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Digital Signal Processing Second Edition Fundamentals
and Applications Li Tan Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Li Tan, Jean Jiang
ISBN(s): 9780124158931, 0124158935
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 27.02 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
Digital Signal Processing
This page intentionally left blank
Digital Signal Processing
Fundamentals and Applications

Second edition

Li Tan
Purdue University North Central

Jean Jiang
Purdue University North Central

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an Imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK
First edition 2007
Second edition 2013
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than as may be noted herein).
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Printed and bound in the United States of America

13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xiii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Digital Signal Processing ...................................... 1

1.1. Basic Concepts of Digital Signal Processing........................................................... 1
1.2. Basic Digital Signal Processing Examples in Block Diagrams .............................. 3
1.2.1. Digital Filtering ............................................................................................. 3
1.2.2. Signal Frequency (Spectrum) Analysis......................................................... 3
1.3. Overview of Typical Digital Signal Processing in Real-World
Applications .............................................................................................................. 5
1.3.1. Digital Crossover Audio System................................................................... 5
1.3.2. Interference Cancellation in Electrocardiography ........................................ 5
1.3.3. Speech Coding and Compression.................................................................. 7
1.3.4. Compact-Disc Recording System ................................................................. 7
1.3.5. Vibration Signature Analysis for Defective Gear Teeth............................... 9
1.3.6. Digital Photo Image Enhancement ............................................................... 9
1.4. Digital Signal Processing Applications.................................................................. 12
1.5. Summary ................................................................................................................. 13

CHAPTER 2 Signal Sampling and Quantization .............................................. 15

2.1. Sampling of Continuous Signal.............................................................................. 15
2.2. Signal Reconstruction............................................................................................. 21
2.2.1. Practical Considerations for Signal Sampling: Anti-Aliasing Filtering..... 25
2.2.2. Practical Considerations for Signal Reconstruction: Anti-Image
Filter and Equalizer ..................................................................................... 30
2.3. Analog-to-Digital Conversion, Digital-to-Analog Conversion,
and Quantization..................................................................................................... 35
2.4. Summary ................................................................................................................. 47
2.5. MATLAB Programs................................................................................................ 48
2.6. Problems ................................................................................................................. 49

CHAPTER 3 Digital Signals and Systems ....................................................... 57

3.1. Digital Signals ........................................................................................................ 57
3.1.1. Common Digital Sequences ........................................................................ 58
3.1.2. Generation of Digital Signals...................................................................... 61
3.2. Linear Time-Invariant, Causal Systems ................................................................. 63
3.2.1. Linearity....................................................................................................... 63
3.2.2. Time Invariance ........................................................................................... 65
3.2.3. Causality ...................................................................................................... 66
3.3. Difference Equations and Impulse Responses ....................................................... 67
3.3.1. Format of the Difference Equation ............................................................. 67
3.3.2. System Representation Using Its Impulse Response.................................. 68
v
vi Contents

3.4. Bounded-In and Bounded-Out Stability................................................................. 71

3.5. Digital Convolution ................................................................................................ 72
3.6. Summary ................................................................................................................. 79
3.7. Problem ................................................................................................................... 80

CHAPTER 4 Discrete Fourier Transform and Signal Spectrum ......................... 87

4.1. Discrete Fourier Transform .................................................................................... 87
4.1.1. Fourier Series Coefficients of Periodic Digital Signals.............................. 88
4.1.2. Discrete Fourier Transform Formulas......................................................... 91
4.2. Amplitude Spectrum and Power Spectrum ............................................................ 97
4.3. Spectral Estimation Using Window Functions .................................................... 107
4.4. Application to Signal Spectral Estimation........................................................... 116
4.5. Fast Fourier Transform ......................................................................................... 123
4.5.1. Decimation-in-Frequency Method ............................................................ 123
4.5.2. Decimation-in-Time Method..................................................................... 128
4.6. Summary ............................................................................................................... 132
4.7. Problem ................................................................................................................. 132

CHAPTER 5 The z-Transform ...................................................................... 137

5.1. Definition .............................................................................................................. 137
5.2. Properties of the z-Transform............................................................................... 140
5.3. Inverse z-Transform.............................................................................................. 144
5.3.1. Partial Fraction Expansion Using MATLAB ............................................ 150
5.4. Solution of Difference Equations Using the z-Transform ................................... 152
5.5. Summary ............................................................................................................... 156
5.6. Problems ............................................................................................................... 156

CHAPTER 6 Digital Signal Processing Systems, Basic Filtering Types,

and Digital Filter Realizations .................................................. 161
6.1. The Difference Equation and Digital Filtering .................................................... 161
6.2. Difference Equation and Transfer Function......................................................... 166
6.2.1. Impulse Response, Step Response, and System Response....................... 169
6.3. The z-Plane Pole-Zero Plot and Stability ............................................................ 172
6.4. Digital Filter Frequency Response....................................................................... 178
6.5. Basic Types of Filtering ....................................................................................... 186
6.6. Realization of Digital Filters................................................................................ 192
6.6.1. Direct-Form I Realization ......................................................................... 193
6.6.2. Direct-Form II Realization ........................................................................ 193
6.6.3. Cascade (Series) Realization..................................................................... 195
6.6.4. Parallel Realization.................................................................................... 196
6.7. Application: Signal Enhancement and Filtering .................................................. 199
6.7.1. Pre-Emphasis of Speech ............................................................................ 200
6.7.2. Bandpass Filtering of Speech.................................................................... 203
6.7.3. Enhancement of ECG Signal Using Notch Filtering................................ 205
 Contents vii

6.8. Summary ............................................................................................................... 206

6.9. Problem ................................................................................................................. 208

CHAPTER 7 Finite Impulse Response Filter Design....................................... 217

7.1. Finite Impulse Response Filter Format............................................................... 217
7.2. Fourier Transform Design ................................................................................... 219
7.3. Window Method .................................................................................................. 230
7.4. Applications: Noise Reduction and Two-Band Digital Crossover ..................... 253
7.4.1. Noise Reduction ....................................................................................... 253
7.4.2. Speech Noise Reduction........................................................................... 256
7.4.3. Noise Reduction in Vibration Signals...................................................... 257
7.4.4. Two-Band Digital Crossover .................................................................... 258
7.5. Frequency Sampling Design Method .................................................................. 262
7.6. Optimal Design Method ...................................................................................... 269
7.7. Realization Structures of Finite Impulse Response Filters................................. 280
7.7.1. Transversal Form ...................................................................................... 280
7.7.2. Linear Phase Form.................................................................................... 281
7.8. Coefficient Accuracy Effects on Finite Impulse Response Filters..................... 282
7.9. Summary of FIR Design Procedures and Selection of FIR Filter Design
Methods in Practice ............................................................................................. 285
7.10. Summary............................................................................................................. 288
7.11. MATLAB Programs ........................................................................................... 288
7.12. Problems ............................................................................................................. 290

CHAPTER 8 Infinite Impulse Response Filter Design..................................... 301

8.1. Infinite Impulse Response Filter Format............................................................. 302
8.2. Bilinear Transformation Design Method ............................................................ 303
8.2.1. Analog Filters Using Lowpass Prototype Transformation ...................... 304
8.2.2. Bilinear Transformation and Frequency Warping ................................... 308
8.2.3. Bilinear Transformation Design Procedure ............................................. 314
8.3. Digital Butterworth and Chebyshev Filter Designs ............................................ 318
8.3.1. Lowpass Prototype Function and Its Order ............................................. 318
8.3.2. Lowpass and Highpass Filter Design Examples...................................... 322
8.3.3. Bandpass and Bandstop Filter Design Examples .................................... 331
8.4. Higher-Order Infinite Impulse Response Filter Design Using the
Cascade Method................................................................................................... 338
8.5. Application: Digital Audio Equalizer ................................................................. 341
8.6. Impulse-Invariant Design Method....................................................................... 345
8.7. Pole-Zero Placement Method for Simple Infinite Impulse Response
Filters ................................................................................................................... 351
8.7.1. Second-Order Bandpass Filter Design ..................................................... 352
8.7.2. Second-Order Bandstop (Notch) Filter Design........................................ 354
8.7.3. First-Order Lowpass Filter Design........................................................... 355
8.7.4. First-Order Highpass Filter Design .......................................................... 357
viii Contents

