‭CS Databases‬

‭Knowledge:‬
CS Option A: HL

‭A.1.1 Outline the difference between data and information‬

‭ ata:‬‭Data is stored by computers, and can come in‬‭many forms such as integers,‬
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‭strings, and Booleans. Data becomes information when it is interpreted and given‬
‭context.‬
‭Information:‬‭Data that is given context to provide‬‭it with meaning.‬

‭ ns ) Data is a collection of facts that are meaningless on their own whereas‬

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‭information puts data into clear understandable context.‬

‭A.1.2 Outline the differences between an information system and a database‬

I‭ nformation Systems:‬‭A combination of information‬‭technologies and peoples‬
‭activities using the technologies to support operations, management and‬
‭decision-making designed to collect, process, store, and distribute information.‬
‭ atabase:‬‭They are a component of information systems‬‭that contains the data‬
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‭that is used by information systems‬

‭ omponents of an information system:‬

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‭Hardware:‬‭Physical devices like computers and servers‬‭that process and store‬
‭data.‬
‭ oftware:‬‭Programs controlling hardware and performing‬‭tasks (e.g., operating‬
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‭systems, applications).‬
‭Data:‬‭Raw information that is processed to generate‬‭insights.‬
‭People:‬‭Users and administrators who interact with‬‭and maintain the system.‬
‭Processes:‬‭Procedures governing how data is collected,‬‭processed, and used.‬
‭ etworks:‬‭Connections between devices enabling data communication (e.g., LAN,‬
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‭WAN, internet).‬

‭SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint‬

‭The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table.‬
‭Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values.‬
‭A table can have only ONE primary key; and in the table, this primary key can consist of single or‬
‭multiple columns (fields).‬

‭SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint‬

‭The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links between tables.‬
‭A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table, that refers to the PRIMARY KEY in‬
‭another table.‬
‭The table with the foreign key is called the child table, and the table with the primary key is called the‬
‭referenced or parent table.‬

‭A.1.3 Discuss the need for databases‬

‭Databases can:‬
-‭ ‬‭Facilitate data sharing:‬‭Databases enable data sharing‬‭by providing a centralized‬
‭storage system that allows multiple users and applications to access, modify, and‬
‭retrieve data efficiently and securely .‬
‭ dditionally, databases facilitate sharing through APIs, views, and SQL queries,‬
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‭allowing users to extract and share specific data subsets as needed.‬
-‭ Scalability -store a large amount of data:‬‭Databases‬‭are designed to handle‬
‭large amounts of data, making them a scalable solution for organisations that need‬
‭to store and manage large volumes of data‬
-‭ Performance -Ease the updating of data:‬ ‭Databases‬‭are optimised for‬
‭performance, allowing users to access and manipulate data quickly and efficiently.‬
‭Multiple‬‭people cannot edit the same file at once,‬‭but multiple people can edit the‬
‭same database at once.‬
-‭ Improves accuracy:‬‭When a user is entering data, there is no process that‬
‭validates this data. Which might cause issues where data is incorrectly spelt, the‬
‭date is wrong, or the data itself is wrong. Databases solve this issue through data‬
‭validation.‬
-‭ Improve security:‬‭Databases provide a secure way‬‭to store data by allowing‬
‭administrators to control access to data.‬‭This helps‬‭protect sensitive data from‬
‭unauthorised access, ensuring that only authorised users can access the data.‬
-‭ Reduce redundancy:‬‭In a spreadsheet, it is possible‬‭to add the same data‬
‭multiple times, causing redundancy. A database solves this issue through a primary‬
‭key that ensures duplicates of data are not possible. -‬‭NF‬

‭ tate some difference between a Spreadsheet software application and a‬

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‭Database Management System.‬
‭●‬ A
‭ Database Management System could be used for various tasks with data‬
‭associations that cannot be created with spreadsheets.‬
‭●‬ A
‭ Database Management System manages databases and serves a lot of‬
‭users.‬
‭●‬ ‭A Database Management System preserves data integrity easier.‬
‭●‬ A
‭ spreadsheet can be used to produce charts and graphs using automated‬
‭software tools.‬
‭●‬ ‭A spreadsheet can hold a limited amount of information.‬
‭●‬ ‭A spreadsheet usually serves the needs of a single person.‬
‭●‬ S
‭ preadsheet software can perform a lot of mathematical functions and‬
‭perform data analysis.‬

