STUDY OF MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

HEAT-TREATED METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

(Al7075)

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by
ASHAN MOHAMED M 720819101007
RISHIKESHWAR S 720819101029
SANTHOSH KUMAR R 720819101031
SIVADHARAN SURYA S 720819101038

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

HINDUSTHAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

COIMBATORE - 641 032

ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI - 600 025

MAY-2023
 ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “STUDY OF MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS

OF HEAT-TREATED METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (Al7075)” is the

bonafide work of ASHAN MOHAMED M (720819101007), RISHIKESHWAR S

(720819101029), SANTHOSH KUMAR R (720819101031), SIVADHARAN

SURYA S (720819101038) who carried out the project work under my supervision.

Dr.K.P Dhanabalakrishnan Mr.V.Ganesan

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering Assistant Professor

Hindusthan Institute of Technology Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering

Coimbatore- 641032 Hindusthan Institute of Technology

Coimbatore- 641032

Date of viva voce .................

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, we would like to thank with deep sense of gratitude to our
management, Hindustan Institute of technology Coimbatore. We take this opportunity
to express our sincere gratitude to our honorable Principal Dr. C.Natarajan for his
kind encouragement for undergoing this project work.

We convey our wholehearted and sincere thanks to our Head of the Department

Dr. K.P.Dhanabalakrishnan, Professor and Head, Department of Aeronautical

Engineering to streamline our project work. We wish to register our heartiest thanks to
project coordinator Mr. M.Moses Devaprasanna Associate Professor, Department of
Aeronautical Engineering for his immediate approval and constant encouragement to
bring out this project work

We express our humble gratitude to our project guide Mr. V.Ganesan, Assistant
Professor, Department of Aeronautical Engineering for his extended moral support in
all possible ways to bring out this project work and report well.

We also thank the executives from Queen India Engineering services, Erode for
helping out in making this project. Last but not the least, we would like to thank our
parents for their encouragement over the span of our project work. Whatever we had
achieved is nothing without their unconditional support

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 ABSTRACT

This study focuses on the material characterization of a heat-treated metal matrix

composite (MMC) made from Al 7075 alloy. Metal matrix composites are an emerging

class of materials that offer enhanced mechanical and thermal properties compared to

conventional monolithic metals. Al 7075 is a widely used high-strength Aluminium

alloy known for its excellent strength-to-weight ratio. The objective of this study is to

investigate the material characteristics and properties of the Al 7075 MMC. The

experimental methodology involves fabricating the composite material by reinforcing

Al 7075 alloy with a selected reinforcement material, such as silicon carbide (SiC)

aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and fly ash using stir casting. The composite specimens are

then subjected to mechanical testing, including hardness, and impact resistance

evaluations. the mechanical testing provides insights into the strength, toughness,

and ductility of the composite after heat treatment.

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v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

NO
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I
ABSTRACT II
CONTENTS III
LIST OF TABLES V
LIST OF FIGURES VI
LIST OF SYMBOLS VII
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Composites 3
1.1.1 Need for Composites 3
1.1.2 Composite materials 5
1.1.3 Characteristics of the Composites 6
1.2 Basic Concept of Composite Materials 6
1.3 Classification of composite materials 7
1.3.1 Metal matrix composites 7
1.3.2 Ceramic matrix composites 7
1.3.3 Polymer matrix composites 8
1.3.4 Fiber composite materials 9
1.3.5 Laminated composite material 10
1.3.6 Particulate composite material 11
1.4 Properties of metal matrix composites 11
1.5 Hybrid composites 11
1.6 Processing of metal matrix composites 12
1.7 Liquid-phase fabrication 13
1.7.1 Stir casting 13

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2 LITERATURE SURVEY 15
2.1 Selective Laser Melting 15

2.2 Aluminium-based metal matrix composites 16

2.3 Aluminium alloys 17
2.4 Metal matrix composites (MMCs) 18
2.5 The L9 Taguchi optimization method 19
2.6 Heat treated aluminium metal matrix 20
.
3 MATERIAL SELECTION 22
3.1 Material 22
3.1.1. Metal matrix 22
3.1.2. Reinforcements 24
3.1.2.1 Silicon carbide (SiC) 25
3.1.2.2 Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) 26
3.1.2.3 Fly Ash 27
3.2 Composite fabrication 29
3.2.1. Stir casting 29

4 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS 31
4.1 Introduction 31
4.2 Optimization 31
4.3 Taguchi method 32
4.3.1 Summary of Taguchi method 33
4.4 Experimental procedure 34
4.4.1 Planning the experiments 34
4.4.2 Performing the experiments 34
4.4.3 Analyzing and verifying the experimental result 34
4.4.4 Process parameters 34

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 4.5 Steps in experimental layouts 35
4.6 Multi-characteristics optimization using GRA 37
4.7 Data pre-processing 38
4.7.1 Grey relational co-efficient (GRC) calculation
38
4.7.2 Grey relational grade determination
4.8 Multiple characteristics optimization using GRA 38
4.9 Hardness Testing 39
4.9.1 Hardness measurements 39
4.9.2 Hardness measurement methods 40
4.9.3 Rockwell hardness test 40
4.9.4 Brinell hardness test 43
4.10 Micro hardness test 44

5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 48

5.1 Orthogonal Array Experiment and the S/N Ratio 48
5.2 Data Obtained 49
5.2.1 Hardness for AL7075 Metal Matrix Composites 49
5.2.2 Charpy Impact Strength 49
5.2.3 Vicker Hardness Test 49
5.3 Grey Relational Analysis 50
5.4 Optimum Level Process Parameters 55
5.5 Analysis of variance result for Tensile Strength 55
5.6 Multiple Linear Regression models 56
5.6.1 The Regression equation 56
5.7 Confirmation Test 56

6 CONCLUSIONS 58
APPENDIX 59
REFERENCES 60
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 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
3.1 Properties of Aluminium 7075-T6 alloy 23
3.2 Composition of Aluminium 7075-T6 alloy 24
3.3 Properties of Silicon Carbide 26
3.4 Properties of Aluminium Oxide 27
3.5 Optimized Values 30
4.1 Control factors of process parameters and their
Levels 39
4.2 Various control factors designation of process
Parameters 39
4.3 Standard L9 Orthogonal array 40
4.4 Experimental layout of process parameters for
Optimization 41
4.5 Data obtained from experimental work 51
5.1 Data obtained from experimental work 53
5.2 Signal to Noise ratios 55
5.3 Normalized signal to Noise ratios 55
5.4 Grey relational co-efficient 56
5.5 Evaluated Grey relational Grade values 57
5.6 Data response table for Signal to Noise ratios 58
5.7 Optimum level process parameters for Hardness
and Impact strength 59
5.8 Results of the Analysis of variance 59
5.9 Confirmation Experiment 60
5.10 Result of Confirmation Experiment and their 61
comparison with Regression

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

NO NO
1.1 Reinforcement 9

1.2 Composite Laminate 10

1.3 Shapes of Metal Matrix Composite materials 11

1.4 Stir casting setup 13

3.1 Silicon Carbide (SiC) 25

3.2 Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) 26

3.3 Fly Ash 27

3.4 Stir casting furnace 30

3.5 Fabricated specimens 30

4.1 Rockwell hardness testing principle 47

4.2 Vickers Hardness Tester 48

4.3 Vickers Test Scheme 49

4.4 The pyramidal diamond indenter of a 49

Vickers Hardness test

4.5 An indentation left in case-hardened steel after a 50

Vickers Hardness test
4.6 ASTM: E23m Impact Specimens 51

5.1 E384 Vickers Hardness Specimens 53

5.2 E23M Broken Impact Specimens 53

5.3 Grey Relational Grades SN ratio chart 57

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 LIST OF SYMBOLS, ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

MMC Metal Matrix Composites

CMM Ceramic Matrix Material
PMC Particulate Composite Materials
FCM Fiber Composite Materials
ASTM American Society Testing and Materials
LCD Digital Liquid Crystal Displays
A17075 Aluminium Alloy
SiO Silicon Oxide
Al2O3 Aluminium Oxide
Fe2O3 Iron Oxide
MgO Magnesium Oxide
CaO Calcium Oxide
LM5 Aluminium Casting Alloy
AMCs Aluminium Matrix Composites
PET Polyethylene Terephthalate
DOE Design Of Experiment
Al Aluminium
SiC Silicon Carbide
HMMCs Hybrid Metal Matrix Composites
PMMCs Particulate Metal Matrix Composites
Al2O3 Aluminium Oxide
B4C Boron Carbide
FRP Fiber-Reinforced Plastic
ANOVA Analysis Of Variance

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mPa Mega Pascal
gm/cm³ Gram Per Cubic Centimeter
mm Millimeters
in Inches
m/s Meter Per Second
Rpm Revolutions Per Minute
mm/ Rev Feed Per Revolution
°C Celsius
°F Fahrenheit
Psi Pound Per Square Inch
lb/in^3 Pound Per Cubic Inch
Micron Per Meter Per Celsius
µm/m °C
Degree
gm/cm³ Gram Per Cubic Centimeter
kg/mm2 Gram Per Cubic Centimeter
GPA Grade Point Average
Al2O3 Aluminium Oxide
W/mK Watts Per Meter Kelvin
Si Silicon
Fe Iron
Cu Copper
Mn Manganese
Mg Magnesium
Cr Chromium
Zn Zinc

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

In the last two decades, research has shifted from monolithic materials to
composite materials to meet the global demand for light weight, high performance,
environmental friendly, wear and corrosion resistant materials. Metal Matrix
Composites (MMCs) are suitable for applications requiring combined strength, thermal
conductivity, damping properties and low coefficient of thermal expansion with lower
density. These properties of MMCs enhance their usage in automotive and tribological
application. In the field of automobile, MMCs are used for pistons, brake drum and
cylinder block because of better corrosion resistance and wear resistance.