8.8. Realization Structures of Infinite Impulse Response Filters .............................. 358

8.8.1. Realization of Infinite Impulse Response Filters in Direct-Form I
and Direct-Form II.................................................................................... 358
8.8.2. Realization of Higher-Order Infinite Impulse Response Filters
via the Cascade Form ............................................................................... 361
8.9. Application: 60-Hz Hum Eliminator and Heart Rate Detection
Using Electrocardiography .................................................................................. 362
8.10. Coefficient Accuracy Effects on Infinite Impulse Response
Filters .................................................................................................................. 369
8.11. Application: Generation and Detection of DTMF Tones Using the Goertzel
Algorithm............................................................................................................ 373
8.11.1. Single-Tone Generator .......................................................................... 374
8.11.2. Dual-Tone Multifrequency Tone Generator.......................................... 375
8.11.3. Goertzel Algorithm ............................................................................... 377
8.11.4. Dual-Tone Multifrequency Tone Detection Using the Modified
Goertzel Algorithm ............................................................................... 383
8.12. Summary of Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) Design Procedures
and Selection of the IIR Filter Design Methods in Practice ............................. 388
8.13. Summary............................................................................................................. 391
8.14. Problem............................................................................................................... 392

CHAPTER 9 Hardware and Software for Digital Signal Processors ................ 405
9.1. Digital Signal Processor Architecture .................................................................. 406
9.2. Digital Signal Processor Hardware Units ............................................................ 408
9.2.1. Multiplier and Accumulator ...................................................................... 408
9.2.2. Shifters ....................................................................................................... 409
9.2.3. Address Generators.................................................................................... 409
9.3. Digital Signal Processors and Manufacturers ...................................................... 411
9.4. Fixed-Point and Floating-Point Formats .............................................................. 411
9.4.1. Fixed-Point Format.................................................................................... 412
9.4.2. Floating-Point Format................................................................................ 419
9.4.3. IEEE Floating-Point Formats .................................................................... 423
9.4.5. Fixed-Point Digital Signal Processors ...................................................... 426
9.4.6. Floating-Point Processors .......................................................................... 427
9.5. Finite Impulse Response and Infinite Impulse Response Filter
Implementations in Fixed-Point Systems............................................................. 429
9.6. Digital Signal Processing Programming Examples ............................................. 434
9.6.1. Overview of TMS320C67x DSK .............................................................. 434
9.6.2. Concept of Real-Time Processing............................................................. 438
9.6.3. Linear Buffering ........................................................................................ 440
9.6.4. Sample C Programs ................................................................................... 445
9.7. Summary ............................................................................................................... 448
9.8. Problems ............................................................................................................... 449
 Contents ix

CHAPTER 10 Adaptive Filters and Applications ........................................... 453

10.1. Introduction to Least Mean Square Adaptive Finite Impulse Response
Filters ............................................................................................................... 453
10.2. Basic Wiener Filter Theory and Least Mean Square Algorithm.................... 457
10.3. Applications: Noise Cancellation, System Modeling, and Line
Enhancement.................................................................................................... 462
10.3.1. Noise Cancellation.............................................................................. 462
10.3.2. System Modeling ................................................................................ 468
10.3.3. Line Enhancement Using Linear Prediction ...................................... 473
10.4. Other Application Examples ........................................................................... 476
10.4.1. Canceling Periodic Interferences Using Linear
Prediction ............................................................................................ 476
10.4.2. Electrocardiography Interference Cancellation.................................. 476
10.4.3. Echo Cancellation in Long-Distance Telephone Circuits.................. 479
10.5. Laboratory Examples Using the TMS320C6713 DSK................................... 480
10.6. Summary .......................................................................................................... 485
10.7. Problems........................................................................................................... 486

CHAPTER 11 Waveform Quantization and Compression................................ 497

11.1. Linear Midtread Quantization ......................................................................... 497
11.2. m-law Companding .......................................................................................... 501
11.2.1. Analog m-Law Companding ............................................................... 501
11.2.2. Digital m-Law Companding................................................................ 504
11.3. Examples of Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM), Delta
Modulation, and Adaptive DPCM G.721........................................................ 509
11.3.1. Examples of Differential Pulse Code Modulation and Delta
Modulation.......................................................................................... 509
11.3.2. Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation G.721........................ 512
11.4. Discrete Cosine Transform, Modified Discrete Cosine Transform,
and Transform Coding in MPEG Audio ......................................................... 519
11.4.1. Discrete Cosine Transform ................................................................. 519
11.4.2. Modified Discrete Cosine Transform ................................................. 522
11.4.3. Transform Coding in MPEG Audio ................................................... 525
11.5. Laboratory Examples of Signal Quantization Using the TMS320C6713
DSK.................................................................................................................. 528
11.6. Summary .......................................................................................................... 533
11.7. MATLAB Programs......................................................................................... 533
11.8. Problems........................................................................................................... 548

CHAPTER 12 Multirate Digital Signal Processing, Oversampling

of Analog-to-Digital Conversion, and Undersampling
of Bandpass Signals .............................................................. 555
12.1. Multirate Digital Signal Processing Basics..................................................... 555
12.1.1. Sampling Rate Reduction by an Integer Factor................................. 556
x Contents

12.1.2. Sampling Rate Increase by an Integer Factor .................................... 562

12.1.3. Changing the Sampling Rate by a Noninteger Factor L/M ............... 567
12.1.4. Application: CD Audio Player ........................................................... 571
12.1.5. Multistage Decimation ....................................................................... 574
12.2. Polyphase Filter Structure and Implementation.............................................. 578
12.3. Oversampling of Analog-to-Digital Conversion ............................................. 585
12.3.1. Oversampling and Analog-to-Digital Conversion Resolution ........... 586
12.3.2. Sigma-Delta Modulation Analog-to-Digital Conversion ................... 592
12.4. Application Example: CD Player .................................................................... 601
12.5. Undersampling of Bandpass Signals ............................................................... 603
12.6. Sampling Rate Conversion Using the TMS320C6713 DSK .......................... 608
12.7. Summary .......................................................................................................... 613
12.8. Problems........................................................................................................... 613

CHAPTER 13 Subband- and Wavelet-Based Coding...................................... 621

13.1. Subband Coding Basics ................................................................................... 621
13.2. Subband Decomposition and Two-Channel Perfect Reconstruction
Quadrature Mirror Filter Bank ........................................................................ 626
13.3. Subband Coding of Signals ............................................................................. 635
13.4. Wavelet Basics and Families of Wavelets....................................................... 638
13.5. Multiresolution Equations ............................................................................... 650
13.6. Discrete Wavelet Transform ............................................................................ 655
13.7. Wavelet Transform Coding of Signals ............................................................ 664
13.8. MATLAB Programs......................................................................................... 668
13.9. Summary .......................................................................................................... 672
13.10. Problems ........................................................................................................ 673

CHAPTER 14 Image Processing Basics ....................................................... 683