‭ .1.4 Describe the use of transactions, states and updates to maintain data‬
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‭consistency and integrity‬
‭ tates:‬‭They are the states that a transaction goes through to keep track of changes‬
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‭to the database (‬‭additions, updates, and deletions‬‭),‬ ‭they inform about the current‬
‭state of the transaction whether it was committed or was aborted to‬ ‭maintain‬
‭consistency across different bases to ensure data integrity.‬
‭ ransaction:‬‭A transaction ensures that these operations‬‭are completed as a single‬
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‭logical unit, atomic unit.‬

‭ pdates‬‭:Updates refer to changes made to the database,‬‭including additions,‬

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‭updates, and deletions. Database management systems use update operations to‬
‭make changes to the database while maintaining data consistency and integrity.‬
‭This is accomplished through the use of locking mechanisms, which ensure that‬
‭only one user can make changes to a particular record at a time. This helps prevent‬
‭conflicts and inconsistencies in the data.‬
‭ tate Management:‬‭During the transaction, different‬‭states such as "begin," "in‬
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‭progress," and "committed" help track the process.‬
‭ ollback Mechanism:‬‭If both operations (debit and‬‭credit) are not successfully‬
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‭completed, the transaction will be rolled back to revert all changes, maintaining the‬
‭integrity of the data.‬
‭ tomicity:‬‭This ensures that either all parts of a‬‭transaction are executed or none,‬
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‭preventing partial updates that could lead to inconsistencies.‬

‭How do they ensure data consistency and integrity?‬

‭ onsistency‬‭in transactions refers to transactions‬‭never violating rules that dictate‬
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‭what data is valid and not valid in a database. Whenever a transaction breaks one‬
‭of the rules and introduces data that is inconsistent, it will roll back.‬
‭ ata integrity‬‭is the overall completeness, accuracy‬‭and consistency of data. It is‬
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‭ensured in the creation phase of the database, where certain rules are set in place to‬
‭ensure no data or updates are repeated, and all data follow the same format.‬

‭A.1.5 Define the term database transactions‬

‭ ransaction:‬‭A logical unit of work executed to retrieve or update data. For a‬
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‭transaction to occur, it must exhibit the four properties of‬‭ACID‬‭(Atomicity,‬
‭Consistency, Isolation, Durability)‬
‭1.‬ A
‭ tomicity:‬‭A transaction is atomic, which means that‬‭either all of its‬
‭operations are executed successfully or none of them are executed at all.‬
‭This ensures that the database remains in a consistent state.‬
‭2.‬ C
‭ onsistency:‬‭A transaction ensures that the database‬‭remains in a consistent‬
‭state before and after it is executed.‬
‭3.‬ I‭ solation:‬‭Transactions are executed in isolation‬‭from one another, which‬
‭means that the changes made by one transaction are not visible to other‬
‭transactions until they are completed.‬
‭4.‬ D
‭ urability:‬‭Once a transaction is completed, its changes‬‭are permanently‬
‭stored in the database, even in the event of a system failure or other problem.‬

‭A.1.6 Explain concurrency in data sharing situation‬

‭ oncurrency is defined as operating two actions at the same time trying to access‬
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‭the same row. In databases, two users can try to update the same data‬
‭simultaneously. This might cause issues regarding data integrity, which is why‬
‭databases place partitions and rules that do not allow concurrency when updating‬
‭the same data.‬

‭Concurrency Control:‬
‭ oncurrency control is crucial for designing high-performance database systems‬
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‭that can handle multiple users simultaneously. It is essential to manage‬
‭concurrency effectively to maintain data consistency, integrity, and reliability‬
‭●‬ L
‭ ocking: This prevents other transactions from accessing data that's being‬
‭modified.‬
‭●‬ ‭Timestamp ordering: Transactions are ordered based on their timestamp.‬
‭●‬ M
‭ ultiversion concurrency control (MVCC): Keeps multiple versions of data‬
‭to allow read operations without blocking writes.‬
‭Indexing strategies:‬
‭1.‬ ‭B-tree indexes:‬‭Balanced tree structure, good for‬‭a wide range of queries‬
‭2.‬ ‭Hash indexes:‬‭Excellent for equality comparisons,‬‭but not range queries‬
‭3.‬ B
‭ itmap indexes:‬‭Efficient for low-cardinality columns‬‭(columns with few‬
‭distinct values)‬