Fabrication of MMCs has several challenges like porosity formation, poor

wettability and improper distribution of reinforcement. Achieving uniform distribution
of reinforcement is the foremost important work. A new technique of fabricating cast
Aluminium matrix composite has been proposed to improve the wettability between
alloy and reinforcement. In this, all the materials are placed in graphite crucible and
heated in an inert atmosphere until the matrix alloy is melted and followed by two step
stirring action to obtain uniform distribution of reinforcement. The fabrication
techniques of MMCs play a major role in the improvement of mechanical and
tribological properties. The size andtype of reinforcement also has a significant role in
determining the mechanical and tribological properties of the composites. The effect
of type of reinforcements such as SiC whisker, alumina fiber and SiC particle
fabricated by Powder Metallurgy on the properties of MMCs has been investigated. It
was found that there existed a strong dependence on the kind of reinforcement and its
volume fraction. The results revealed that particulate reinforcement is most beneficial
for improving the wear resistance of MMCs.

1
 There is a growing interest worldwide in manufacturing hybrid metal matrix
composites [HMMCs] which possesses combined properties of its reinforcements and
exhibit improved physical, mechanical and tribological properties. Aluminium matrix
composites reinforced silicon carbide was developed using conventional foundry
techniques. The reinforcements were varied by 10% and 15% by weight. The
composite was tested for density, mechanical properties, and dry sliding wear. The
results show an increasing trend in all the properties with increase in SiC content,
except density which decreased with increase in reinforcements. The tribological
properties of MMCs are also increased by increasing reinforcements at all applied
conditions.

Aluminium metal matrix composites have been of interest as engineering

materials because of their higher stiffness and specific strength, as well as superior
wear resistance, compared to unreinforced aluminium alloys. Superior mechanical and
physical properties leads to the use of these composites in several automobile and
engineering components where wear, tear and seizure are the major problems in
addition to the weight saving. Some of these components are brake drums, pistons,
connecting rods, cylinder heads and drive shafts for automobile sectors and impellers,
agitators, turbine blade, valves, pump inlet, vortex finder for marine and mining
sectors. Particulate metal matrix composites (PMMCs) are of special interest owing to
the low cost of their raw materials and their ease of fabrication, making them suitable
for applications requiring relatively high-volume production. The Most interesting
materials commercially utilize SiC, Al2O3 or B4C particles incorporated into the
aluminium matrix by a variety of processes including powder metallurgy. Powder
Metallurgy processing of aluminium MMCs first requires the combination of the
aluminium alloy powder, either as a mixture of elemental and master alloy powders or
in pre alloyed form, with the reinforcement in a blending process. Among the different
reinforcement material, red mud emerging reinforcement because of its low cost and
availability in huge quantity. Red mud emerges as the major waste material during

2
production of alumina from bauxite by the Bayer’s process. The estimated annual rate
of production of red mud from Bayer’s process is nearly 30 million ton per year. While
using a powder metallurgy technique for fabrication of MMC, best mechanical
properties can be attained since reinforcement materials are homogenously distributed
over the matrix material. In addition to that, in this process low temperature is used for
fabrication when compared to melting process thus it avoids chemical reaction between
the matrix and reinforcement material. Another advantage of powder metallurgy
technique is in its ability to manufacture near net shape products at low cost and give
good dimensional tolerance for the complex geometries.

1.1 COMPOSITES
1.1.1 Need for Composites
Over the last thirty years composite materials, plastics and ceramics have been
the dominant emerging materials. The volume and number of applications of composite
materials have grown steadily, penetrating and conquering new markets relentlessly.
Modern composite materials constitute a significant proportion of the engineered
materials market ranging from everyday products to sophisticated niche applications.
While composites have already proven their worth as weight-saving materials, the
current challenge is to make them cost effective. The efforts to produce economically
attractive composite components have resulted in several innovative manufacturing
techniques currently being used in the composites industry. It is obvious, especially for
composites that the improvement in manufacturing technology alone is not enough to
overcome the cost hurdle. It is essential that there be an integrated effort in design,
material, process, tooling, quality assurance, manufacturing, and even program
management for composites to become competitive with metals.
The composites industry has begun to recognize that the commercial
applications of composites promise to offer much larger business opportunities than
the aerospace sector due to the sheer size of transportation industry. Thus, the shift of
composite applications from aircraft to other commercial uses has become prominent

3
in recent years. Increasingly enabled by the introduction of newer polymer resin matrix
materials and high-performance reinforcement fibers of glass, carbon and aramid, the
penetration of these advanced materials has witnessed a steady expansion in uses and
volume. The increased volume has resulted in an expected reduction in costs. High
performance FRP can now be found in such diverse applications as composite
armouring designed to resist explosive impacts, fuel cylinders for natural gas vehicles,
windmill blades, industrial drive shafts, support beams of highway bridges and even
paper making Rollers.
For certain applications, the use of composites rather than metals has in fact resulted
in savings of both cost and weight. Some examples are cascades for engines, curved
fairing and fillets, replacements for welded metallic parts, cylinders, tubes, ducts,
blade containment bands etc. Further, the need of composite for lighter construction
materials and more seismic resistant structures has placed high emphasis on the use of
new and advanced materials that not only decreases dead weight but also absorbs the
shock & vibration through tailored microstructures.

Composites are now extensively being used for rehabilitation/ strengthening of

pre-existing structures that have to be retrofitted to make them seismic resistant, or to
repair damage caused by seismic activity. Unlike conventional materials (e.g., steel),
the properties of the composite Material can be designed considering the structural
aspects. The design of a structural component using composites involves both material
and structural design. Composite properties (e.g., stiffness, thermal expansion etc.) can
be varied continuously over a broad range of values under the control of the designer.
Careful selection of reinforcement type enables finished product characteristics to be
tailored to almost any specific engineering requirement. Whilst the use of composites
will be a clear choice in many instances, material selection in others will depend on
factors such as working lifetime requirements, Number of items to be produced (run
length), complexity of product shape, possible savings in assembly costs and on the
experience & skills the designer in tapping the optimum potential of composites. In
4
some instances, best results may be achieved through the use of composites in
conjunction with traditional materials.
1.1.2 Composite materials
A typical composite material is a system of materials composing of two or more
materials (mixed and bonded) on a macroscopic scale.
Generally, a composite material is composed of reinforcement (fibers, particles, flakes,
and/or fillers) embedded in a matrix (polymers, metals, or ceramics). The matrix holds
the reinforcement to form the desired shape while the reinforcement improves the
overall mechanical properties of the matrix. When designed properly, the new
combined material exhibits better strength than would each individual material. As
defined Composites are multifunctional material systems.
That provides characteristics not obtainable from any discrete material. They are
cohesive structures made by physically combining two or more compatible materials,
different in composition and characteristics and sometimes in form. very clearly
stresses that the composites should not be regarded simple as a combination of two
materials. In the broader significance; the combination has its own distinctive
properties. In terms of strength or resistance to heat or some other desirable quality, it
is better than either of the components alone or radically different from either of them.
Berghezan defines as “The composites are compound materials which differ from
alloys by the fact that the individual components retain their characteristics but are so
incorporated into the composite as to take advantage only of their attributes and not of
their shortcomings”, in order to obtain an improved material Van Suchetclan explains
composite materials as heterogeneous materials consisting of two or more solid phases,
which are in intimate contact with each other on a microscopic scale. They can be also
considered as homogeneous materials on a microscopic scale in the sense that any
portion of it will have the same physical property.

5
1.1.3 Characteristics of the Composites
Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases embedded in a continuous
phase. The discontinuous phase is usually harder and stronger than the continuous
phase and is called the ‘reinforcement ‘or ‘reinforcing material’, whereas the
continuous phase is termed as the ‘matrix’. Properties of composites are strongly
dependent on the properties of their constituent materials, their distribution and the
interaction among them. The composite properties may be the volume fraction sum of
the properties of the constituents or the constituents may interact in a synergistic way
resulting in improved or better properties. Apart from the nature of the constituent
materials, the geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size and size distribution)
influences the properties of the composite to a great extent. The concentration
distribution and orientation of the reinforcement also affect the properties. The shape
of the discontinuous phase (which may by spherical, cylindrical, or rectangular cross-
sanctioned prisms or platelets), the size and size distribution (which controls the texture
of the material) and volume fraction determine the interfacial area, which plays an
important role in determining the extent of the interaction between the reinforcement
and the matrix. Concentration, usually measured as volume or weight fraction,
determines the contribution of a single constituent to the overall properties of the
composites. It is not only the single most important parameter influencing the
properties of the composites, but also an easily controllable manufacturing variable
used to alter its properties. The orientation of the reinforcement affects the isotropy of
the system.