14.1. Image Processing Notation and Data Formats................................................ 684
14.1.1. 8-Bit Gray Level Images .................................................................... 684
14.1.2. 24-bit Color Images ............................................................................ 686
14.1.3. 8-Bit Color Images ............................................................................. 687
14.1.4. Intensity Images.................................................................................. 688
14.1.5. Red, Green, and Blue Components and Grayscale Conversion ........ 688
14.1.6. MATLAB Functions for Format Conversion ..................................... 690
14.2. Image Histogram and Equalization ................................................................. 692
14.2.1. Grayscale Histogram and Equalization .............................................. 692
14.2.2. 24-Bit Color Image Equalization ....................................................... 695
14.2.3. 8-Bit Indexed Color Image Equalization ........................................... 700
14.2.4. MATLAB Functions for Equalization................................................ 702
14.3. Image Level Adjustment and Contrast............................................................ 704
14.3.1. Linear Level Adjustment .................................................................... 704
14.3.2. Adjusting the Level for Display ......................................................... 707
14.3.3. MATLAB Functions for Image Level Adjustment............................ 707
 Contents xi

14.4. Image Filtering Enhancement.......................................................................... 707

14.4.1. Lowpass Noise Filtering..................................................................... 709
14.4.2. Median Filtering ................................................................................. 712
14.4.3. Edge Detection.................................................................................... 715
14.4.4. MATLAB Functions for Image Filtering ........................................... 718
14.5. Image Pseudo-Color Generation and Detection.............................................. 722
14.6. Image Spectra .................................................................................................. 725
14.7. Image Compression by Discrete Cosine Transform ....................................... 728
14.7.1. Two-Dimensional Discrete Cosine Transform................................... 729
14.7.2. Two-Dimensional JPEG Grayscale Image Compression Example ... 731
14.7.3. JPEG Color Image Compression........................................................ 735
14.7.4. Image Compression Using Wavelet Transform Coding .................... 738
14.8. Creating a Video Sequence by Mixing Two Images ...................................... 745
14.9. Video Signal Basics ......................................................................................... 746
14.9.1. Analog Video ...................................................................................... 747
14.9.2. Digital Video....................................................................................... 753
14.10. Motion Estimation in Video .......................................................................... 755
14.11. Summary........................................................................................................ 757
14.12. Problems ........................................................................................................ 758
Appendix A: Introduction to the MATLAB Environment ............................................................... 767
Appendix B: Review of Analog Signal Processing Basics .............................................................. 775
Appendix C: Normalized Butterworth and Chebyshev Functions ................................................... 805
Appendix D: Sinusoidal Steady-State Response of Digital Filters .................................................. 813
Appendix E: Finite Impulse Response Filter Design Equations by the Frequency Sampling
Design Method................................................................................................................................... 817
Appendix F: Wavelet Analysis and Synthesis Equations ................................................................. 821
Appendix G: Some Useful Mathematical Formulas......................................................................... 825
Answers to Selected Problems .......................................................................................................... 831
References.......................................................................................................................................... 857
Index .................................................................................................................................................. 861
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Preface

Technology such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and digital signal processors have become so
advanced that they have had a dramatic impact on the disciplines of electronics engineering, computer
engineering, and biomedical engineering. Engineers and technologists need to become familiar with
digital signals and systems and basic digital signal processing (DSP) techniques. The objective of this
book is to introduce students to the fundamental principles of these subjects and to provide a working
knowledge such that they can apply DSP in their engineering careers.
The book is suitable for a two-semester course sequence at the senior level in undergraduate
electronics, computer, and biomedical engineering technology programs. Chapters 1 to 8 provide the
topics for a one-semester course, and a second course can complete the rest of the chapters. This
textbook can also be used in an introductory DSP course in an undergraduate electrical engineering
program at traditional colleges. Additionally, the book should be useful as a reference for under-
graduate engineering students, science students, and practicing engineers.
The material has been tested for two consecutive courses in a signal processing sequence at Purdue
University North Central in Indiana. With the background established from this book, students will be
well prepared to move forward to take other upper-level courses that deal with digital signals and
systems for communications and control.
The textbook consists of 14 chapters, organized as follows:
• Chapter 1 introduces concepts of DSP and presents a general DSP block diagram. Application
examples are included.
• Chapter 2 covers the sampling theorem described in the time domain and frequency domain and
also covers signal reconstruction. Some practical considerations for designing analog anti-
aliasing lowpass filters and anti-image lowpass filters are included. The chapter ends with
a section dealing with analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) and digital-to-analog conversion
(DAC), as well as signal quantization and encoding.
• Chapter 3 introduces digital signals, linear time-invariant system concepts, difference equations,
and digital convolutions.
• Chapter 4 introduces the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and digital signal spectral calculations
using the DFT. Methods for applying the DFT to estimate the spectra of various signals,
including speech, seismic signals, electrocardiography data, and vibration signals, are
demonstrated. The chapter ends with a section dedicated to illustrating fast Fourier transform
(FFT) algorithms.
• Chapter 5 is devoted to the z-transform and difference equations.
• Chapter 6 covers digital filtering using difference equations, transfer functions, system stability,
digital filter frequency responses, and implementation methods such as direct-form I and direct-
form II.
• Chapter 7 deals with various methods of finite impulse response (FIR) filter design, including the
Fourier transform method for calculating FIR filter coefficients, window method, frequency
sampling design, and optimal design. Chapter 7 also includes applications that use FIR filters for
noise reduction and digital crossover system design.
xiii
xiv Preface

