Heat flow

The heat is removed by convection, conduction and radiation. Usually, the convection through
air, liquid or steam is the most significant method of heat transfer. Forced convection is,
inevitably, the most efficient cooling method if we do not take direct water cooling into account.
The cooling design for forced convective cooling is also straightforward: the designer has to
ensure that a large enough amount of coolant flows through the machine. This means that the
cooling channels have to be large enough. If a machine with open-circuit cooling is of IP class
higher than IP 20, using heat exchangers to cool the coolant may close the coolant flow.

If the motor is flange mounted, a notable amount of heat can be transferred through the flange of
the machine to the device operated by the motor. The proportion of heat transfer by radiation is
usually moderate, yet not completely insignificant. A black surface of the machine in particular
promotes heat transfer by radiation.

Conduction

There are two mechanisms of heat transfer by conduction: first, heat can be transferred by
molecular interaction, in which molecules at a higher energy level (at a higher temperature)
release energy for adjacent molecules at a lower energy level via lattice vibration. Heat transfer
of this kind is possible between solids, liquids and gases. The second means of conduction is heat
transfer between free electrons. This is typical of liquids and pure metals in particular. The
number of free electrons in alloys varies considerably, whereas in materials other than metals,
the number of free electrons is small. The thermal conductivity of solids depends directly on the
number of free electrons. Pure metals are the best heat conductors. Fourier’s law gives the heat
flow transferred by conduction.

Temperature rise

The temperature rise of a machine depends on the power loss per cooling area S.

In electrical machines, the design of heat transfer is of equal importance as the electromagnetic
design of the machine, because the temperature rise of the machine eventually determines the
maximum output power with which the machine is allowed to be constantly loaded. As a matter
of fact, accurate management of heat and fluid transfer in an electrical machine is a more
difficult and complicated issue than the conventional electromagnetic design of an electrical
machine. However, as shown previously in this material, problems related to heat transfer can to
some degree be avoided by utilizing empirical knowledge of the machine constants available.
When creating completely new constructions, empirical knowledge is not enough, and thorough
modeling of the heat transfer is required. Finally, prototyping and measurements verify the
successfulness of the design. The problem of temperature rise is twofold: first, in most motors,
adequate heat removal is ensured by convection in air, conduction through the fastening surfaces
of the machine and radiation to ambient. In machines with a high power density, direct cooling
methods can also be applied. Sometimes even the winding of the machine is made of copper
pipe, through which the coolant flows during operation of the machine. The heat transfer of
electrical machines can be analyzed adequately with a fairly simple equation for heat and fluid
transfer.

The most important factor in thermal design is, however, the temperature of ambient fluid, as it
determines the maximum temperature rise with the heat tolerance of the insulation. Second, in
addition to the question of heat removal, the distribution of heat in different parts of the machine
also has to be considered. This is a problem of heat diffusion, which is a complicated three-
dimensional problem involving numerous elements such as the question of heat transfer from the
conductors over the insulation to the stator frame. It should be borne in mind that the various
empirical equations are to be employed with caution. The distribution of heat in the machine can
be calculated when the distribution of losses in different parts of the machine and the heat
removal power are exactly known. In transients, the heat is distributed completely differently
than in the stationary state. For instance, it is possible to overload the motor considerably for a
short period of time by storing the excess heat in the heat capacity of the machine

Rating of machines

Rating of a motor is the power output or the designated operating power limit based upon certain
definite conditions assigned to it by the manufacturer.

The rating of machine refer to the whole of the numerical values of electrical and mechanical
quantities with their duration and sequence assigned to the machines by the manufacturer and
stated on the rating plate, the machine complying with the specified conditions.
Standard specifications

1. Output : kW (for generators), kW or Hp (for motors)

2. Voltage : V volt
3. Speed : N rpm

4. Rating : Continuous or Short time

5. Temperature rise: θ0C for an ambient temperature of 400C

6. Cooling : Natural or forced cooling

7. Type: Generator or motor, separately excited or self-excited-shunt, series, or compound, if

compound type of connection – long or short shunt, type of compounding – cumulative or
differential, degree of compounding – over, under or level. With or without inter poles, with or
without compensating windings,with or without equalizer rings in case of lap winding.
8. Voltage regulation ( in case of generators) : Range and method

