relative, because the sizes of each record
may vary, unlike in a sequential organization where the
record sizes must be fixed to arrange sequentially. With
the relative key, you can randomly access my record. If
you do not know the relative key of a particular record,
you would not be able to randomly access the file.
Indexed file Organization
An indexed file organization contains reference numbers,
like employee numbers that identify a record in relation
to other records. These references are called the Primary
Keys that are unique to particular record. This allows
greater flexibility for users to randomly search through
thousands of records in a file.

Factors to consider when choosing a file organization

method
Factors to consider before choosing a file organization
method are:
1. Frequency of update: A file that needs to be
updated every now and then needs an organization
method that will allow easy retrieval of information
 and ease of update, example of such a file is the
transaction file.
2. File activity: Different files have different activities,
example, a sort file is used to sort data in sequential
order and therefore sequential method would be
appropriate to such a file.
3. File access method: Definitely, different files have
different methods of being accessed; example, a
reference file is accessed using random method for
easy retrieval of data. How files can be accessed and
used will determine the method of file organization.
4. Nature of the system: Files that are used in a
particular system will depend on the nature of the
system i.e. the suitable organization method for that
particular system.
5. Master file medium: The master file is the main file

for keeping permanent updates of records from

transaction files and other sources, the medium by
which it is updated will determine the organization
method to be used.

READ AND PREPARE FOR YOUR EXAMS