‭ OTE:‬‭While indexes speed up reads, they slow down‬‭writes. It's all about‬
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‭finding the right balance.‬

‭ .1.7 Explain the importance of the ACID properties of a database‬

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‭transaction‬
‭Atomicity:‬‭The entire transaction takes place at once‬‭or it doesn’t happen‬
‭ onsistency:‬‭The database and its contents must be‬‭consistent before and after the‬
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‭transaction‬
‭Isolation:‬‭Multiple transactions can occur independently‬‭without interference‬
‭ urability:‬‭The changes of a successful transaction‬‭occur even if the system‬
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‭failure occurs‬

‭A.1.8 Describe the two functions databases require to be performed on them‬

‭ uery Functions:‬‭A request to view data or information‬‭from a table or‬
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‭combination of tables. This request can be specific to a certain extent that the user‬
‭is looking for such as a certain age, location, or any value in the database‬
‭Update Functions:‬‭Used to modify the existing records‬‭in a table‬

‭A.1.9 Explain the role of data validation and verification‬

‭ alidation:‬‭To check the data being inputted to make‬‭sure it matches the rules and‬
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‭requirements set for current data in the database‬
-‭ Length(‬‭Verifies that data entered has the correct number of characters or isn't‬
‭longer than a certain number of characters), Range, Presence, Format(Ensures that‬
‭data follows a specific pattern or structure, often using input masks or regular‬
‭expressions), Data type Checks(Ensures that the data entered is of the expected‬
‭type)‬
‭ ata Verification:‬‭To ensure that the user is inputting‬‭the data that they want to‬
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‭input, such as making the user input their password twice to make sure they didn’t‬
‭make a spelling mistake.‬
‭-Double entry, and actually proofreading.‬

‭ .2.1 Define the terms Database Management System (DBMS) and Relational‬
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‭Database Management System (RDBMS)‬
‭ atabase Management System:‬‭A system software used‬‭to create and manage a‬
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‭database. It provides the user with a systematic way to create, retrieve, update and‬
‭manage data‬
‭ elational Database Management System:‬‭It is a DBMS‬‭based on the relational‬
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‭model. The data in a RDBMS is stored in a table, consisting of fields (UserID,‬
‭UserAge, UserName) and records where each record is an individual entry filling‬
‭out the fields.‬

‭A.2.2 Outline the functions and tools of a DBMS‬

‭- Data Dictionary Tool Management‬
‭- Data Definition Language‬
‭- Data storage management‬
‭- Data integrity management‬

‭Methods in DBMS for query optimization:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Analyzing the query structure‬
 ‭2.‬ ‭Estimating the cost of different execution plans‬
‭3.‬ ‭Choosing the plan with the lowest estimated cost‬

‭A.2.3 Explain how a DBMS can be used to promote data security‬

‭ atabase security involves protecting the database from unauthorised access,‬
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‭malicious attacks, and accidental data loss.‬
‭ ata locking:‬‭When multiple transactions on the same‬‭data are occurring‬
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‭concurrently, data locking is requested where certain data cannot be edited.‬
‭ ccess rights:‬‭Allowing access to the data through‬‭a PIN or password. The access‬
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‭can vary as it can be read-only or read and write.‬
‭ udit trials:‬‭A trial that keeps up with everyone‬‭that accessed the data and edited‬
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‭it. Keeping a track of database activities‬
‭ alidation:‬‭Previously talked about, ensures that‬‭the data inputted follows the‬
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‭requirements and rules set by the database.‬
‭ ncryption:‬‭An algorithm is used to encrypt the data‬‭where it all becomes‬
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‭unreadable code that can only be decrypted through a key also generated by the‬
‭algorithm provided to the user protecting data both at rest and in transit‬
‭ ackups:‬‭When a file is corrupt, it is safer and easier‬‭to delete that file and use a‬
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‭backup of it.‬
‭Authorization‬‭: Controlling what actions users can‬‭perform‬

‭Database Privacy‬
‭ rivacy focuses on protecting sensitive personal information. This includes‬
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‭implementing:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Data anonymization: Removing personally identifiable information‬
‭2.‬ ‭Authentication: Verifying the identity of users‬
‭3.‬ ‭Access controls: Limiting who can see sensitive data‬
‭4.‬ ‭Compliance with regulations.‬
‭A.2.4 Define the term schema‬
‭ chema:‬‭The organisation of data as a blueprint of‬‭how the database is‬
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‭constructed.‬