• Chapter 8 covers various methods of infinite impulse response (IIR) filter design, including the
bilinear transformation (BLT) design, impulse-invariant design, and pole-zero placement design.
Applications using IIR filters include audio equalizer design, biomedical signal enhancement,
dual-tone multifrequency (DTMF) tone generation, and detection with the Goertzel algorithm.
• Chapter 9 introduces DSP architectures, software and hardware, and fixed-point and floating-point
implementations of digital filters.
• Chapter 10 covers adaptive filters with applications such as noise cancellation, system modeling,
line enhancement, cancellation of periodic interferences, echo cancellation, and 60-Hz
interference cancellation in biomedical signals.
• Chapter 11 is devoted to speech quantization and compression, including pulse code modulation
(PCM) coding, mu-law compression, adaptive differential pulse code modulation (ADPCM)
coding, windowed modified discrete cosine transform (W-MDCT) coding, and MPEG audio
format, specifically MP3 (MPEG-1, layer 3).
• Chapter 12 covers topics pertaining to multirate DSP and applications, as well as principles of
oversampling ADC, such as sigma-delta modulation. Undersampling for bandpass signals is also
examined.
• Chapter 13 introduces a subband coding system and its implementation. Perfect reconstruction
conditions for a two-band system are derived. Subband coding with an application of data
compression is demonstrated. Furthermore, the chapter covers the discrete wavelet transform
(DWT) with applications to signal coding and denoising.
• Finally, Chapter 14 covers image enhancement using histogram equalization and filtering methods,
including edge detection. The chapter also explores pseudo-color image generation and detection,
two-dimensional spectra, JPEG compression using DCT, image coding using the DWT, and the
mixing of two images to create a video sequence. Finally, motion compensation of the video
sequence is explored, which is a key element of video compression used in MPEG.
MATLAB programs are listed whenever they are possible. Therefore, a MATLAB tutorial should be
given to students who are new to the MATLAB environment.
• Appendix A serves as a MATLAB tutorial.
• Appendix B reviews key fundamentals of analog signal processing. Topics include Fourier series,
Fourier transform, Laplace transform, and analog system basics.
• Appendixes C, D, and E review Butterworth and Chebyshev filters, sinusoidal steady-state
responses in digital filters, and derivation of the FIR filter design equation via the frequency
sampling method, respectively.
• Appendix F details the derivations of wavelet analysis and synthesis equations.
• Appendix G offers general useful mathematical formulas.
In this new edition, MATLAB projects dealing with practical applications are included in Chapters 2,
4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, and 13.
Instructor support, including solutions, can be found at http://textbooks.elsevier.com. MATLAB
programs and exercises for students, plus Real-time C programs can be found at booksite.elsevier.com/
9780124158931.
Thanks to all the faculty and staff at Purdue University North Central in Westville, Indiana, for their
encouragement. In particular, the authors wish to thank Professors Thomas F. Brady, Larryl Matthews,
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epaulets or “scales,” the cuffs and collar showing the regimental
facings. The sword was supported by a “frog” from a cross-belt over
the right shoulder, on the front of it being a small square brass
“breastplate” carrying the regimental devices.
The small brass “duty gorget,” long worn as a badge of being on
duty, suspended by a ribbon round the neck, represented the last
body armour for the protection of the shoulders; while so the
“breastplate” was, in name at least, a survival of the cuirass.
The soldier’s bayonet was also supported by a belt over the right
shoulder, and was balanced by a cross-belt over the other shoulder,
which carried the only ammunition pouch. The man’s personal kit
was contained in a knapsack, on the top of which the rolled
greatcoat was strapped.
The drill remained practically the same from 1792 until after the
Crimean War. Editions of the Drill book published by Dundas were
issued in 1809, 1815, and 1817, though the alterations are trivial;
but in 1824, when Sir Henry Torrens revised it, greater celerity was
infused into some of the manœuvres, the “quick march” of 108
paces a minute being now generally used, except for mere parade.
The two-deep formation became the rule, though drill for forming
both three and four deep was retained, and a temporary effort was
made to introduce the “bayonet exercise,” but this was very soon
abandoned.
During Wellington’s first year of office as Commander-in-Chief,
the yeomanry were remodelled. The system of limited enlistment
was discontinued for a time, and there was much malingering in the
army by men who tried by such means to get their discharge; but in
1833 the limit of enlistment was fixed at twenty-five years, and in
1847 at ten, with the colours, and the power of completing twenty-
one years for pension. The soldier’s “small book,” containing his
personal record, etc., was introduced, and as the typical pattern was
made out in the name of a supposititious “Thomas Atkins,” the now
familiar name of “Tommy Atkins” as the nickname of the private
soldier came to be.
Between 1829 and 1839 there is little of note except the
increase in the literature relating to the army. It was then that the
United Service Magazine, the Army and Navy Gazette, and the
Journal of the United Service Institution, first arose; and, save for
Eastern wars, the only other service seen by the line was in the
Canadian and West Indian troubles in 1832 and 1834, which were
49
quelled by the 15th and 22nd, and a second Canadian rebellion, in
1839, which was suppressed by the 24th, 32nd, and 66th.
During the ten years between 1839 and 1849 duelling, which
had continued very prevalent, was abolished. The last fought in
England was between Mr. Hawkey of the Royal Marines and Mr.
Seton of the 11th Hussars, on the beach at Gosport, in which the
latter was mortally wounded. This was in 1845.
Flogging, which it had often been proposed to abolish, was
reduced to fifty lashes in 1846, when good conduct medals and
badges, as well as gratuities for non-commissioned officers and
military savings banks, were introduced. Barrack accommodation
was improved, regimental schools introduced, and either proper
married quarters, or lodging money to men who married by
permission “on the strength of the Regiment,” took the place of the
disgraceful system that had before obtained of the married women
sleeping in the same room as the men, the bed only being curtained
off.
The school of musketry at Hythe was also inaugurated; and in
1851 the principle of granting medals was extended to cover the
Indian victories from 1803 upwards. Medals for the long war and the
recent Indian successes were issued, but of all the host who upheld
the national honour when Napoleon ruled, only 19,000 recipients
were found for the Peninsular decoration, and but 500 for the victory
of Maida!
The next French “war scare” arose in 1847, because of a
pamphlet, written by the Prince de Joinville, pointing out the military
defencelessness of Great Britain, and the poor condition of our
defensive forces. This had never been more clearly pointed out than
when the Duke of Wellington wrote to Sir John Burgoyne: “It is
perfectly true that, as we stand at present, with our naval arsenals
and dockyards not half garrisoned, five thousand men of all arms
could not be put under arms, if required, for any service whatever,
without leaving standing, without relief, all employed on any duty,
not excepting even the guards over the palaces and the person of
the sovereign.” This was mainly the condition of the army when the
Crimean War broke out. The Royal Artillery had been slightly
increased in 1847, but in 1853, none the less, it was stated that
there were not at home fifty guns fit for service.
But things were on the mend. Examinations for admission to the
army were introduced, to the dismay of those who had hitherto
gained commissions therein solely by family or other influence. The
arms, too, were improving. Minié had invented a bullet, expanded by
an iron base-cup, which facilitated the rapid loading of the piece,
which had hitherto, with the Brunswick rifle, with its “belted ball,”
and a range of about 400 yards, been impossible. This began to be
used in 1851. The Great Exhibition of 1851 had introduced to the
world the “Colt’s Revolver.” As far back as 1842 the percussion lock,
invented in 1807, had taken the place of the Brown Bess, so called
from the brown tint given to the barrel, as distinct from the bright
iron barrels of foreign muskets; but it is stated that the duke was by
no means favourable to the supersession of the flint-lock by the
chemically charged cap. Judging from this, the actual armament of
the whole army with the English model of the Minié (the “Enfield”
rifle of 1855), which carried a bullet weighing sixteen to the pound,
and of which a man could only carry sixty rounds of ammunition,
would have been to him “Anathema Maranatha.” Similarly, the
breech-loader had been introduced to Napoleon in 1809, but the
weapon, being probably imperfect, met with little favour; none the
less, the Prussians had already adopted, by 1841, the breech-loading
needle gun. But General Anson, then “Clerk of the Ordnance,” had
no fancy for such new-fangled ideas, a feeling shared fully, by all
accounts, with the Commander-in-Chief, who was always irascible
with inventors and their inventions. He did not believe we “ought
hastily to adopt any of these improvements”; and, as to rifles, “it