1.2 BASIC CONCEPT OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composite materials are basically hybrid materials formed of multiple materials in

order to utilize their individual structural advantages in a single structural material.
Various scientific definitions for composite materials can be expresses as follows, The
word composite means made up of two or more parts. A composite material is one
made of two other materials. The composite material then has the properties of the two
6
materials that have been combined the word composite in the term composite material
signifies that two or more materials are combined on a macroscopic scale to form a
useful third material. The key is the macroscopic examination of a material wherein
the components can be identified by the naked eye. Different materials can be
combined on a microscopic scale, such as in alloying of metals, but the resulting
material is, for all practical purposes, macroscopically homogeneous, i.e, the
components cannot be distinguished by the naked eye and essentially act together.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

• Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
• Ceramic Matrix Material (CMM)

• Polymer Matrix Material (PMC)

• Fiber Composite Materials (FCM)

• Laminated Composite Materials

1.3.1 Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

These composites consist of metal alloys reinforced with continues fibers,

whiskers (a version of short fibers that are in the form of single crystals), or particulates
(fine particles, as distinct from fibers). Because of their use of metals as matrix
materials, they have a higher temperature resistance than PMCs but in general are
heavier. They are not use as widely used as PMCs but are finding increasing application
in many areas. Further development of manufacturing and processing techniques is
essential to bringing down product costs and accelerating the uses of MMCs. Research
continues on particulate and fiber reinforced MMCs because of substantial
improvements in their strength and stiffness as compared to those of unreinforced metal
alloys. The basic attributes of metals reinforced with hard ceramic particles or fibers
are improved strength and stiffness, improved creep and fatigue resistance, and
increased hardness, wear and abrasion resistance, combined with the possibility of
higher operating temperatures than for the unreinforced metal (or competing reinforced
plastics).
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1.3.2 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
Monolithic ceramic materials have a natural high temperature resistance but also
have fundamental limitations in structural applications owing to their propensity for
brittle fracture. The incorporation of reinforcement, for example, ceramic fiber
reinforcement, into the ceramic matrix can improve the ability of the material by
allowing cracking to be retarded by the fiber matrix interfaces. CMCs are a class
of structural materials with reinforcement such as SiC fibers embedded in a ceramic
matrix such as Al2O3, Si3N4 or SiC the reinforcements can be continuous fibers,
chopped fibers, small discontinuous whisker platelets, or particulates. This
combination of a fiber and ceramic matrix makes ceramic-matrix composites more
attractive for applications where both high mechanical properties and extreme service
temperatures are desired.
1.3.3 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymer-Matrix Composites are the most developed class of composite

materials in that they have found widespread application, can be fabricated into large,
complex shapes, and have been accepted in a variety of aerospace and commercial
applications. They are constructed of components such as carbon, boron, graphite,
aramid fibres bound together by an organic polymer matrix such as epoxy, polyester,
and urethane. These reinforced plastics are a synergistic combination of high-
performance fibers and matrices. The fiber provides the high strength and modulus,
whereas the matrix spreads the load as well as offering resistance to weathering and
corrosion. For example, graphite/epoxy composites are approximately five times
stronger than steel on a weight- for weight basis. The reasons of being the most
common composites include their low cost, high strength and simple manufacturing
principles. The main drawbacks of Polymer-Matrix Composites include low operating
temperatures, high coefficients of thermal and moisture expansion, and low elastic
properties in certain directions.

8
1.3.4 Fiber Composite Materials

Fibers are the principal constituent in a fiber-reinforced composite material.

They occupy the largest volume fraction in a composite laminate and share the major
portion of the load acting on a composite structure. Proper selection of the type, amount
and orientation of fibres is very important, because it influences the following
characteristics of a composite laminate. In a composite matrix the fibres are surrounded
by a thin layer of matrix material that holds the fibers permanently in the desired
orientation and distributes an applied load among all the fibers. The matrix also plays
a strong role in determining the environmental stability of the composite article as well
as mechanical factors such as toughness and shear strength. Because the reinforcing
fibers can be oriented during fabrication of item, composites can be tailored to meet
increased load demands in specific directions. The combined fiber-matrix system is an
engineered material designed to maximize mechanical and environmental
performance. The figure 1.1 (a, b, c) shows the different types of reinforcement of
composite materials.

Fig no:1.1 Reinforcement

a) Continuous aligned fibre-reinforced

b) discontinuous aligned fibre-reinforced
c) discontinuous random-oriented fibre-reinforced.

9
1.3.5 Laminated Composite Materials

A laminate is a bonded stack of laminate with various orientations of principal

material directions in the laminate as in Figure 1.1. Note that the fiber orientation of
the layers in Figure 1.1 is not symmetric about the middle surface of the laminate. The
layers of a laminate are usually bonded together by the same matrix material that is
used in the individual laminate. That is, some of the matrix material in a lamina coats
the surfaces of a lamina and is used to bond the lamina to its adjacent laminate without
the addition of more matrix material. Laminates can be composed of plates of different
materials or, in the present context, layers of fiber-reinforced laminate. A laminated
circular cylindrical shell can be constructed by winding resin-coated fibers on are
movable core structure called a mandrel first with one orientation to the shell axis, then
another, and soon until the desired thickness is achieved. The figure 1.2 shows the
physical structure of composite laminate.

Fig no:1.2 Composite Laminate

Laminated composite materials consist of layers of at least two different

materials that are bonded together. Lamination is used to combine the best aspects of
the constituent layers and bonding material in order to achieve a more useful material.
The properties that can be emphasized by lamination are strength, stiffness, low weight,
corrosion resistance, wear resistance, beauty or attractiveness, thermal insulation,
acoustical insulation, etc. Bimetals, clad metals, laminated glass, plastic-based

10
laminates, and laminated fibrous composite materials are available but only laminated
fibrous composite materials will be explained.
1.3.6 Particulate Composite Materials

Particulate composite materials consist of particles of one or more materials

suspended in a matrix of another material. They are usually isotropic since the particles
are added randomly. Particulate composites have advantages such as improved
strength, increased operating temperature and oxidation resistance, etc. The particles
can be either metallic or non metallic as can the matrix.
1.4 Properties of Metal Matrix Composites

• Ability to tailor properties to meet wide-ranging

• Impact resistance
• Strength
• Stiffness
• Ability to carry loads
1.5 Hybrid Composite

Composite are typically two or more fibers which are not quite same as each
other in a single matrix phase. The most commonly utilized hybrid composite as the
one in which polymeric resin as the matrix and both glass and carbon fibers as
reinforcing phase. We get anisotropic properties in majority of the hybrid composites.
The overall properties of a hybrid composite are superior to the composites having only
one fiber as reinforcing phase.

Mono Filaments Short Fibers Particle

Fig no:1.3 Shapes of metal matrix composite Materials

11
1.6 Processing of Metal Matrix Composites

It is obvious now that in metal matrix composites the matrix phase contain a
metal or an alloy. There are so many MMCs that we come across more often such as
Al-SiC or Cu-SiC composites. Mostly the reinforcement phases incorporated are
fibres, particulates or whiskers The reinforcement can serve several purposes like
improve the strength to weight ratio, improve the creep and thermal shock resistance,
improve the wear resistance, increase the fatigue strength, improvement in resistance
to corrosive environments, etc. The reinforcement materials used should be able to
fulfil certain conditions like having low density, good chemical and mechanical
compatibility, high strength (both compressive and tensile), high temperature stability
and economic cost of production and processing. These requests can be basically
fulfilled by non-metallic reinforcement. Contingent on the reinforcement phases
MMCs can be characterized into dispersion hardened and particle composites, layer
composites or laminates, fibre composites and invasion composites. A few inquiries
about are going ahead in the fieldof MMCs on the grounds that metals absolutely have
some unmistakable points of interest over polymers and ceramics.

There are different methods by which a metal-matrix composite can be manufactured:

1.6.1. Solid-phase fabrication methods
a) Diffusion-bonding method

b) Powder Metallurgy Technique

1.6.2. Liquid-phase fabrication methods

a) Liquid-metal infiltration

b) Squeeze casting

c) Spray co-deposition

d) Compo casting

1.6.3. Vapor state method

a) Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)

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1.7 Liquid-Phase Fabrication
Fluid state creation of Metal Matrix Composites includes expansion of scattered
stage into a liquid framework metal, trailed by its Solidification. To give better
mechanical properties of the composite, great interfacial holding (wetting) between the
scattered stage and the fluid grid ought to be gotten. Wetting change may be acquired
by covering the scattered stage particles (strands). Legitimate covering decreases
interfacial vitality, as well as opposes concoction association between the scattered
stage and the network. The simplest and the most cost effective method of liquid state
fabrication is Stir Casting.
1.7.1 Stir casting
Stir Casting Stir casting is the economical, effortless and most commercially
adopted technique, and it is known as ‘vortex technique’. In this process, reinforcing
phases (ceramic particles, short fibres) introduce by the mean of mechanical stirring
into molten metal. PAMMC was stirred by S. Ray first time in 1968, where alumina
(Al2O3) particles are introduced into molten aluminium by mechanical stirring. Major
disadvantage of this process is agglomeration of particles during fabrication process

Fig no:1.4 Stir casting setup

Many authors suggested that reinforcement in particulate form upto 30% by
weight can be added in molten alloy, to achieve better distribution of the reinforcement.
Reinforcement is added forcefully in to the molten stage of aluminium and to obtain

13
homogeneity during solidification of fabricated composite are depends on following
factors.
• Stirring speed and time
• Stirring blade angle
• Pouring temperature and solidification rate
• Reinforcement’s size, percentage and its relative density
Recently a drastically changes occurred in stir casting process. Researchers are
introduced a two-step and electromagnetic assisted stir cast process to achieve better
mechanical properties of fabricated composite. In which matrix material is to be heated
above its melting point, where it reaches in liquidus form after that molten metal is
cooled to the stage where it becomes semi solid. Particles that are preheated added and
mixed through stirring mechanism. Slurry formed is heated again till liquid state is
being achieved. Many authors fabricated PAMMCs with different reinforcement
through stir casting route and tested the mechanical properties.
1.7.2 Stir Casting have by the following features
➢ Content of dispersed phase is limited (usually not more than 30 vol. %).
➢ Dispersed phase of reinforcement added in the composite is not throughout the
matrix and not perfectly homogeneous.
➢ Distribution of dispersed phase may be improved if the matrix is in semi-solid
condition. The method using stirring metal composite materials in semi-solid
state is called Rheocasting.
➢ High viscosity of the semi-solid matrix material enables better mixing of the
dispersed phase.

14
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

[2.1] Selective laser melting (SLM)

It is a popular additive manufacturing technique used to fabricate complex and
high-performance metal components. Al7075 is a commonly used aluminium
alloy with excellent mechanical properties and good weldability. However, it has
some limitations in terms of its tensile strength and ductility. Microalloying with
Si and Zr has been proposed as a solution to improve the mechanical properties of
Al7075. This literature review aims to summarize the recent research on the
microstructures and tensile properties of a selective laser melted Al7075 alloy by
Si and Zr microalloying.