I‭ t includes Data types permitted within the database, Relationships between‬

‭different data types (e.g., primary and foreign keys), Constraints or rules governing‬
‭data integrity.It typically comprises tables representing entities (e.g., customers,‬
‭orders) with fields or attributes (e.g., customer name, order date).Relationships‬
‭between tables are defined (e.g., each order links to a specific customer and‬
‭product).Ensures data is organised to meet business objectives and requirements,‬
‭providing a structured data framework.‬

‭ OTE:‬‭Don't confuse schema with the actual data. The‬‭schema is the structure,‬
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‭while the data is what fills that structure.‬

‭ .2.5 Identify the characteristics of the three levels of the schema: conceptual,‬
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‭logical, physical‬
‭Physical‬
‭- Physical storage structure of the database‬
‭- Low level data structures in detail‬

‭ hysical schema‬‭: Lowest schema level, detailing actual‬‭data storage and‬

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‭organization.‬
‭Specifies:‬
‭●‬ ‭Storage structures‬‭used for data storage.‬
‭●‬ ‭Access methods‬‭for data retrieval.‬
 ‭●‬ ‭Indexes‬‭to improve data retrieval efficiency.‬
‭●‬ ‭Backup and recovery strategies‬‭to ensure data protection.‬
‭ ocuses on technical aspects such as‬‭disk storage‬‭,‬‭memory allocation‬‭, and‬‭I/O‬
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‭performance‬‭.‬
‭ ptimised for efficient‬‭data access‬‭and‬‭processing‬‭,‬‭supporting the higher-level‬
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‭logical and conceptual schemas.‬
‭ nsures‬‭performance optimization‬‭and‬‭data integrity‬‭through technical‬
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‭management of database details.‬

‭Logical:‬
‭ ogical schema: Higher-level abstraction, defining data relationships and‬
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‭constraints.‬
‭Outlines:‬
‭●‬ ‭Entities, attributes, and relationships.‬
‭●‬ C
‭ onstraints ensuring data integrity and accuracy (e.g., referential integrity‬
‭constraints).‬
‭Acts as an interface between business requirements and physical implementation.‬
‭ aintains consistent data structure even as physical implementation evolves,‬
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‭aiding in data access and query performance.‬
‭ nsures data consistency and supports decision-making by providing a coherent‬
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‭view of data for business and technical stakeholders.‬

‭Conceptual:‬
‭High-level representation of database structure and organization.‬
‭ rovides a‬‭unified view‬‭of organizational data, abstracting‬‭from physical storage‬
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‭and processing.‬
‭Defines:‬
‭●‬ ‭Entities‬‭and their‬‭attributes‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Relationships‬‭between entities (semantic model of‬‭data).‬
‭ erves as a bridge between‬‭business requirements‬‭and the‬‭physical database‬
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‭implementation‬‭.‬
‭ oundation for‬‭logical schema‬‭(detailed data relationships‬‭and constraints) and‬
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‭physical schema‬‭(data storage).‬
‭ nables consistent, organized data views that adapt as the database evolves.It‬
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‭describes the part of the database that the user is interested in and hides the‬
‭remaining database from the user‬

‭Data Warehousing and Olap‬

‭ s businesses grow, they often need to analyze vast amounts of historical data.‬
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‭This is where data warehousing comes in.‬
‭ data warehouse is a large, centralized repository of data from various sources,‬
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‭optimized for analysis rather than day-to-day operations. It supports Online‬
‭Analytical Processing (OLAP), which allows complex analytical queries across‬
‭large datasets.‬

‭Key concepts in data warehousing include:‬

‭1.‬ ‭ETL (Extract, Transform, Load): The process of getting data into the‬
‭warehouse‬
‭2.‬ ‭Dimensional modeling: Organizing data into fact and dimension tables‬
‭3.‬ ‭Star and snowflake schemas: Common data warehouse schema designs‬

‭Data Mining‬
‭ ata mining is the process of discovering patterns and knowledge from large‬
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‭amounts of data.‬
‭Common ways for data Mining:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Classification: Predicting which category something belongs to‬
 ‭a.‬ ‭Ex-‬‭Classify customers into segments based on purchasing behaviour‬
‭2.‬ ‭Clustering: Grouping similar items together‬
‭a.‬ ‭Ex -‬‭Cluster products that are often bought together‬
‭3.‬ ‭Association rule mining: Finding relationships between variables‬
‭4.‬ ‭Anomaly detection: Identifying unusual patterns‬
‭a.‬ ‭Ex-‬‭Detect fraudulent transactions‬
‭A.2.6 Outline the nature of a Data Dictionary‬