was ridiculous to suppose that two armies could fight at a distance
of 500 or 600 yards!” Even the Secretary of State for War, afterwards
Lord Panmure, stated that the weapons, that is, the percussion
musket, “were better than all the inventions that could be
discovered.” Certes, he lived long enough to be “sorry he spoke,” for
of the musket he so be-praised, it was officially declared, in 1846,
that “fire should never be opened beyond 150 yards, and certainly
not exceeding 200 yards,” for “at this distance half the number of
shots missed the target, measuring 11 feet 6 inches, and at 150
yards a very large proportion also missed!”
It is but forty years since these ideas were held, and rightly; but
it is curious, none the less, to note the extraordinary advance the art
of killing men has made since then. In 1822 it is deliberately stated
in a French report that “thus infantry is only formidable at about 100
yards.” In 1852, and thereabout, there were marked improvements
in firearms, and this, notwithstanding the continuance of the reign of
peace the “Great Exhibition” was supposed to inaugurate, and the
ominous distant growl of the war-thunder that was arising in the
East. With nations of different national characteristics, and in
different stages of national development, the quietude of a peaceful
power is looked on as but a synonym for weakness. National
decadence and a peace-at-any-price policy run, as all history proves,
on very much the same rails; the latter spirit is called up to cover or
excuse the former. So it was that the long peace was broken. If
Russia had really thought she would have to fight four powers and a
“benevolent neutral,” she might have held her hand, but the
“Manchester School” talked much, and foreign powers are disposed
always to take the outcry of the hysterical few in England for the
solid opinion of the silent many.
Some people, less influenced by the hysteria of those who, like
the Pharisee in the parable, air their opinions in the streets, or, like
Rudyard Kipling’s monkey-folk,—the “Bander-log,”—imagine, because
they proclaim, their proclamations must be true, were uneasy. The
best of the House of Commons were uneasy, and voted the Militia
Bill, which aimed at creating 80,000 permanent militiamen as a
second line of defence; a force that proved the justice of the view
taken, by the enormous help they gave the army when the new war
began. It is saying very little to assert that, without the militia from
1854 to 1856, we could not have recruited the army at Sebastopol,
any more than we could have held our Mediterranean garrisons.
Then there was a certain Colonel Kinloch who was uneasy. And
he found relief for uneasiness by starting the second Volunteer
Movement. The first was when Napoleon threatened to invade us.
He wrote a very valuable, because impressive, pamphlet, which
attracted attention, and actually led to the formation of volunteer
corps, which, of course, had little support from the Government; all
the more because they were anxious about their own pet child, the
new “Militia Bill.”
Then, lastly, there were the Secretary of State and the
Commander-in-Chief also anxious. And these relieved their anxiety
by doing the best possible thing they could, in establishing the camp
at Chobham, where field manœuvres were first seriously tried. Again
it is curious to see how history repeats itself. When the impressive
lesson of 1870 to 1871 aroused the national anxiety, the first camp
of instruction with real field manœuvres was started in 1871 by Lord
Cardwell, over much of the same area.
In 1852 Wellington died, and, after a while, Lord Hardinge took
his place. That the “Iron Duke” had been uniformly and, on the
whole, extraordinarily successful, is evident. That he never saw the
greatest leaders until he met Napoleon at Waterloo, is equally so. It
was for long, and is, to some extent, still rank heresy to even
criticise his actions. But whatever confidence he may have gained by
his imperturbable coolness, he gained no man’s regard. The rank
and file trusted and believed in him to some extent. But there was
not one soldier who would have died with his name on his lips as
many did for his far greater antagonist—Napoleon. Men were
obedient, save in such retreats as Burgos, when Wellington’s
influence was powerless to check the disgraceful conduct of his
army, but never devoted. He rarely praised the men who fought, and
died, and won battles, some of which are distinguished by the
absence of everything but that bull-dog courage which the privates
showed. He had a belief in himself that seems at times arrogant, but
he was patient, persevering, and sagacious. No careful student of
the art of war, no foreign military critic certainly, has ever classed
him among the greatest generals, or thought his campaigns worth
studying seriously.
Gneisenau at Waterloo utterly mistrusted him, as has been
shown, and the feeling must have been created by Wellington
himself. If half the myths about him were true, they would be worth
publishing as the unwritten history of a great man with many faults.
Of him Gleig, who shared in the general admiration of him, is quite
plain-spoken as to his personal coldness.
“Though retaining to the last a warm regard for his old
companions in arms, he entered very little with them, after he
became a politician, into the amenities of social life. We have reason
to believe that neither Lord Hill, nor Lord Raglan, nor Sir George
Murray ever visited the duke at Strathfieldsaye, nor could they, or
others of similar standing, such as Lord Anglesey, Sir Edward Paget,
and Sir James Kempt, be reckoned among the habitués of his
hospitable gatherings in Apsley House. The circle in which he chiefly
moved was that of fashionable ladies and gentlemen.”
The gallantry of Norman Ramsay’s battery at Fuentes d’Onoro
met with no praise from this imperturbable chief. Mercer’s
unquestionably cool and brave work with his battery at Waterloo was
barely noticed by his general. Mercer himself, in no very
complimentary spirit, says of his share in the great fight: “One day,
on the Marine Parade at Woolwich, a battalion coming up in close
column at the double march, Lieutenant-Colonel Brown, who stood
near me, remarked, ‘That puts me in mind of your troops coming up
at Waterloo, when you saved the Brunswickers.’ Until this moment I
never knew that our having done so had been remarked by anybody.
But he assured me it was known to the whole army; and yet the
duke not only withheld that praise which was our due, but refused
me the brevet rank of major; and, more than that, actually deprived
me of that troop given me by Lord Mulgrave, the then Master-
General, for that action, as recommended by my commanding
officer, Sir G. Adams Wood.
“That the duke was not ignorant of their danger, I have from
Captain Baynes, our brigade-major, who told me that after Sir
Augustus Frazer had been sent for us, his Grace exhibited
considerable anxiety for our coming up; and that, when he saw us
crossing the fields at a gallop, and in so compact a body, he actually
cried out, ‘Ah! that’s the way I like to see horse-artillery move.’
Another proof.”
Few men had had greater good fortune than he. “With no
opportunity for the display of any kind of talent, he, after entering
the army as an ensign at seventeen, became captain, M.P., and
A.D.C. to the Lord-Lieutenant at twenty-one, lieutenant-colonel at
twenty-four, and colonel at twenty-six. Had Wellesley been the son
of an obscure gentleman he might, and probably would, with all his
genius, have served in India as a subaltern, in the Peninsula in
various regimental grades, and might have died, perhaps, a barrack-
50
master on half-pay—a lieutenant-colonel with half a dozen clasps.”
So writes one historian of his life, and his view is shared by
Brialmont, who thinks that, when his brother became Governor-
General of India, “without his fraternal hand, he would probably
have risen neither so quickly nor so high.”
 And, finally: “The duke’s unpopularity, increasing with every
stage of his opposition to the Bill, reached such a height that, on the
anniversary of the battle of Waterloo, the once idolised victor in that
fight was hunted along the city by a mob, and escaped their violence
only by a fortunate accident.”
None can deny that his rewards were ample. He had landed in
the Peninsula but the “Sepoy general,” who had, through family
influence, succeeded the man who won Seringapatam. He had
received after Salamanca £100,000, and, later on, was granted
another £400,000. Talavera had made him a viscount, and, but a
few years later, he ranked as an English duke, had received the
Garter, and had been granted every possible foreign rank and
decoration.
In 1854 the long peace was broken. Tactics had meanwhile
scarcely changed since the Peninsula. The English still fought in line,
the French more or less in column, and in both armies the
deployment and the advance were covered by light infantry
skirmishers. The artillery was that of 1815 to all intents and
purposes. Only the telegraph introduced a new and not always, from
a military point of view, valuable adjunct to warlike operations, as it
led to the interference, by ignorant people at home, with the
conduct of operations of which they could form no accurate
judgment; and though this “opening up” communication with the
western countries greatly accelerated the supply of whatever was
wanted, “still, in the Crimean War, it enabled Napoleon III. to worry
the army incessantly with military ideas, which Pelissier calmly
disregarded.” Lastly, the use of steamships gave greater rapidity and
certainty in the transport of troops.
Just before the war began the coatee was gradually superseded
by the tunic, which offered greater protection to the man than the