9. Speed control ( in case of motors ) : range and method of control

10. Efficiency: must be as for as possible high (As the efficiency increases, cost of the machine
also increases).

11. Type of enclosure: based on the field of application – totally enclosed, screen protected, drip
proof, flame proof, etc.,

12. Size of the machine etc.,

HEATING AND COOLING CURVES (Temperature Rise Time Curves)

A machine can be considered as a homogeneous body developing heat internally at uniform rate
and dissipating heat proportionately to its temperature rise,

RELATION SHIP BETWEEN TEMPERATURE RISE AND TIME

Let,

Assume that a machine attains a temperature rise after the lapse of time t seconds.

In an element of time “dt” a small temperature rise “d” takes place.

Then,

Heat developed = p.dt

Heat developed = Gh.dq

Heat dissipated = Sql. dt

Therefore, total heat developed=heat stored + heat dissipated

Where is called as heating time constant and it has the dimensions of time.
Heating time constant

Heating time constant is defined as the time taken by the machine to attain 0.623 of its final
steady temperature rise.

The value of heating time constant is larger for poorly ventilated machines with large or totally
enclosed machines, the heating time constant may reach several hours or even days.
When a hot body is cooling due to reduction of the losses developed in it, the temperature time
curve is again an exponential function
Magnetic leakage calculations
Leakage factor or Leakage coefficient LC
All the flux produced by the pole will not pass through the desired path i.e., air gap. Some of the
flux produced by the pole will be leaking away from the air gap. The flux that passes through the
air gap and cut by the armature conductors is the useful flux and that flux that leaks away from
the desired path is the leakage flux

Unbalanced magnetic pull

The unbalanced magnetic pull is the radial force acting on the rotor due to non uniform air gap
around the armature periphery.
insulation will be reduced by half for every 10 ºC rise in temperature. The present day trend is to
design the machine using class F insulation for class B temperature rise.

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
The magnetic circuit is the path of magnetic flux The mmf of the circuit creates flux in the path by
overcoming the reluctance of the path. The magnetic circuit is analogous to an electric circuit. In
electric circuit the emf circulated current against resistance when a closed path is provided Similarly,
in a magnetic circuit the mmf created flux in a closed path against reluctance of the part.
A coil wound on an iron core with N turns and carrying a current of I Amperes, then mmf is given
by the product of number of turns and current
Mmf = NI (Ampere Turns)
Flux= mmf/Reluctance

The reluctance of the magnetic material can be estimated fusing the following equation

The strength of the magnetic field is measure by the term magnetizing force, H. It is the mmf required
to establish flux in a unit length of magnetic path.
magnetizing force, H = mmf per unit length = flux x reluctance per unit length

For the magnetic length of ,l, and carrying a uniform flux, the total mmf AT is

In a series magnetic circuit, the total reluctance is the sum of reluctances of individual
parts.
Total Reluctance S = S1 + S 2 + S 3
Where S1, S 2, S 3 ,… are reluctances of individual
Total mmf, AT = ØS1+ ØS2 +ØS3
= Ø(S1+S2+S3)

8
The above equation represent the circuital law for magnetic circuits, where at1, at2, at3 are the mmf
per meter for the individual part and l1 , l2 , l3 are lengths of parts connected in series.
In Parallel circuits, the same mmf is applied to each of the parallel paths and the total flux divides
between the paths in inverse proportion to their reluctances.
Total flux= Ø1+ Ø2+ Ø3

The table 4 shows the comparison of Electrical and magnetic circuit.

Table 4. Electrical and Magnetic Circuit comparison

Electrical Circuit Magnetic Circuit

The emf circulates current in closed The mmf creates flux in a closed
path path

Flow of current is opposed by resistance The creation of flux is opposed by

of the circuit reluctance of the circuit

The path of current is called electric The path of flux is called magnetic
circuit circuit.