Zhao et al. (2021) investigated the effect of Si and Zr microalloying on the

microstructures and mechanical properties of an Al7075 alloy fabricated by SLM.
The results showed that the addition of Si and Zr improved the mechanical
properties of the alloy. The microstructures of the alloy consisted of fine equiaxed
grains and a refined eutectic structure. The Si and Zr microalloying resulted in the
formation of a uniform and fine dispersion of intermetallic particles, which
contributed to the strengthening and toughening of the alloy.

Wang et al. (2020) investigated the microstructures and tensile properties of an

Al7075 alloy fabricated by SLM with Si and Zr microalloying. The results showed
that the addition of Si and Zr improved the tensile strength and elongation of the
alloy. The microstructures of the alloy consisted of fine equiaxed grains and a
refined eutectic structure. The Si and Zr microalloying also resulted in the formation
of a uniform and fine dispersion of intermetallic particles, which contributed to the
strengthening and toughening of the alloy.

15
Wang et al. (2021) investigated the microstructures and mechanical properties of
an Al7075 alloy fabricated by SLM with different Si and Zr contents. The results
showed that the addition of Si and Zr improved the tensile strength and elongation
of the alloy. The microstructures of the alloy consisted of fine equiaxed grains and
a refined eutectic structure. The Si and Zr microalloying also resulted in the
formation of a uniform and fine dispersion of intermetallic particles, which
contributed to the strengthening and toughening of the alloy. The optimal Si and Zr
contents were found to be 0.8 wt% and 0.2 wt%, respectively.

Liu et al. (2020) investigated the microstructures and tensile properties of an

Al7075 alloy fabricated by SLM with Si and Zr microalloying and post heat
treatment. The results showed that the addition of Si and Zr improved the tensile
strength and ductility of the alloy. The microstructures of the alloy consisted of fine
equiaxed grains and a refined eutectic structure. The Si and Zr microalloying and
post heat treatment resulted in the formation of a uniform and fine dispersion of
intermetallic particles and an optimized microstructure, which contributed to the
strengthening and toughening of the alloy.

[2.2] Aluminium-based Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

It have gained significant attention in the field of materials science and
engineering due to their excellent mechanical and physical properties. Al7075 is a
commonly used aluminium alloy with high strength and excellent machinability.
In this literature review, we summarize a research paper by Mohammed Imran et
al. (2019) that investigates the characterization of Al7075-based MMCs.

Mohammed Imran et al. (2019) fabricated Al7075-based MMCs using stir casting
technique. The composites were reinforced with silicon carbide (SiC) particles of
varying weight percentages (5%, 10% and 15%). The microstructures, mechanical

16
properties, and wear behavior of the composites were investigated and compared
with those of the unreinforced alloy.
The microstructural analysis of the composites showed a uniform distribution of
SiC particles in the Al7075 matrix. The particle size distribution of the SiC particles
was found to be in the range of 3-8 µm. The presence of SiC particles in the Al7075
matrix resulted in the refinement of the grain size, which contributed to the
improvement of the mechanical properties of the composites.
The mechanical properties of the composites were evaluated by conducting tensile,
hardness, and impact tests. The results showed that the addition of SiC particles to
the Al7075 matrix improved the tensile strength, hardness, and impact toughness of
the composites. The composites reinforced with 15% SiC particles showed the
highest tensile strength, hardness, and impact toughness. The improved mechanical
properties of the composites were attributed to the strengthening effect of the SiC
particles and the refinement of the grain size.
The wear behavior of the composites was evaluated by conducting pin-on-disk wear
tests. The results showed that the wear resistance of the composites was
significantly improved compared to that of the unreinforced Al7075 alloy. The
composites reinforced with 15% SiC particles exhibited the best wear resistance.

[2.3] Aluminium alloys

They are widely used in various industrial applications due to their high strength,
low density, and excellent corrosion resistance. Among them, Al-Zn alloy 7075 is
a high-strength alloy that is commonly used in the aerospace and automotive
industries. In this literature review, we summarize a research paper by Y. Reda et
al. (2021) that investigates the microstructure and mechanical properties of Al-Zn
alloy 7075 during retrogression and re-aging (RRA) and triple aging heat
treatments.
Y. Reda et al. (2021) performed RRA and triple aging heat treatments on Al-Zn
alloy 7075 and evaluated the resulting microstructure and mechanical properties.

17
The RRA heat treatment involved annealing the alloy at 150°C for 4 hours, followed
by water quenching and aging at 120°C for 24 hours. The triple aging heat treatment
involved aging the alloy at 120°C for 24 hours, followed by solution treatment at
475°C for 2 hours, and then aging at 120°C for 24 hours.
The microstructural analysis of the alloy after the RRA heat treatment showed a
significant increase in the grain size, which resulted in a decrease in the mechanical
properties of the alloy. However, after the triple aging heat treatment, the grain size
was significantly reduced, and the mechanical properties of the alloy were greatly
improved. The triple aging heat treatment resulted in the formation of fine
precipitates and an increase in the dislocation density, which contributed to the
improvement of the mechanical properties of the alloy.
The mechanical properties of the alloy were evaluated by conducting tensile and
hardness tests. The results showed that the RRA heat treatment resulted in a
decrease in the tensile strength and hardness of the alloy, while the triple aging heat
treatment resulted in a significant improvement in these properties. The alloy after
the triple aging heat treatment exhibited a tensile strength of 690 MPa and a
hardness of 178 HV, which were higher than those of the alloy after the RRA heat
treatment.

[2.4] Metal matrix composites (MMCs)

They are materials that consist of a metal matrix and a reinforcement phase.
MMCs offer unique properties such as high strength, stiffness, and wear
resistance, making them suitable for various industrial applications. In this
literature review, we summarize a research paper by T. Senthilvelan et al. (2016)
that investigates the fabrication and characterization of SiC, Al2O3, and B4C
reinforced Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy (AA7075) MMCs.
T. Senthilvelan et al. (2016) fabricated SiC, Al2O3, and B4C reinforced AA7075
MMCs using the stir casting method. The composites were fabricated with varying
weight percentages of the reinforcement phase ranging from 2 to 8 wt%. The

18
microstructural analysis of the composites showed a uniform distribution of the
reinforcement phase in the matrix, and no clustering or agglomeration was
observed.
The mechanical properties of the composites were evaluated by conducting tensile,
hardness, and wear tests. The results showed that the addition of SiC, Al 2O3, and
B4C reinforcements to the AA7075 matrix significantly improved the mechanical
properties of the composites. The tensile strength, hardness, and wear resistance of
the composites increased with increasing weight percentage of the reinforcement
phase.
The highest tensile strength was observed for the B4C reinforced composite, with a
value of 577 MPa at 4 wt% reinforcement, while the highest hardness was observed
for the Al2O3 reinforced composite, with a value of 123.2 Hv at 6 wt%
reinforcement. The wear resistance of the composites was also significantly
improved, with the B4C reinforced composite exhibiting the highest wear resistance
at 8 wt% reinforcement.

T. Senthilvelan et al. (2016) fabricated SiC, Al2O3, and B4C reinforced AA7075
MMCs using the stir casting method and evaluated their microstructure and
mechanical properties. The results showed that the addition of the reinforcement
phase significantly improved the mechanical properties of the composites,
including tensile strength, hardness, and wear resistance. The findings of this study
provide valuable insights for the development and optimization of MMCs for
various industrial applications.

[2.5] The L9 Taguchi optimization method

It is a widely used statistical method for optimizing process parameters in various
fields of engineering and technology. In this literature review, we summarize a
research paper by K.V. Sabarish et al. (2019) that provides an overview of the L9
Taguchi optimization method and its applications in various engineering fields.

19
K.V. Sabarish et al. (2019) provided an overview of the L9 Taguchi optimization
method and its applications in various engineering fields, including manufacturing,
process optimization, and product design. The L9 Taguchi optimization method is
a statistical method that uses orthogonal arrays to determine the optimal
combination of process parameters for a given objective function.
The L9 Taguchi optimization method has several advantages over traditional
optimization methods, including reduced experimental time, reduced cost, and
improved product quality. The method is based on the principle of robust design,
which involves designing a product or process that is insensitive to variations in the
operating conditions.
The L9 Taguchi optimization method has been successfully applied in various
engineering fields, including manufacturing, process optimization, and product
design. In manufacturing, the method has been used to optimize process parameters
for various manufacturing processes such as welding, casting, and machining. In
process optimization, the method has been used to optimize the process parameters
for various chemical processes, including polymer synthesis and electroplating.
In product design, the method has been used to optimize the design parameters
for various products, including automotive components, electronic devices, and
medical devices. The method has also been used to optimize the performance of
various renewable energy systems such as solar energy systems and wind turbines.

[2.6] Heat treated aluminium metal matrix

It is usually achieved by homogenizing the cast at 450 °C for several hours,
quenching and then aging at 120 °C for 24 hours. This yields the peak strength of
the alloy.In this literature review we summurize a research paper by Arun Joshi et
al.(2018) that provides A Comparative Study of Mechanical Properties Of As Cast
And Heat Treated Al6063-MWCNT Composite Fabricated By Stir Casting Process
casting process is one of the most important and economical method. The present
work is about the preparation of aluminium Matrix Composite by stir casting

20
technique, where Al 6063 is the matrix or the base metal and 2% by Weight of
multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) in powder form is the reinforcement
material. Microstructure analysis will be done in order to observe the distribution of
CNT particles in the Al matrix. The specimens will also be subjected to heat
treatment before being tested. The ASTM standard specimens will then be tested for
wear, tensile, compression, Impact and hardness to compare the results. The major
objective of this work is to compare the mechanical properties of both As-cast and
heat treated test samples for the aluminium 6063-MWCNT composite fabricated by
means of stir casting process and hence compare the results.