previous dress. Gradually epaulettes as well as scales ceased.
The British army entered on its first European campaign, for
nearly forty years, side by side with its ancient enemies, for the first
time since the Crusades. In alliance with Turkey, to which after was
added Piedmont, it was proposed, at first, to carry on an active
campaign in the Balkan Peninsula against the Russian invasion of the
“principalities.” Russia’s appearance there, nominally to obtain
protection for the Christian subjects of the Porte, was based on the
hope of inheriting, or gaining by force of arms, the territory of the
“sick man,” or at least, by his destruction, to lead to a partition of his
territories, as had been effected before in Poland. Russia thought
little of the then newly made Emperor of France, Napoleon III., and
he, on his part, was by no means disinclined to adopt the Napoleonic
method, and to obtain security for his throne by war abroad, and
peace, with glory added, at home. England, owing to the outcry of
the “Manchester School,” had been regarded as a quantité
négligeable then, as she has sometimes been since. The Czar hoped,
at least, that the canker of the long peace had so rusted her
energies that she might protest, but would do nothing more. But
there were several surprises for the autocrat, as his descendant
found also in 1877 to 1878, before the wished-for end could be
gained. Turks then, as later, proved themselves somewhat stubborn
fighters. To a man who believes in Kismet, death has no real terrors,
and there is only his own personal ego, only his own personal nerve
strength, to deal with. The quantity is somewhat difficult of
determining, and its determination marks the difference between the
brave man and the coward. Few know, or can guess, the value of
this personal equation until he is tried. Sometimes, when that trial is
made, it is too late to be of future value.
But the Turk tenaciously held his own in the valley of the
Danube, and England and France declared war. The real defeat of
Russia was not to be on pseudo-Turkish soil. Austria intervened by
mobilising a portion of her army, which therefore threatened the
Russian line of retreat, and in other ways paralysed her freedom of
action. This “benevolent neutrality,” like all such actions which are
half-hearted, made bad blood. No one rejoiced, privately, more than
Russia did when disaster befell Austria in 1866. Said, three weeks
after Königgratz, the governor of East Siberia, who had received the
news partly by telegraph, partly by steamer down the Amoor, when
asked why he had rejoiced that “the Austrians had been gloriously
defeated at Sadowa,” “We have never forgotten or forgiven Austria’s
benevolent neutrality of 1854.”
So Russia abandoned her first idea of carrying the war into the
enemy’s country, and had to prepare to defend her own.
The Allied army had been landed, till all danger in that part was
over, at Varna, and had suffered terribly from sickness. Now the seat
of war was transferred to the Crimea, with the object of destroying
both the Russian base of operations in the Black Sea, and her
prestige as well, by the capture of Sebastopol. So the troops
embarked; but while both France and Turkey had to use their ships
of war as transports, and could not therefore convey cavalry,
England, with a magnificent fleet of transports for her troops and a
fine squadron of warships to cover them, was able to embark all
three arms for the new seat of war. It was something even in 1854
to be still a leading naval power. “No power but England has, indeed,
ever successfully despatched a complete army by sea, at anyrate
51
since the Crusades, save England.”
Thus were landed on the shores of the Crimea, which there run
north and south, on the small, well-protected beach of Balchuk Bay,
a few miles north of the Bulganak River, and about twenty-five miles
north of the principal objective, Sebastopol, a force of 28,000 French
—they had lost 10,000 men by cholera at Varna—and 7000 Turkish
infantry, with 68 guns and no cavalry, and the British army of 26,000
infantry, 60 guns, and a light cavalry brigade of about 1000 sabres.
The former forces were commanded by Marshal St. Arnaud, the
latter by Lord Raglan, and were formed into five divisions, about
5000 men, each of two brigades, each brigade of two regiments,
and with each two field batteries.
The siege train and the heavy cavalry brigade were awaiting
embarkation at Varna. Even then it had been contemplated that a
siege was possible, but there was an obstacle in the immediate way;
for, behind the Alma river, a few miles south of the Bulganak, the
Russian army under Mentschikoff had taken up a position for
defence. The march began with the English force inland on the left
because it had cavalry to cover its flank front and rear, with the Rifle
Brigade forming the advanced and rear guard; then came the
French; and the Turkish contingent formed the right of the advance,
though in the column of march they followed in rear of the French
columns. The first day’s march was six miles. The Russians had
placed their army across the road from Eupatoria to Sebastopol; but
there were few troops west of the road, as the cliffs bordering the
brook were there steep, with only two difficult avenues of approach,
which might have been blocked or defended by field works, while
the plateau was exposed to the fire of the guns from the fleet. Their
right, however, rested on the Kourganè Hill, and on the slopes below
were some earthworks; while the presence of their cavalry on the
extreme right, necessitated (according to the principle of the
Peninsular days) that the left flank battalions of the English lines
should be in column ready to form square.
The battle of the Alma is a fair type of the use of line versus
column; and, be it remembered, that as it had survived the
Peninsular days so, very slightly modified, it remained in the British
army until 1870.
The French and Turks began the battle, but what happened on
the right can be dismissed with little comment. The difficulties were
rather those of ground than those created by the enemy, for there
was little resistance here. “Opposed to the English were at least two-
thirds of the Russians.” The Second and Light Divisions, the 30th,
55th, 95th, and 41st, 47th, 49th in the one, and the 7th, 23rd, 33rd,
with the 19th, 77th, 88th in the other, led in line of columns; the
Third and First, the former composed of the 1st, 38th, 50th, and the
4th, 28th, 44th, the latter of the Guards and the 42nd, 79th, 93rd,
were in second line; the Fourth Division, the 20th, 21st, 68th, 69th,
and the 1st Rifle Brigade echeloned on the left was in third line, and
the cavalry, 4th, 13th, 18th, 11th Hussars, and the 17th Lancers,
formed on the flank and rear. Each line deployed occupied about
2400 yards, the first at about one mile from the enemy’s position;
 52
and not only did this occupy much time, “several hours,” but the
deployment was irregular and the advance slow. All the
disadvantages of the linear formation for attack were fully shown.
Crossing the Alma, where at some points the water was up to the
53
men’s necks, the dislocation of the attenuated front became more
manifest, while the loss was heavy. Still the shattered and broken
lines pressed on, but the Light Division had to fall back, having lost
47 officers and 850 men, and the brigade of Guards, with the
Highlanders on their left, pressed into the fight. Though they too
were checked for a time, their advance and the front of fire they
developed were too much for the Russian columns. Assailed in front
by determined infantry, the Vladimir Regiment alone about this time
lost 49 officers and 1500 men, so Anitschkoff says, and, fired on by
two guns which Lord Raglan had fortunately got across the stream in
the very forefront of the battle, the great columns dissolved and
fled.
the Crimea. 1854–5.
 But, throughout, the evil, from a military standpoint, of the long
peace was apparent. There was want of method in the attack and
want of supreme direction. The artillery was badly handled, and was
used without combined effort. It would have been wiser if the whole
force had made a flank attack on the Russian right, and both
threatened directly his line of retreat and penned him in against the
54
coast. And, finally, the cavalry were not used at all. “I will keep my
cavalry in a bandbox,” said Raglan, which, however cautious, was
not “l’audace”; and so, partly due to French advice no doubt, there
was no pursuit and no rout. Once again, as often in the Peninsula,
the battle was won by the fighting power of the men rather than the
genius of the commander. Throughout, the cavalry, instead of
spreading widely for information, were kept close to the columns
they should have covered. Finally, while the Russians admit a loss of
6000 men, the British suffered one of 2000, and that of the French
was estimated by Raglan at the most as three officers and 560 men.
Two days were then wasted, and on the 23rd the army made the
magnificent march of seven miles, and on the next day six more!
With greater celerity Sebastopol might, in all human probability, have
been carried by assault. So thought Todleben himself, the
commanding engineer in the Russian fortress, and he was no mean
judge. The defeated army had only garrisoned the fortress, and then
proposed falling back into the interior. There was, too, a dread of the
fortifications themselves on the part of the leaders of the British
army, which is somewhat to be wondered at, with the traditions of
Badajoz and Ciudad Rodrigo still not forgotten, by some at least. The
works on the north side of the harbour were deemed too formidable
to attack; it was decided, therefore, to make a flank march round
the place and try the southern side. It must be remembered that the