Resistance, R = l / A Reluctance S = l/A

Current = emf / Resistance Flux = mmf / Reluctance

Current Density  = Current / Unit Area Flux Density, B = Flux / Area of

cross section

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS – FLUX PATH IN ELECTRIAL MACHINES

9
 The figure 1 shows the flux path in various electrical machines.

Figure 1. Flux path in various electrical machines

RELUCTANCE OF AIR GAP IN MACHINES
1. With Smooth Armature :
The rotating machines will have a small air-gap between armature and pole surface.
Smooth armature surfaces are possible only if the armature has closed slots.
L = Length of core
lg = air gap length
ys = slot pitch
Ws = width of slot
Wt = width of teeth

10
Consider the armature with closed slots, the flux is uniformly spread over the entire slot pitch and
goes straight across the air gap. The figure 2 shows the reluctance of air gap with smooth armature

Figure 2. Reluctance of air gap with smooth armature

The reluctance, S of a magnetic path is given by = l / A
Where, l = Length of magnetic path
 = Permeability of the medium
A = Area of cross section of the magnetic path.
Consider the area of cross section of the magnetic path over one slot of the armature. It is given by
the product of length of armature and slot pitch. Hence the reluctance of air gap can be given as,
Where Sg = reluctance of air gap
lg = length of air gap
o = permeability of air
L ys = area of cross section of air gap over one slot.
With Open Armature :
In armature with open and semi enclosed slots, the flux will flow through the teeth of the armature.
Hence the effective area of flux path is decreased, which results in increased reluctance in air gap.
Reluctance of air gap neglecting fringing effect:
In open type slots, consider the flux is only confined to the width of teeth.
Area of cross section of air gap through which the flux passes is L(ys-ws) or Lwt.
Hence the reluctance of air gap in machines with open armature slots

lg
Sg =
 0 L( y S − WS )
The figure 3 shows the open armature slots with neglecting fringing effect.

11
Figure 3. Reluctance of air gap of machines with open armature slots.
Reluctance of air gap including the effect of fringing
In the case of armature with open type slots, the flux would fringe around the teeth and this fringing
would increase the area of cross section of flux path. Consider the open type slots of armature, the
fringing of flux around the teeth increasing the area of cross section of flux path by Ws. Assume the
air gap flux is uniformly distributed over the whole slot pitch except for a fraction of slot width. The
figure 4 shows the reluctance of air gap of machines with effect of fringing.

Figure 4. Reluctance of air gap of machines with effect of fringing.

i.e. flux distributed over one slot pitch is given by Wt. + Ws.
Effective slot pitch, ys’ = Wt. + Ws
By adding and subtracting Ws,

12
Hence the reluctance of air gap in machines with open armature slots

lg
Sg =
 0 Ly S '
lg
Sg =
 0 L( y S − K CSWS )

GAP CONTRACTION FACTOR FOR SLOTS Kgs

The gap contraction factor for slots is defined as the ratio of reluctance of air gap in machine with
open armature slot to reluctance of air gap machine with smooth armature.
Reluctance of air gap in machine with open armature slot
Kgs = -------------------------------------------------------------------------
Reluctance of air gap machine with smooth armature.

lg
 0 L( y S − K CS WS )
K gs =
lg
 0 Ly S

lg  0 Ly S
= 
 0 L( yS − K CSWS ) lg

yS
=
yS − K CSWS
yS
K gs =
yS '
CARTERS GAP COEFFICIENT FOR SLOTS KCS
The Carter’s gap coefficient for slots Kcs depends on the ratio of slot opening to gap length

1
K CS =
lg
1+ 5
W0
Where W0 = Slot opening. (W0 = Ws in open type slot).

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EFFECT OF VENTILATING DUCTS IN RELUCTANCE OF AIR GAP
When the length of the armature is higher than the diameter or when the length is greater
than 0.1 m, radial ventilating ducts are provided for better cooling of the armature core. The radial
ventilating ducts are small gaps of width Wd in between the stacks of armature core. The core is
normally divided into stacks of 40 – 80 mm thick, with ventilating ducts of width 10 mm in between
two stacks.
The provision of radial ventilating ducts results in contraction of flux in the axial length
of the machine is reduced and this results in an increase in the reluctance of air gap. The figure 5
shows the radial ventilating ducts.

Figure 5. Radial ventilating ducts for cooling.