Jamaluddin Hindi et.al(2015) have studied that the addition of refractory

reinforcement generally improves the hardness, tensile strength and high
temperature properties of the material. Accordingly 200-300 micron size SiC
(silicon carbide) reinforced Aluminium alloy composite was prepared in
labouratory condition.

21
 CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL SELECTION

3.1 MATERIAL SELECTION:

3.1.1 Metal matrix
After carrying out the literature review it was detected that consideration of different
aspects in the selection of matrix material is very crucial. The chemical compatibility of
the matrix material with the reinforcing material, its wettability with reinforcement,
andalso its own properties and processing behavior is highly considered while choosing
the matrix material. Load transfer capability of the matrix to the constituents and
reinforcement depends on the how strong the interface is. For strong interface, the
material should possess good wettability. Sometimes it can be attained by varying the
chemical composition of materials but it's not suggestible since it is difficult to achieve
because of involvement many subtleties. After various consideration and literature
survey, Aluminium 7075-T6 alloy of aluminium alloy 7xxx series selected as matrix
material reason being its good machinability, relatively low cost and also strength is
also good.
Heat treated Aluminium 7075 :
The T6 Temper is usually achieved by homogenizing the cast 7075 at 450 °C for
several hours, quenching and then aging at 120 °C for 24 hours. This yields the peak
strength of the 7075 alloy.
Aluminium alloys have a wide range of applications in different industries due to their
unique properties such as high strength, low density, corrosion resistance, and excellent
machinability. One such aluminium alloy that has gained significant attention in the
aerospace and automotive industries is the Aluminium 7075-T6 alloy. Aluminium
7075 is a high-strength alloy with excellent mechanical properties, making it an ideal
choice for various applications that require a lightweight yet robust material. This paper
aims to provide a detailed introduction to Aluminium 7075, including its composition,
properties, processing methods, and applications.
22
Properties:
The Aluminium 7075-T6 alloy has excellent mechanical properties that make it a
popular choice for high-stress applications. Here are some of the key properties of
Aluminium7075:
High strength: Aluminium 7075 has a high strength-to-weight ratio, making it one of
the strongest aluminium alloys available. It has a tensile strength of 572 MPa and a
yield strength of 503 MPa.
Low density: Aluminium 7075 has a density of 2.81 g/cm³, which is lower than that
of many other metals.
Corrosion resistance: Aluminium 7075 has excellent corrosion resistance, making it
suitable for use in harsh environments.
Good machinability: Aluminium 7075 is relatively easy to machine, which makes it
a popular choice for complex parts.

Physical and Thermal Properties of Aluminium 7075-T6 alloy:

Table 3.1 – Properties of Aluminium 7075-T6 alloy
Properties Value
Melting point 477-635 °C (890-1175 °F)
Modulus of Elasticity 71.7 GPa (10.4 x 103 psi)
Poisson’s Ratio 0.33
Density 2.81 g/cm3 (0.101 lb/in3)
Co-Efficient of Thermal Expansion (20-100 C) 24.3 µm/m °C
Thermal Conductivity 135 W/mK

Processing methods:
Aluminium 7075 can be processed using a range of methods, including forging,
extrusion, and machining. Forging is a popular method for producing complex parts
with high strength and low weight. Extrusion is commonly used for producing long,
continuous shapes such as tubes and rods. Machining is used to produce complex parts
23
with high accuracy and tight tolerances.
Applications: Aluminium 7075 has a wide range of applications in different industries,
including aerospace, automotive, marine, and sports equipment. Here are some of the
common applications of Aluminium 7075.
Aerospace: Aluminium 7075 is widely used in the aerospace industry for making
aircraft parts such as wings, fuselages, and landing gear.
Automotive: Aluminium 7075 is used in the automotive industry for making parts
such as engine blocks, suspension components, and wheels.
Marine: Aluminium 7075 is used in the marine industry for making boat parts such as
masts, booms, and rigging.
Sports equipment: Aluminium 7075 is used in the manufacture of sports equipment
such as bicycle frames, tennis racquets, and camping gear.
Defense: Aluminium 7075 is also used in the defense industry for making weapons
components, vehicle armor, and other military equipment.
Composition: Aluminium 7075 is an alloy made of aluminium, zinc, magnesium, and
copper, with small amounts of chromium and manganese. The chemical composition
of Aluminium 7075 is as follows:

Chemical Composition of Al 7075:

Table 3.2 – composition of aluminium 7075-T6 alloy

Alloy Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Others

7075 0.4 0.5 1-1.2 0.3 2.1-2.9 0.18-0.28 0.51-0.61 0.2 Bal

3.1.2 Reinforcements:
The prime objective of reinforcing material in the composite to advance the properties
like strength, stiffness and temperature resistance and also it helps to decrease the
density of MMC. To accomplish the stated properties, the choice of reinforcements
should be by considering the type of reinforcement, size & shape of the reinforcement

24
and method of process and also its chemical compatibility with the matrix. After
carrying out the literature review and according to the scope of the study selected
reinforcement are:
3.1.1.1 Silicon Carbide (SiC)
3.1.1.2 Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)
3.1.1.3 Fly Ash
3.1.2.1 Silicon Carbide (SiC):
Silicon carbide is a compound which is composed of carbon and silicon atoms
with a strongbond in the crystal lattice. This leads to the production of the strong and
hard material. SiC has high thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion, and
impressive strength and it gives the material a very good thermal shock resistance
property. SiC is considered as a very good abrasive and used to produce grinding
wheels and some other abrasive products. SiC is used to produce many parts like
turbine components, seals and bearings, ball halve parts, heat exchangers,
semiconductor process equipment, floor tiles etc.

Fig no: 3.1 Silicon Carbide (SiC)

25
Properties of Silicon Carbide (SiC):
Table 3.3 – Properties of Silicon Carbide
Properties Value
Melting Point 2200-2700 C
̊
Density 3.2 g/cm3
Hardness 2800 kg/mm2
Co-Efficient of thermal expansion 4 µm/m C
̊
Elastic Modulus 410 Gpa
Poisson’s Ratio 0.14

3.1.2.2 Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3):

Aluminium oxide is also acknowledged as alumina and in its crystalline form, it
is known as corundum. It has very decent mechanical properties and available at very
reasonable priced. Mostly used to make aluminium metal also sometimes used in
abrasive reason being its hardness property. It has high melting point and because of
this it is also used as a refractory material. Aluminium possesses properties like high
wear resistant, good hardness and good thermal conductivity and also has high
strength andstiffness.

Fig no:3.2 Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)

26
Properties of Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3):
Table 3.4 – Properties of aluminium oxide
Properties Value
Melting Point 2072 C
̊
Density 3.69 g/cm3
Hardness 1175 kg/mm2
Co-Efficient of thermal expansion 8.1 µm/m C
̊
Elastic Modulus 300 gPa
Poisson’s Ratio 0.21

3.1.2.3 Fly Ash

Fly ash is a byproduct of burning coal or other materials in thermal power
plants, and it consists of small, spherical particles that are typically 0.5 to 100 microns
in size. Fly ash properties can vary depending on the source of the coal, the type of
combustion process used, and the collection method used to capture the fly ash.

Fig no:3.3 Fly Ash

27
Some common properties of fly ash include:
Particle size distribution: The particle size distribution of fly ash can vary depending
on the combustion process used. Fly ash particles can be classified into three main
categories: coarse, fine, and ultrafine.
Chemical composition: The chemical composition of fly ash can vary depending on
the source of the coal used and the combustion process. Typically, fly ash consists of
silicon dioxide (SiO2), Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), iron oxide (Fe2O3), calcium oxide
(CaO), and magnesium oxide (MgO).
Pozzolanic activity: Fly ash has pozzolanic properties, which means that it can react
with lime in the presence of water to form cementitious compounds. This property
makes fly ash a useful material for use in cement and concrete.
Color: Fly ash is typically gray or tan in color.
Density: The density of fly ash can vary depending on the particle size distribution,
but it is typically in the range of 1.0 to 2.5 g/cm³.
Porosity: Fly ash has a high porosity, which makes it a good material for use in
lightweight concrete.
Toxicity: Fly ash can contain trace amounts of heavy metals, which can be a concern
for human health and the environment. However, proper handling and disposal can
mitigate these risks
Melting Point: Fly ash is a non-crystalline material and does not have a well-defined
melting point. However, the softening temperature of fly ash is typically between
950°C and 1050°C, depending on the composition and particle size of the fly ash.
Density: The density of fly ash can vary depending on its chemical composition and
particle size distribution. Generally, the density of fly ash ranges from 1.0 to 2.5 g/cm³,
which is lower than that of most construction materials.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion: The Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) of
fly ash is typically lower than that of most construction materials. The CTE of fly ash
can range from 5 to 15 µm/m·°C, depending on the composition and particle size
distribution of the fly ash.
28
Elastic Modulus: The elastic modulus of fly ash can vary depending on its chemical
composition, particle size distribution, and other factors. The elastic modulus of fly ash
concrete is generally lower than that of regular concrete, but it can be improved by
using high-strength fibers or by increasing the amount of fly ash.

3.2 Composite Fabrication

3.2.1 Stir Casting
Stir-casting techniques are currently the simplest and most commercial method
of production of MMCs. This approach involves mechanical mixing of the
reinforcement particulate into a molten metal bath and transferred the mixture directly
to a shaped mould prior to complete solidification. In this process, the crucial thing is
to create good wetting between the particulate reinforcement and the molten metal.
Stir-casting technique is one such simplest and cost effective method to fabricate metal
matrix composites which has been adopted by many researchers. This method is most
economical to fabricate composites with discontinuous fibres and particulates and was
used in this work to obtain the as cast specimens. Care was taken to maintain an
optimum casting parameter of pouring temperature (650°C) and stirring time (15 min).
The reinforcements were preheated prior to their addition in the aluminium alloy melt.
Degassing agent (hexachloride ethane) was used to reduce gas porosities. The molten
metal was then poured into a permanent cast iron mould of diameter 26mm and length
300mm. The die was released after 6 hours and the cast specimens were taken out.
The dimension of the work piece is 60 mm X 60 mm X 25 mm as per ASTM standard.