‭ data dictionary (also known as a metadata repository or data catalogue) is a‬

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‭collection of metadata that provides information about the data (‬‭ata elements,‬
‭tables and relationships, business rules and constraints, data access permissions,‬
‭and other technical details related to DBMS‬‭) in a‬‭database. The data dictionary‬
‭serves as a reference source for database administrators, developers, and users, and‬
‭it provides a standardised way to document the structure and contents of a‬
‭database.By providing a centralised source of information about the database, the‬
‭data dictionary helps to ensure that data is managed effectively and used‬
‭appropriately by authorised users.‬

‭Explanation:‬
‭ data dictionary tool is an inventory that holds all information about the fields of‬
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‭a RDBMS such as the type of data that should be inputted into it, a limit on the‬
‭number of characters or numbers, description, and any other information that could‬
‭be of use.‬

‭ ata Element Descriptions:‬‭A data dictionary typically‬‭includes a description of‬

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‭each data element or attribute used in the database, along with information such as‬
‭the data type, length, and format of the element.‬
‭ able and Relationship Descriptions:‬‭A data dictionary‬‭may include descriptions‬
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‭of the tables in the database, as well as the relationships between the tables. This‬
i‭nformation can help users understand the structure of the database and the way‬
‭data is organised within it.‬
‭ usiness Rules and Constraints:‬‭A data dictionary‬‭may also include information‬
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‭about the business rules and constraints that apply to the data in the database. This‬
‭can include information such as data validation rules, default values, and other‬
‭constraints.‬
‭ ata Access Permissions:‬‭A data dictionary may also‬‭include information about‬
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‭the access permissions that are required to view or modify data in the database.‬
‭This can help to ensure that data is accessed and used appropriately by authorized‬
‭users.‬
‭ atabase Management Information:‬‭A data dictionary‬‭may also include‬
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‭information about the database management system itself, such as the version of‬
‭the software being used, the server configuration, and other technical details.‬

‭ .2.7 Explain the importance of a Data Definition Language (DDL) in‬

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‭implementing a data model‬
‭ DL is a programming language used to define and modify a database. DDL’s can‬
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‭be used to create the database, insert the data into it then update its contents. It is‬
‭important as it is one of the only methods for a programmer to communicate with a‬
‭database to update and store data permanently.‬

‭A.2.8 Explain the importance of data modelling in the design of a database‬

‭ database model is a type of data modelling that defines the logical structure of a‬
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‭database. It determines the relationships between data and the constraints in order‬
‭to gain a better idea on how to store, update and retrieve the data.‬
‭Data modelling is important as it results in:‬
‭- Reduced costs‬
‭- Higher quality‬
‭- Clearer scope‬
‭- Fewer errors‬
‭- Managed risk‬

‭ .2.9 Define the following database terms: table, record, field, primary key,‬
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‭secondary key, foreign key, candidate key, composite primary key, join‬
‭Table:‬‭A relation or a file‬
‭Record:‬‭A tuple or row‬
‭Field:‬‭An attribute or column.‬
‭ rimary key:‬‭A primary key is a keyword of a certain‬‭type that is unique to each‬
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‭record used to identify that record from the rest. Typically, the primary key makes‬
‭up a column and is and ID.‬
‭ econdary key / Candidate key:‬‭It is a column that‬‭is eligible to be a primary key‬
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‭but has not been chosen, so is called a secondary key or a candidate key.‬
‭ oreign key:‬‭A foreign key is a column in a relational‬‭database that that provide a‬
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‭link between two tables by referencing a primary key in another table.‬
‭ omposite primary key:‬‭A combination of fields that‬‭when both used together‬
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‭can identify each record uniquely. Commonly used when a singular column cannot‬
‭identify each record uniquely, but a combination of them can.‬
J‭ oin:‬‭An SQL operation used to create a link between‬‭two tables based on‬
‭matching columns. Used a foreign and primary key.‬
I‭ nner join:‬‭a relational database operation that merges‬‭rows from two tables based‬
‭on a shared attribute, usually a‬‭primary key and foreign‬‭key relationship‬‭. It‬
‭retrieves only those tuples (rows) that have matching values in both tables, thus‬
‭enforcing‬‭referential integrity‬‭by excluding non-matching‬‭records. This operation‬
‭is essential in structured query management, enabling efficient data retrieval and‬
‭relational data analysis in SQL databases.‬
‭ .2.10 Identify the different types of relationships within a database:‬
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‭one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-many‬
‭ ne-to-One:‬‭Each record in a table is associated with‬‭one and only record in‬
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‭another table.‬
‭ ne-to-Many:‬‭Each record in one table can be associated‬‭to many records in‬
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‭another table.‬
‭ any-to-Many:‬‭Multiple records in a table are associated‬‭with multiple records in‬
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‭another table. In this case, a join table is used where foreign keys are implemented‬
‭from each table.‬