general line of march was north to south, that of the harbour east
and west; and that beyond the upland which lay behind the town,
and which was to be the site of the coming siege, were two
harbours, Balaklava and Kamiesch, which might be used as new
bases of operation against the great fortress of the Crimea.
 So the most remarkable flank march in military history was
begun. Owing to the confusion that characterised much of the staff
work of the campaign, the general-in-chief found himself leading the
entire column, the advanced guard having lost its way (!), with
behind him thirty guns; and this through a thick wood. The British
general was in as complete ignorance that the Russian army was
moving across his front five miles away, as was Mentschikoff in
equally blissful ignorance that his enemy was crossing the rear of his
column of march. Thus, not even the true advanced guard, but
some of the main column, cut off some of the Russian baggage
train.
However, Balaklava was reached without further misadventure,
the result of blind accident rather than knowledge of how war should
be conducted; and the two armies settled down before Sebastopol
on the Chersonese Upland, the north side of which was formed by
the south front of the fortress, another by the sea, and the third by
a cliff edge leading down into the wide valley below the Tchernaya
and Balaklava. Reversing the order of attack at the Alma, the Allies
now changed flanks, the British from Balaklava taking the right as
far as they could afford to go (this flank had later on to be extended
by the French), while the French from Kamiesch Bay occupied the
left of the besieging line. Thus it was not even a complete
investment of the southern side. The right of the English section was
at the beginning quite en l’air. There was no covering army to watch
and meet the Russian army known to be outside and free to act.
Balaklava was fortified, camps were formed on the upland; the
Woronzoff road, by which Todleben, in command at Sebastopol,
communicated with the interior of Russia, was defended by a few
weak redoubts held by Turks; and the camps of the cavalry brigades
were formed in the lowland between the road and the upland cliffs.
Nothing could prevent the continual reinforcement of the garrison,
nothing could prevent an attack by Mentschikoff’s army from
Baghtcheserai; but the investing force must in that case turn its back
upon the defenders of the fortress to meet the attack of the relieving
army.
 Sebastopol was neither to be invested nor reduced. The siege
was merely a means to an end, that of draining the resources of the
adversary, and the cost of doing so, both in lives and in suffering,
was great in the extreme.
The siege itself is too complex to deal with in detail. The place
was bombarded on the 17th October, and the fleet co-operated. The
first sortie was made on the 26th; by January 1854 there were
14,000 men in hospital, and there were scarcely any horses; there
was a second sortie in March; on the 9th April there was a second
bombardment, but nothing came of it; on the 6th June there was a
third bombardment and an assault, and the Mamelon was taken; the
fourth bombardment on the 17th June was also followed by an
assault, the cemetery at the foot of the Green Hill being taken; a
fifth and sixth bombardment was carried out on the 17th August,
and from the 5th to the 7th September; and then the final assault
was made, when the Malakoff Tower was taken, and the attack on
the Redan failed. This terminated the siege. The Russians, after a
prolonged defence, of which they are justly proud, sank their ships,
blew up the forts on the south side, and retreated to the north side
of the harbour, leaving the bloodstained ruined city and fortifications
to the victors. They had nothing to reproach themselves with. But,
meanwhile, an expedition to Kinburn had cut off one of the arsenals
on which the Russian commander in Sebastopol depended, and the
exhaustion of Russia (she had lost 240,000 men up to the late Czar’s
death, and 80,000 since) was evident. Otherwise the Russian
position was still admirable, and the war might have been prolonged
indefinitely. But the fall of the southern forts led the way to armistice
and then peace.
But while the siege was thus dragging on its weary length, the
Russian field army and the garrison had not been passive. There had
been three efforts to raise the siege, namely, those which led to the
battle of Balaklava on the 25th October 1853, when the relieving
force numbered 22,000 infantry, 3400 cavalry, and 78 guns, and
advanced from the Tchernaya by Kamara, across the Woronzoff
road; the battle of Inkerman, on the 5th November 1854, when the
garrison made a sortie with 19,000 infantry and 38 guns, aided by
Pauloff with 16,000 infantry and 96 guns from the Inkerman heights,
while Gortschakoff threatened the upland from the Balaklava valley;
and the battle of the Tchernaya, on the 16th August 1864, in which
our new Sardinian allies shared, and which was fought by them and
the French only, with a Turkish reserve, but which does not enter
into the story of the British army, except as an incident in the
campaign.
But the two former battles are remarkable and noteworthy
instances of the courage and fearlessness—one may almost add
skill-lessness—of our army. Never did men fight better. Never were
greater mistakes made in all the annals of war. The Crimean
campaign teaches one thing, if it teaches no other. Battles are won,
sometimes if apparently lost, by sheer hard fighting. When Marengo
was lost, it was very soon won. So in these cases. The army ought
to have been beaten according to all the canons of war, but it
wasn’t! Perhaps a time will come when the man who does the real
work—that “very strong man,” Thomas Atkins—has his due meed.
Crosses and decorations are given often enough to those who have
never seen a shot fired, but poor “Thomas” goes away bravely in
peace, as he fought bravely in war, with his medal, and even that for
“distinguished service in the field,” to sweep a London crossing.
Balaklava is a clear instance of mere brilliant animal courage, a
bravery that the Russians recognise as fully as we do, and would
reward better than we do, who have allowed many a gallant man
who rode in the “death ride” to sink to workhouse pay. They speak
with feeling and admiration of both the action of the cavalry and the
Highlanders, and wonder why we have a clasp for Balaklava! A
Russian officer, many years ago, asking what clasp was on the
Crimean medal an officer was wearing (he was dining in a naval
mess), and being told it was for Balaklava, started, and said, “Do
you English give clasps for your defeats as well as your victories, for
we claim Balaklava as a success?” “How so?” was the Englishman’s
natural response. “You did not hold the field, nor did you raise the
siege.” “True,” replied the Russian, “but we won the Woronzoff road,
and, practically, you never contested with us the right to it
afterwards, and contented yourself with acting defensively behind
the earthworks of Balaklava and the Upland.”
There are two sides to every question, therefore; but one thing
is evident, that the British position based on Balaklava was in front
line as regards the interior of the Crimea, while that of the French at
Kamiesch was not, and could not be, molested. A glance at the map
shows this, and shows also how a little further forethought on the
part of the British would have shown the staff the advisability of
keeping on the left, as we had done, and agreed to do, at Alma, and
basing ourselves on Kamiesch, rather than taking Balaklava as our
base, in opposition for a time to the French, and wilfully accepting,
or rather asking for, the most exposed position. It is always easy to
be wise after the event, but a wise staff gauges the possibility of the
event before it occurs. No one can ascribe to the staff in the Crimea
the virtue of prescience in the faintest degree.
The battle of Balaklava, therefore, is peculiar. The only regiments
in the Army List who carry that name “on their colours” are the 4th
and 5th Dragoon Guards, the 1st, 2nd, and 6th Dragoons, the 4th,
8th, 11th, and 13th Hussars, and the 17th Lancers among the
cavalry, and the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, the second
battalion of which was the 93rd, who formed “the thin red line” to
meet the Russian cavalry, which was looked upon, and rightly in the
days of muzzle-loaders, as peculiarly gallant. But even these brave
men might look back on the equal gallantry of the Fusiliers who at El
Bodon did much the same thing.
But a battle must be “peculiar” when only one regiment of the
line can claim a clasp for Balaklava. It only shows how purely
defensive the action was. Against the Russian host of all arms, only
the cavalry and one regiment of the line were exposed to fire. The
artillery, of course, were engaged, but to enumerate all the actions
they have been in would be to explain the meaning of their motto
“Ubique.” The Russians from the Traktir Bridge advanced then
straight on the poor forts situated on the Woronzoff Road, held by
the Turks, and heading towards Kamiesch and Balaklava. Expanding
into skirmishing order, says an eyewitness, they easily carried them,
and the Turks fled into Balaklava village, to be blasphemed by some
old soldier’s wife who hated running men. Her language, so it is said,
was emphasised with a broomstick. The retreating Turks were
pursued by cavalry; but, met by the guns of the Marine Artillery
outside the castle and the “thin red line” of the 93rd, the Russians
fell back. The base of operations, at least, was safe; but it could
never have been carried by cavalry alone. British cavalry alone had
prevented the advance of the Russian army elsewhere. The actual
loss inflicted by this arm could not have been much, and they