Fig no:3.4 Stir casting furnace

29
 Fig no:3.5. Fabricated specimens

Table 3.5-Optimized Values

Standard Silicon Aluminium Oxide

Experiment Carbide (%) Fly Ash (%) (%)
Number
1 5 5 5
2 5 8 8
3 5 11 11
4 8 5 8
5 8 8 11
6 8 11 5
7 11 5 11
8 11 8 5
9 11 11 8

30
 CHAPTER 4
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

4.1 Introduction
Design of Experiment (DOE) is one of the important and powerful statistical
techniques to study the effect of multiple variables simultaneously and involves a series
of steps which must follow a certain sequence for the experiment to yield an improved
understanding of process performance. All designed experiments require a certain
number of combinations of factors and levels be tested in order to observe the results
of those test conditions. Taguchi approach relies on the assignment of factors in
specific orthogonal arrays to determine those test combinations. The DOE process is
made up of three main phases: the planning phase, the conducting phase, and the
analysis phase. A major step in the DOE process is the determination of the
combination of factors and levels which will provide the desired information.

Analysis of the experimental results uses a signal to noise ratio to aid in the
determination of the best process designs. This technique has been successfully used
by researchers in the study of wet sliding wear behaviour of composites. These methods
focus on improving the design of manufacturing processes. In the present work, a plan
order for performing the experiments was generated by Taguchi method using
orthogonal arrays. This method yields the rank of various parameters with the level of
significance of influence of a factor or the interaction of factors on a particular output
response.

4.2 Optimization
Optimization is the discipline of adjusting the process in order to optimize the process
parameters without violating some constrains. The various optimization processes are
as follows:

31
 • Simulated annealing
• Genetic algorithm
• Taguchi method
• Gradient- based search
• Response surface methodology

4.3 Taguchi Method

A large number of experiments have to be carried out when the number of
the process parameters increases. To solve this problem, the Taguchi method uses a
special design of orthogonal arrays that helps to study the entire parameter space with
only a small number of experiments. Taguchi’s techniques consist of an experimental
plan to obtain information about the behaviour of a process. Taguchi recommends
analyzing the mean response for each run in the inner array, and he also suggests
analyzing variation using an appropriately chosen signal-to-noise ratio (S/N).These
S/N ratios are derived from the quadratic loss function and among the three, the
following is “Lower – the – best” is considered to be standard and widely applicable:
Where y is the average of observed data, variation of y, n is the number of observations.
𝑛
𝑆 1 1
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = −10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ∑ 2
𝑁 𝑛 𝑦
𝑖=1
The optimal setting is the parameter combination that has highest S/N ratio. The
statistical analysis of the data is performed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) to study
the contribution of the factor and interactions and to explore the effects of each process
on the observed value.
The Taguchi method involves reducing the variation in a process through robust
design of experiments. The overall objective of the method is to produce high quality
product at low cost to the manufacturer. The Taguchi method was developed by Dr.
Genichi Taguchi of Japan who maintained that variation. Therefore, poor quality in a
process affects not only the manufacturer but also society.

32
 He developed a method for designing experiments to investigate how different
parameters affect the mean and variance of a process performance characteristic that
defines how well the process is functioning. The experimental design proposed by
Taguchi involves using orthogonal arrays to organize the parameters affecting the
process and the levels at which they should be varied; it allows for the collection of the
necessary data to determine which factors most affect product quality with a minimum
amount of experimentation, thus saving time and resources. Analysis of variance on
the collected data from the Taguchi design of experiments can be used to select new
parameter values to optimize the performance characteristic.
4.3.1 Summary of Taguchi Method
The general steps involved in the Taguchi Method are as follows:
1. Define the process objective, or more specifically, a target value for a
performance measure of the process. This may be a flow rate, temperature, etc. The
target of a process may also be a minimum or maximum; for example, the goal may be
to maximize the output flow rate. The deviation in the performance characteristic from
the target value is used to define the loss function for the process.
2. Determine the design parameters affecting the process. Parameters are variables
within the process that affect the performance measure such as temperatures, pressures,
etc. that can be easily controlled. The number of levels that the parameters should be
varied at must be specified. increasing the number of levels to vary a parameter at
increases the number of experiments to be conducted.
3. Create orthogonal arrays for the parameter design indicating the number of and
conditions for each experiment. The selection of orthogonal arrays will be discussed in
considerably more detail.
4. Conduct the experiments indicated in the completed array to collect data on the
effect on the performance measure.
5. Complete data analysis to determine the effect of the different parameters on the
performance measure.

33
4.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Taguchi method can be applied by using eight experimental steps that can be
grouped into three major categories as follows:

4.4.1 Planning the experiment

1. Identify the main function of testing process
2. Identify the quality characteristics to be observed and the objective function to
be optimized
3. Identify the control factors and their alternate levels.
4. Identify noise factors and the testing conditions of the process
5. Design the matrix experiment and define the data analysis procedure

4.4.2 Performing the experiment

6. Conduct the matrix experiment

4.4.3 Analyzing and verifying the experimental results

7. Analyzing the data, determining the optimum levels for the control factors, and
predicting the performance under these levels
8. Conducting the verification experiment and planning future actions.

4.4.4 Process parameters

The process parameters for reduce burr height and improve surface roughness:
1. Silicon Carbide
2. Aluminium Oxide
3. Fly ash
For each process parameters three levels were selected which define experimental
region. Significant interactions with control parameters were not considered.

34
 Table 4.1 Control factors of process parameters and their levels

Sl. No. Factor Control factor Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Silicon Carbide
1 A 5 8 11
(wt %)
Aluminium
2 B Oxide 5 8 11
(wt %)
Fly Ash
3 C 5 8 11
(wt %)
The factors and their levels were given in the table above. Each factor was
considered at three levels, Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3 respectively. The values of
each factors at each level was also displayed. The range in which the process lies was
given in the range column.

4.5 Steps in Experimental Layout

Step 1: List factors, levels and interactions
Table 4.2 Various control factor designations of process parameters
Sl. No. Factor Control factor Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
1 A Silicon Carbide(wt %) 5 (A1) 8(A2) 11(A3)
2 B Aluminium Oxide(wt %) 5 (B1) 8(B2) 11 (B3)
Fly Ash 5 8 11
3 C
(wt %) (C1) (C2) (C3)
Step 2: Find degrees of freedom
Degrees of freedom =number of levels – 1
Degrees of freedom of A = 3-1 = 2
Step 3: Compute total degrees of freedom
Total degrees of freedom = Degrees of freedom of (A+ B+ C)
= 2+2+2 = 6

35
Step 4: Calculate minimum number of experiments
Minimum number of experiments = Total degrees of freedom + 1
= 6+1= 7experiments
Step 5: Choose the nearest orthogonal array
Orthogonal array = L9 Array
Total number of experiments = L3 = 33=27experiments
(full factorial experiment)
Number of experiments to be conducted =9 experiments
(Partial factorial experiment)
Step 6: Construct the orthogonal array L9 (33)
Step 7: Experimental layout
Table 4.3 Standard L9 Orthogonal array table
Standard
experiment Silicon Fly Ash Aluminium
number Carbide Oxide
1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2
3 1 3 3
4 2 1 2
5 2 2 3
6 2 3 1
7 3 1 3
8 3 2 1
9 3 3 2

36
 Table 4.4: Experimental layout of process parameters for optimization
Standard Silicon Aluminium
Fly Ash
Experiment Carbide Oxide
(%)
Number (%) (%)
1 5 5 5
2 5 8 8
3 5 11 11
4 8 5 8
5 8 8 11
6 8 11 5
7 11 5 11
8 11 8 5
9 11 11 8

4.6 MULTI-CHARACTERISTICS OPTIMIZATION USING GRA:

Taguchi method is a systematic application of design and analysis of
experiments for the purpose of designing and improving product quality. However, the
original Taguchi method has been designed to optimize the single performance
characteristics. According to Phadke (1989), it is difficult to optimize multi-response
in complex process by Taguchi method and engineering judgments is primarily used
to resolve such a complicated problem. The grey system theory proposed by Deng
(1982) has been proven to be useful for dealing with the problems with poor,
insufficient and uncertain information. The Grey relational analysis (GRA) based on
this theory can further be effectively adopted for solving the complicated
interrelationship among the designated performance characteristics. In recent years,
grey relational analysis has become a powerful tool to analyze the processes with
multiple performance characteristics. Several researchers (Lin and Lin, 2002; Tarng et
al., 2002; Pan et al., 2007) have successfully optimized the process parameters for
multiple performance characteristics in various fields, using grey relational analysis
37
along with Taguchi method. By this analysis, a grey relational grade is obtained to
evaluate the multiple performance characteristics. As a result, optimization of
complicated multiple performance characteristics can be converted into optimization
of a single grey relational grade.
GRA consists of three steps:
I. Data Pre-processing.
II. Calculating the grey relational coefficients.
III. Calculating the grey relational grade

4.7 Data Pre-Processing:

Data pre-processing is usually required when the range or unit in one data
sequence is different from others or the sequence scatter range is too large. Then
implement the data normalization. The determination of which formula to be employed
for data normalization is based on the characteristics of a data sequences. Here the
expectancy is the higher-the-better, because the objective is to get maximum yield
strength, ultimate strength, impact strength of the material. Higher-the-better be
expressed by
Xij = Yij – miniYij
Where Yij is the ith performance characteristic in the jth experiment .maxi Yij and mini
Yij are the maximum and minimum values of ith performance characteristic for alternate
j, respectively.
4.7.1 Grey Relational Co-efficient (GRC) Calculation
The Grey relational co-efficient is calculated to represent the relationship between the
desired and actual data. Grey relational co-efficient (GRC) is
4.7.2 Grey Relational Grade Determination
The grey relational grade is computed by averaging the grey relational
coefficient corresponding to each performance characteristics. The overall evaluation
of the multiple performance characteristics is based on the grey relational grade
Where the grey relational grade for the jth experiment and m is is the number of