Axial Length L’ = L – Kcd nd Wd
Where, Kcd = Carter’s co-efficient for ducts
nd = number of ducts
Wd = width of ducts
The reluctance of air gap in machines with smooth armature slots and with ventilating duct

lg
Sg =
 0 L' y S
The reluctance of air gap in machines with open armature slots and with ventilating duct

lg
Sg =
 0 L' y S '
The Carter’s gap coefficient for ducts Kcd depends on the ratio of width of duct to gap length

1
K Cd =
lg
1+ 5
Wd

14
Where Wd = Width of duct
GAP CONTRACTION FACTOR FOR DUCT Kgd
The gap contraction factor for ducts is defined as the ratio of reluctance of air gap in machine
with radial ducts to reluctance of air gap machine without armature radial ducts.
Kgd = Reluctance of air gap in machine with radial ducts
Reluctance of air gap machine without radial ducts

lg
 0 L' y S )
K gd =
lg
 0 Ly S
lg 0 Ly S
= 
 0 L' y S lg

L
K gd =
L'
TOTAL GAP CONTRACTION FACTOR Kg
The gap contraction factor Kg is defined as the ratio of reluctance of air gap in machine with slotted
armature and radial ducts to reluctance of air gap machine with smooth armature and without
armature ducts.

The gap contraction factor

lg
 0 L' y S ' )
Kg =
lg
 0 Ly S
lg  0 Ly S
= 
 0 L' yS ' lg

L yS
=
L' y S '

K g = K gs K gd

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The gap contraction factor is the product of gap contraction factor for slots and ducts.
TOTAL GAP CONTRACTION FACTOR FOR INDUCTION MOTOR
In Induction motor both the rotor and stator has slots.
Therefore, the gap contraction factor should be computed for both the stator and the rotor.
Kgs = Kgss Kgsr
Where, Kgs = Total gap contraction factor for slots
Kgss = Gap contraction factor for stator slots
Kgsr = Gap contraction factor for rotor slots
In Induction motor, the total gap contraction factor is given by the product of gap contraction
factor for stator and rotor.
MMF FOR AIR GAP
Non- magnetic materials have a constant value of permeability and so the B-H curve for them is a
straight line passing through the origin. MMF per meter path in non- magnetic material

B B
at g = = = 800,000 B in AT/ m
0 4  10 −7
Where, B = Flux density in the non magnetic material
0 = Permeability of non magnetic material
Bav Bav
atg = = = 800,000Bav
mmf per meter for air gap=  4 10−7

Where, Bav = Average Flux density in the air gap

 = 0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m - Permeability of air gap
If lg is the length of air gap, then
mmf per meter for air gap of length lg in machines with smooth armature

ATg = 800,000Bavl g
MMF of air gap in machines with open armature slot and radial ventilating ducts
The reluctance of air gap in machines with open armature slots is higher than with smooth armatures.
The mmf required for air gap in machines with open armature slot is Kg times the mmf required for
air gap in machines with smooth armature.
mmf required for air gap in machines with open armature slot and ducts

ATg = K g  800,000Bavl g

ATg = 800,000Bav K g l g

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Effect of Saliency on the mmf for air gap
In the case of salient pole machines, the length of air gap is not constant over the whole pole pitch.
To find the mmf in this case, we c of an consider the length of air gap as an effective gap given by
Kgsal lg, where Kgsal is the gap contraction factor for salient poles. The figure 6 shows the mmf for air
gap influenced by the salient pole.

Figure 6. MMF for air gap for salient pole machines.

mmf required for air gap in salient pole machines

ATg = 800,000Bg K g l g

Where, Kg = Kgs Kgd Kgsal

Kg is the total gap contraction factor for including the effect of saliency
Field Form Factor Kf
Average gap density over the pole pitch
Field form factor, Kf = ---------------------------------------------------------
Maximum flux density in the air gap
Bav
=
Bg

Pole.arc
Also, K f =  =
Pole. ptich

Bav Bav
Bg = =
Kf 

MMF FOR TEETH

The mmf required for teeth depends on area of cross section of the tooth and flux passing through it.
The area of cross section depends on dimensions of teeth. Dimension intern depends on the type of
slot. The figure 7 shows the different dimensions of teeth.

Figure 7. Different dimensions of teeth

17