‭A.2.11 Outline the issues cause by redundant data‬

‭- Data integrity‬
‭- Data reliability‬
‭- Space‬
‭- Time‬

‭ .2.12 Outline the importance of referential integrity in a normalized‬

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‭database‬
‭What is referential integrity?‬
I‭ t is the relationship between tables. The primary key of a table can appear in‬
‭another tables as a foreign key.‬
‭What is the importance of referential integrity?‬
‭- Prevents the entry of duplicate data‬
‭- Prevents one table to point to a nonexistent field in another table‬
‭- Guarantees consistency between the tables‬
‭- Prevents the deletion of a record referred to by a foreign key‬
-‭ Prevents the creation of a record in a table that has a foreign key unless there is a‬
‭primary key‬
‭ .2.13 Describe the differences between 1‬‭st‬ ‭Normal‬‭Form (1NF), 2‬‭nd‬ ‭Normal‬
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‭Form (2NF) and 3‬‭rd‬ ‭Normal Form (3NF)‬

‭ ormalization - It's a process of organising data to minimise redundancy and‬

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‭dependency to make the database more efficient and reduce data anomalies‬

‭●‬ ‭1NF- “Unique and atomic values”‬

‭○‬ E
‭ ach row in the database must be unique, typically achieved through a‬
‭primary key.‬
‭○‬ A
‭ ll cells must contain only one piece of data (no arrays or lists in a‬
‭cell).‬
‭○‬ E
‭ ach column should hold values of the same data type, with no‬
‭repeating groups (e.g., avoid multiple columns for similar data).‬

‭●‬ ‭2NF - “No Partial Dependencies / Complete Key Dependency”‬

‭○‬ A
‭ pplicable only if the table has a composite key and is already in First‬
‭Normal Form (1NF).‬
‭○‬ A
‭ ll columns (non-key attributes) within the table must depend on the‬
‭whole composite key, avoiding partial dependencies and reducing‬
‭redundancy.‬

‭●‬ ‭3NF-“No Transitive Dependencies”‬

‭○‬ ‭The database must already be in Second Normal Form (2NF).‬
‭○‬ A
‭ ll non-key attributes should be directly dependent and determined‬
‭by the primary key only, with no dependency on other non-key‬
‭attributes.‬
 ‭○‬ T
‭ his eliminates transitive dependencies and further reduces‬
‭redundancy.‬

‭Short Summary:‬
‭•‬ ‭1NF has no repeating rows or columns.‬
‭•‬ ‭2NF is based on full functional dependency.‬
‭•‬ ‭3NF involves the removal of transitive dependencies.‬

‭ OTE: 2NF‬‭follows requirements of 1NF, and‬‭3NF‬‭follows‬‭the requirements of‬

N
‭2NF‬

‭A.2.14 Describe the characteristics of a normalized database‬

‭●‬ ‭Makes accessing and storing data easier and more efficient‬
‭●‬ ‭Makes maintaining the database contents quicker and easier‬
‭●‬ ‭Reduces the chances of data errors or duplication.‬

‭A.2.15 Evaluate the appropriateness of the different data types.‬

‭-‬ ‭Char:‬‭Only used when need to store a certain letter‬
‭-‬ ‭Int:‬‭Used to store numbers that are below 9 digits‬‭of precision‬
‭-‬ ‭Long:‬‭Used to store numbers greater than 9 digits‬‭of precision‬
‭-‬ ‭Double:‬‭Used to store decimal digits‬
‭A.2.16 Construct an entity-relationship diagram (ERD) for a given scenario.‬