38
performance characteristics. According to grey relational theory Higher the grey
relational grade better is the product quality.
4.8 Hardness Testing:
The Metals Handbook defines hardness as "Resistance of metal to plastic
deformation, usually by indentation. However, the term may also refer to stiffness or
temper, or to resistance to scratching, abrasion, or cutting. It is the property of a metal
that gives the ability to resist being permanently deformed (bent, broken, or have its
shape changed), when a load is applied. The greater the hardness of the metal, the
greater resistance it has to deformation. In metallurgy, hardness is defined as the ability
of a material to resist plastic deformation. The dictionary of Metallurgy defines the
hardness as the resistance of a material to indentation. This is the usual type of hardness
test where a pointed or rounded indenter is pressed into a surface under a substantially
static load.
4.8.1 Hardness Measurements:
Hardness measurement can be defined as macro-, micro- or nano- scale
according to the forces applied and displacements obtained. Measurement of macro-
hardness is a quick and simple method to obtain mechanical property data for the bulk
material from a small sample. It is also widely used for the quality control of surface
treatments processes. However, when concerned with coatings and surface properties
(important to friction and wear processes), the macro-indentation depth would be too
large relative to the surface- scale features.
Where materials have a fine microstructure, are multi-phase, non-homogeneous or
prone to cracking, macro-hardness measurements will be highly variable and will not
identify individual surface features. It is here that micro-hardness measurements are

39
appropriate. Microhardness is the hardness of a material as determined by forcing an
indenter such asa Vickers or Knoop indenter into the surface of the material under 15
to 1000 gf load; usually, the indentations are so small that they must be measured with
a microscope. Capable of determining hardness of different microconstituents within a
structure, or measuring steep hardness gradients such as those encountered in case
hardening. Conversions from microhardness values to tensile strength and other
hardness scales (e.g. Rockwell) are available for many metals and alloys . Micro-
indenters work by pressing a tip into a sample and continuously measuring: applied
load, penetration depth and cycle time.
4.8.2 Hardness Measurement Methods
There are three types of tests used with accuracy by the metals industry; they
are the Rockwell hardness test, the Brinell hardness test, and the Vickers hardness test.
Since the definitions of metallurgic ultimate strength and hardness are fairly similar, it
can generally be assumed that a strong metal is also a hard metal. The way the three of
these hardness tests measure a metal's hardness is to determine the metal's resistance
to the penetration of a non-deformable ball or cone. The tests determine the depth the
ball or cone will sink into the metal, under a given load, within a specific period of
time. The following are the most common hardness test methods used in today`s
technology:
• Rockwell Hardness test
• Brinell Hardness
• Vickers Hardness
• Knoop Hardness
4.9.3 Rockwell Hardness Test
The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on the net increase in
depth of impression as a load is applied. Hardness numbers have no units and are
commonly given in the R, L, M, E and K scales. The higher the number in each of the
scales means the harder the material.
Hardness has been variously defined as resistance to local penetration, scratching,
40
machining, wear or abrasion, and yielding. The multiplicity of definitions, and
corresponding multiplicity of hardness measuring instruments, together with the lack
of a fundamental definition, indicates that hardness may not be a fundamental property
of a material, but rather a composite one including yield strength, work hardening, true
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and others. In the Rockwell method of
hardness testing, the depth of penetration of an indenter under certain arbitrary test
conditions is determined. The indenter may either be a steel ball of some specified
diameter or a spherical diamond-tipped cone of 120 angle and 0.2 mm tip radius,
called Brale. The type of indenter and the test load determine the hardness scale (A,
B, C, etc). A minor load of 10 kg is first applied, which causes an initial penetration
and holds the indenter in place. Then, the dial is set to zero and the major load is
applied. Upon removal of the major load, the depth reading is taken while the minor
load is still on. The hardness number may then be read directly from the scale. The
hardness of ceramic substrates can be determined by the Rockwell hardness test,
according to the specifications of ASTM E-18. This test measures the difference in
depth caused by two different forces, using a dial gauge. Using standard hardness
conversion tables, the Rockwell hardness value is determined for the load applied, the
diameter of the indenter, and the indentation depth.
The hardness testing of plastics is most commonly measured by the Rockwell hardness
test or Shore (Durometer D) hardness test. Both methods measure the resistance of the
plastic toward indentation. Both scales provide an empirical hardness value that doesn't
correlate to other properties or fundamental characteristics. Rockwell hardness is
generally chosen for 'harder' plastics such as nylon, polycarbonate, polystyrene, and
acetal where the resiliency or creep of the polymer is less likely to affect the results.
The results obtained from this test are a useful measure of relative resistance to
indentation of various grades of plastics. However, the Rockwell hardness test does not
serve well as a predictor of other properties such as strength or resistance to scratches,
abrasion, or wear, and should not be used alone for product design specifications.
The Rockwell hardness tester to measure the hardness of metal measures resistance to

41
penetration like the Brinell test, but in the Rockwell case, the depth of the impression
is measured rather than the diametric area. With the Rockwell tester, the hardness is
indicated directly on the scale attached to the machine. This dial like scale is really a
depth gauge, graduated in special units. The Rockwell hardness test is the most used
and versatile of the hardness tests.
In essence, the minor load creates a uniformly shaped surface for the major load to be
applied to. The difference in the depth of the indentation between the minor and major
loads provides the Rockwell hardness number. There are several Rockwell scales other
than the "B" & "C" scales, (which are called the common scales). The other scales also
use a letter for the scale symbol prefix, and many use a different sized steel ball
indenter.
A properly used Rockwell designation will have the hardness number followed by
"HR" (Hardness Rockwell), which will be followed by another letter which indicates
the specific Rockwell scale. An example is 60 HRB, which indicates that the specimen
has a hardness reading of 60 on the B scale. There is a second Rockwell tester referred
to as the "Rockwell Superficial Hardness Tester". This machine works the same as
the standard Rockwell tester, but is used to test thin strip, or lightly carburized
surfaces, small parts or parts that might collapse under the conditions of the regular
test. The Superficial tester uses a reduced minor load, just 3 kilograms, and has the
major load reduced to either 15or 45 kilograms depending on the indenter, which are
the same ones used for the common scales. Using the 1/16" diameter, steel ball
indenter, a "T" is added (meaning thin sheet testing) to the superficial hardness
designation.
An example of a superficial Rockwell hardness is 15T-22, which indicates the
superficial hardness as 22, with a load of 15 kilograms using the steel ball. If the 120
degree diamond cone were used instead, the "T" would be replaced with "N". The
ASTM (American Society for Testing & Materials) has standardized a set of scales
(ranges) for Rockwell hardness testing. Each scale is designated by a letter.

42
 Fig no:4.1: Rockwell hardness testing principle
HR = E - e
F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf,
F1 = additional major load in kgf,
F = total load in kgf,
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1
measured in units of 0.002 mm,
E = a constant depending on form of indenter:
100 units for diamond indenter,
130 units for steel ball indenter,
HR = Rockwell hardness number,
D = diameter of steel ball.
4.8.3 Brinell Hardness Test
Brinell hardness is determined by forcing a hard steel or carbide sphere of a specified
diameter under a specified load into the surface of a material and measuring the
diameter of the indentation left after the test. The Brinell hardness number, or simply
the Brinell number, is obtained by dividing the load used, in kilograms, by the actual
surface area of the indentation, in square millimeters. The result is a pressure
measurement, but the units are rarely stated.

43
 • Micro hardness Test

Fig no:4.2 Vickers Hardness Tester

The Vickers hardness test was developed in 1921 by Robert L. Smith and George E.
Sand land at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure
the hardness of materials. The Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness
tests since the required calculations are independent of the size of the indenter, and the
indenter can be used for all materials irrespective of hardness. The basic principle, as
with all common measures of hardness, is to observe the questioned material's ability
to resist plastic deformation from a standard source. The Vickers test can be used for
all metals and has one of the widest scales among hardness tests. The unit of hardness
given by the test is known as the Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) or Diamond Pyramid
Hardness (DPH). The hardness number can be converted into units of pascals, but
should not be confused with pressure, which also has units of pascals. The hardness
number is determined by the load over the surface area of the indentation and not the
area normal to the force, and is therefore not pressure

44
 Fig no:4.3 Vickers Test Scheme

Fig no:4.4 The pyramidal diamond indenter of a Vickers hardness tester

45
 Fig no:4.5 An indentation left in case-hardened steel after a Vickers hardness test

A series of Vickers hardness test were carried out on welded joints at room temperature
to evaluate the hardness values of welded joints. The specimen preparation and the
magnitude of test force selection were according to the ASTM: E384 -10. The force of
0.500 kgf is selected and the test surface is polished to mirror like finish by using emery
papers up to grade 1500. The Vickers hardness test were conducted on FIE made
Vickers hardness testing machine of model number VM-50.

4.11 CHARPY IMPACT STRENGTH

In order to evaluate the Charpy impact toughness values of welded joints, series of
Charpy V-notch test were carried out on welded joints at room temperature. The
specimens for Charpy test were taken as perpendicularly according to the ASTM: E23.
Notches were prepared exactly at the midpoint of the w composite specimen. The
Charpy V-notch tests were conducted on FIE made Impact testing machine.

46
 Fig no:4.6 ASTM: E23M Impact Specimens

Table-4.5 Data Obtained From Experimental Work

Silicon Impact
Exp. Fly Ash Aluminium Hardness
Carbide strength
No (%) Oxide (%) HV
(%) J/cm2
1 5 5 5 170 2.5
2 5 8 8 171 3.0
3 5 11 11 172 2.5
4 8 5 8 173 3.0
5 8 8 11 175 3.0
6 8 11 5 176 3.5
7 11 5 11 173 3.0
8 11 8 5 171 3.5
9 11 11 8 172 3.0

47
 CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Al7075 with various different reinforcement material specimens was determined
for maximizing the hardness value and impact strength at different reinforcement
material and weight ratio were compared with each other.

5.1. ORTHOGONAL ARRAY EXPERIMENT AND THE S/N RATIO

In this study, an L9 orthogonal array with two columns and 9 rows was used.
This array can handle three-level process parameters. Nine experiments were required
to study the different percentage reinforcement composition of material using the L9
orthogonal array. In order to evaluate the influence of each selected factor on the
responses. The S/N ratios for each control factor had to be calculated. Suitable S/N
ratio must be chosen. It is possible to choose the S/N ratio depending on the aim of the
design. In this study, the S/N ratio was selected according to the criterion the bigger-
the better, in order to maximize the responses. The S/N ratio for ‘‘bigger is better’’
target for all the responses were calculated as follows:

S/N=𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎(y(1/2)/n)

Where y is the average measured tensile strength and “n” the number of
experiment runs, in this study n=9.The experimental lay-out for the process parameters
using the L9 orthogonal array is shown in Table and the responses for S/N ratio are
presented in Table Show how each factor affects the response characteristic. The main
effect plots for S/N ratio exhibited in Fig. created by MINITAB 16.

48
5.2 DATA OBTAINED

5.2.1 Hardness for Al7075 Metal matrix composite

Fig no:5.1 E384 Vickers Hardness Specimens

5.2.2 Charpy Impact Strength

Fig no:5.2 ASTM: E23M Broken Impact Specimens

5.2.3 Vicker Hardness Test

Composite material hardness values are shown in table 5.1

Table: 5.1 Data Obtained From Experimental Work

Impact
Hardness
Ex No strength
HV
J/cm2
1 170 2.5
2 171 3.0
3 172 2.5
4 173 3.0
5 175 3.0
6 176 3.5
7 173 3.0
8 171 3.5
9 172 3.0

49
 Hardness HV

Experimental Run
Impact strength J/cm2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Fig no:5.3 Experimental Data – Hardness and Impact toughness.

5.3 GREY RELATIONAL ANALYSIS

A. Data Pre-processing.
The objective is to get maximum hardness and impact strength of the
composite material. Higher-the-better be expressed by

𝒀𝒊𝒋 − 𝒀𝒊𝒋𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊
𝑿𝒊𝒋 =
𝒀𝒊𝒋𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒀𝒊𝒋𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊

50
 Table: 5.2 Signal-To-Noise Ratios

Impact
Ex No Hardness VHN
strength J/cm2

1 44.6090 7.9588
2 44.6599 9.5424
3 44.7106 7.9588
4 44.7609 9.5424
5 44.8608 9.5424
6 44.9103 10.8814
7 44.7609 9.5424
8 44.6599 10.8814
9 44.7106 9.5424

Table: 5.3 Normalized Signal-To-Noise Ratios

Impact
Hardness
Exp. No strength
VHN
J/cm2
1 0.00 0.00
2 0.17 0.54
3 0.34 0.00
4 0.50 0.54
5 0.84 0.54
6 1.00 1.00
7 0.50 0.54
8 0.17 1.00
9 0.34 0.54

51
B.Grey Relational Co-efficient (GRC) Calculation

The Grey relational co-efficient is calculated to represent the relationship

between the desired and actual data. Grey relational co-efficient (GRC) is

𝟎.𝟓
∈𝑖𝑗 =
[𝟏−𝑿𝒊𝒋]+𝟎.𝟓

Table 5.4 Grey Relational Co-Efficient

Impact
Hardness
Exp. No strength
VHN
J/cm2
1 0.33 0.33

2 0.38 0.52

3 0.43 0.33

4 0.50 0.52

5 0.75 0.52

6 1.00 1.00

7 0.50 0.52

8 0.38 1.00

9 0.43 0.52

C.Grey Relational Grade Determination:

The grey relational grade is computed by averaging the grey relational

coefficient corresponding to each performance characteristics. The overall evaluation
of the multiple performance characteristics is based on the grey relational grade
𝒎
𝜸𝒊𝒋 = 𝟏/𝒎 ∑ ∈𝒊𝒋
𝒊=𝟏

52
 Table 5.5 Evaluated Grey Relational Grade Values

Grey
Ex. No Relational Rank
Grade
1 0.33 9
2 0.45 7
3 0.38 8
4 0.51 5
5 0.64 3
6 1.00 1
7 0.51 4
8 0.69 2
9 0.48 6

1.00
Grey Relational Grade

0.69
0.64
,
0.51 0.51
0.45 0.48
ti 0.38 ,
0.33

Experimental Run

Fig no:5.4 Grey Relational Grades for Al7075 composite hardness and Impact
toughness.

53
 Table- 5.6 Data Response Table For Signal To Noise Ratios

Level Silicon Fly Ash Aluminium

Carbide Oxide
1 0.3879 0.4525 0.6741

2 0.7170 0.5915 0.4790

3 0.5587 0.6196 0.5105

Delta 0.3291 0.1671 0.1952

Rank 1 2 3

(Larger is better)

Main Effects Plot for SN ratios

Data Means

SILICON CARBIDE FLY ASH

-3.0

-4.5

-6.0
Mean of SN ratios

-7.5

-9.0
5 8 11 5 8 11
ALUMINIUM OXIDE
-3.0

-4.5

-6.0

-7.5

-9.0
5 8 11

Signal-to-noise: Larger is better

Fig no: 5.5 Grey Relational Grades SN ratio chart

GRA SN ratio graph was detailed shown above the fig no 5.5 silicon carbide
8%, fly ash 11% and aluminium oxide 5 % are optimum level of reinforcement weight
percentage of the composite material.

54
5.4 OPTIMUM LEVEL PROCESS PARAMETERS

Table- 5.7 Optimum Level Process Parameters for Hardness and Impact Strength

Silicon Carbide Fly ash Aluminium

Oxide
8% 11% 5%

The results for various combinations of parameters were obtained by

conducting the experiment as per the orthogonal array. The measured results were
analyzed using the commercial software MINITAB 16 specifically used for design of
experiment application above the table shows the experimental optimum results for
metal hardness and Impact toughness.

5.5 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) result for Tensile strength

The experimental result was analyzed with analysis of variance (ANOVA)

which was used to investigate the influence parameter significantly affect the
performance measures. By performing analysis of variance, it can be decided which
independent factor dominates over the other and the percentage contribution of that
particular independent variable. Table showed the MMCs of the ANOVA results.

Table-5.8: Results of The Analysis of Variance

Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F %C

Sic 2 0.16249 0.16249 0.08124 3.42 0.226

Fly ash 2 0.04803 0.04803 0.02402 1.01 0.497

Aluminium Oxide 2 0.06587 0.06587 0.03293 1.39 0.419

Error 5 0.04754 0.04754 0.02377

Total 11 0.32393

55
 ANOVA results the fly ash has the highest influence C=49.7 % on hardness and
impact strength of the material. Hence aluminium Oxide is an important control factor
to be taken into consideration then followed by silicon carbide C= 42 %.

5.6 MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION MODELS

A multiple linear regression model was developed using statistical software

“MINITAB 16”. This model gives the relationship between an independent predicted
variable and a response variable by fitting a linear equation to observe data.
Regression equation thus generated establishes correlation between the significant
terms obtained from ANOVA.

5.6.1 The Regression Equation

Hardness =169 + 0.099 Sic + 0.194 Fly ash + 0.103 Al2O3
Impact Toughness= 2.67 + 0.0676 Sic + 0.0203 Fly ash - 0.0449 Al2O3

5.7 CONFIRMATION TEST

A confirmation experiment is the final step in the design process. Experiment
was conducted using specific combination of the parameters and levels to validate the
statistical analysis. The confirmation experiment was conducted based on the output
result.
Table – 5.9 Confirmation Experiment

Aluminium
Ex.No SiC Fly ash
Oxide
3 5% 11% 11%
7 11% 5% 11%

56
Table 5.10 Result of Confirmation Experiment and their comparison with Regression

%
Experimental value Regression Value Error
Impact Impact
Hardness Hardness Impact
strength strength Hardness
HV HV strength
J/cm2 J/cm2

172 2.5 172.762 2.73 0.5 8.5

173 3.0 172.192 3.02 0.4 0.66

The experimental hardness values were found to vary from the hardness values
calculated using the regression equation by an error percentage of between 0.4% and
0.5%. Similarly, the error percentage for impact strength was found to be between 0.6%
and 8.5%. The results obtained from the regression model were found to be in good
agreement with the results of confirmation experiments, indicating that the developed
regression model is capable of predicting both the hardness value and impact value of
the composite material.

57
 CONCLUSION

Following conclusions were drawn from the study.

➢ Optimum level process parameters for hardness and impact strength are 8%
silicon carbide, 11% fly ash, and 5% aluminium oxide.
➢ Fly ash has the highest influence on micro hardness and impact strength in
the resulting MMCs.
➢ The hardness value of Al7075 is improved from 167 to 176 HV
➢ Evaluating the mechanical properties of MMCs using different reinforcement
materials is important for aerospace applications.
➢ The use of reinforcement materials, such as silicon carbide, fly ash, and
aluminium oxide, can help in the development of MMCs with improved
mechanical properties.
➢ The ANOVA results can help in determining the influence of different
reinforcement materials on the mechanical properties of MMCs.
➢ The regression model can accurately predict the mechanical properties of
MMCs, such as hardness and impact strength.
➢ The development of MMCs with improved mechanical properties is crucial
for various industries, including aerospace, automotive, and manufacturing.

58
APPENDIX

59
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61