probably suffered more than they inflicted; but the moral force and
value of cavalry was never more clearly shown.
There were two cavalry charges that made the battle
noteworthy. There is nothing else, except the pluck of the
Highlanders, that needs comment.
On the sound of the firing, the First and Fourth Divisions moved
down towards Balaklava, and moving parallel with them were the
Light and Heavy Brigades, separated by a wide interval, the latter
leading on the south side of the road towards Balaklava, the other
on the north side nearer the Tchernaya. The scene of the two
charges is therefore divided by the road, which runs along a low
ridge. Just as the Heavy Brigade, 900 sabres strong, marching in a
very irregular column without scouts, was nearing Kadikoi, a huge
column of Russian cavalry, estimated at 3000 men, suddenly
appeared on their left crossing the ridge. Scarlett did not hesitate:
forming up the first troops (some 300) as they arrived, he dashed
with the Greys and Inniskillings full at the centre of the mass, which,
irresolute, halted to receive the shock; and the 4th and 5th coming
up successively and taking the unwieldy column in flank, the
Russians gave way in complete disorder, and fled headlong back to
the head of the valley. The charge had cost the Heavy Brigade
comparatively few men.
 Meanwhile, there had been an apparent intention on the part of
the Russians to remove the guns captured in the Turkish redoubts.
To prevent this, Lord Raglan sent his aide-de-camp, Captain Nolan,
with directions to Lord Lucan to advance. Through misconception of
his instructions, Captain Nolan, instead of indicating the intended
objective, pointed to the heavy battery of guns a mile away,
supported by masses of cavalry and infantry and other batteries on
either flank. Lord Cardigan was to charge the whole of the Russian
army. But there was as little hesitation with him as with Scarlett.
Into the semicircle of fire the Light Brigade dashed on their “death
ride.” They returned broken and in groups, having left 247 men
killed and wounded, and with a mounted strength of but 195 men.
The Heavy Brigade had moved in support, but was not employed; on
the other side the Chasseurs d’Afrique gave timely aid by driving off
the guns on the left of the advance. Nolan, the author of a
misfortune the remembrance of which is still so glorious, was struck
by a piece of shell in the breast, and though already lifeless, was
carried through the ranks of the 13th before he fell from the saddle.
Never was there recorded a more daring ride against dreadful odds,
and all so practically useless. Well might the French officer looking
down from the plateau on the battle panorama below, exclaim,
“C’est magnifique, mais ce n’est pas la guerre.”
The camps of the different divisions had meanwhile been pitched
far back on the Upland, not far from the steep escarpment that
overlooked the plain and the Tchernaya valley, on the opposite, or
right, bank of which river rose the Inkerman heights. The more
northerly of the camps, and therefore that nearest the river, was that
of the Second Division, on whose left front lay “Shell Hill,” bounded
on one side by the Quarry Ravine and on the other by Careenage
Ravine, which the Russians had attempted to seize in the sortie on
the 26th October. To its right front is “fore ridge,” the extreme
northern spur of which overlooks the Quarry Ravine and the
Tchernaya. Here, to prevent the Russians from occupying “Shell Hill,”
a sandbag battery had been built, armed, and then abandoned. A
line through this point almost due west passes through the
Lancaster gun battery; and this line represents the extreme limit of
the British occupation. North of it, between the line and that formed
by the upper end of the harbour of Sebastopol and the river
Tchernaya, is the field of Inkerman. It was on the extreme right
flank of the British defensive line.
There were for immediate purposes of defence 3000 men of the
Second Division, together with the Guards 1300 strong, and the
Light Division, 1400 strong, about a mile to the south. A mile farther
off was Bosquet’s French Division. This was the force that had the
task before it of defending the gap between the Careenage Ravine
and the Tchernaya against the 35,000 men which Mentschikoff
meant to develop. It turned out to be as difficult for him to develop
his strength in the narrow space, as for his adversary to defend it.
At 7 a.m. on the 5th November heavy Russian batteries opened
fire from “Shell Hill.” The piquets fell back fighting, and were
reinforced by the Second Division. It is the most curious battle to
record that has ever been fought. In other great struggles, army
corps, great units of sorts, are used to express the action during the
phases of the fight. But Inkerman! One has to tell of what mere
handfuls of men did. How the first reinforcement was 650 men; how
the 49th defeated a strong column, and pursued it even to Shell Hill;
how 260 of the 77th fired into, and charged and dispersed, two
Russian battalions; how 200 men of the 30th charged with the
bayonet two out of four battalions, driving the whole off; how the
41st, 525 gallant souls, met five other battalions and drove them
into the valley of the Tchernaya; how in this, the first stage of this
“soldiers’ battle,” 15,000 men had been shattered by less than 4000
all told! Nor is the next stage, which began at 7.30, less
extraordinary. Against the remnants of that weary force some 19,000
fresh troops were to be brought into action, and 10,000 of them
attacked the right at the Quarry Ravine. There were actually 2100 of
Cathcart’s Division arriving! Round the Sandbag Battery the fight
seemed now to centre. First, some 4000 Russians attacked the 700
British there, who held them in check until reinforced by the Guards.
The fighting was individual, almost, and desperate. At one moment
there must have been some 6000 Russians against a few hundreds
of the Coldstreams, who were holding the battery, and here
occurred, perhaps, the “bloodiest struggle ever witnessed since war
cursed the earth. Back to back on that bloody ground, sodden into a
hideous quagmire, the gallant Coldstreams fought against an
infuriated multitude, till their ammunition was expended; and then,
clubbing their muskets, by dint of blows from stock and stone, they
drove the Russians back far enough to obtain room to form in line,
and with levelled bayonets charged the retreating masses, and again
joined their comrades.”
Cathcart, arriving with his command, essayed a counter attack
on the right, but he fell, and his force suffered severely. The
opposing forces were curiously intermingled in that misty confusion,
and a vigorous effort again made by the Russians from the Quarry
Ravine seemed, at one moment, likely to succeed, for guns were
captured. But the end was near. An English eighteen-pounder
battery and some French guns had beaten down the fire of the
Russian artillery on Shell Hill, and at eleven o’clock the “Russians,
when hopeless of success, seemed to melt from the lost field,” and
the British were far too exhausted to pursue.
Gortschakoff’s menaced attack was not pushed home; and
hence it was that Bosquet came to the assistance of the hard-
pressed British and did useful work. The English loss was 597 killed
and 1760 wounded (or rather more than one-third their total
strength), the French 130, and the Russians 12,256. The regiments
engaged on the British side were the 4th, 8th, 11th, 15th, 17th Light
Cavalry, and the 1st, 4th, 7th, 19th, 20th, 21st, 23rd, 28th, 30th,
33rd, 38th, 41st, 44th, 47th, 49th, 55th, 57th, 63rd, 68th, 77th,
88th, 95th, Rifle Brigade, and Guards.
It was the last serious effort to defeat the besieging army, and
the siege went on with all horrors of a dreadful winter. “The days
and nights in the trenches were simply horrible. The troops shivered
there for twenty-four hours at a time, often amid mud that rose
nearly to the knee, and as the winter drew on, became frozen,
especially towards the early and darker hours of the morning.”
Matters improved a little when the railway from Balaklava was
completed, and when the war terminated, the army was well fed,
housed, and clothed. It was 51,000 strong, that is, stronger than it
had ever been; with Turkish and German legions, 20,000 and 10,000
each respectively, raised by British money. But battle, and, still more,
disease and mismanagement, had cost the country 22,000 men. The
general motto “Sebastopol” is borne on the colours or appointments
of the 1st, 4th, 5th, and 6th Dragoon Guards, and the 1st, 2nd, 4th,
6th, 8th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, and 17th Cavalry Regiments, and
the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 7th, 9th, 13th, 14th, 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th, 21st,
23rd, 28th, 30th, 33rd, 34th, 38th, 41st, 42nd, 44th, 47th, 48th,
49th, 55th, 56th, 57th, 62nd, 63rd, 68th, 71st, 72nd, 77th, 79th,
82nd, 88th, 89th, 90th, 93rd, 95th, and 97th Regiments of the line,
the Rifle Brigade, and Guards.
 Officer 20th Regt (Light
Co.) 1853.

But though the State ceased to reduce the number of battalions,

everything was put on a peace footing as soon as possible. “Upon
the return of the army, the reduction of its establishments was
effected in the usual reckless fashion. We soon reverted to our
customary condition of military inefficiency.” Yet we had learned, or
should have learned, much by the war. Waste and mismanagement
had characterised the administration and the staff, the paucity of
regular reserves had so made itself felt, that even in the assault of
the Redan there were men who had barely fired a rifle before.
Recruits, scarcely even drilled, and only partly uniformed, were
fighting in the forefront of battle but a few weeks after they had
enlisted. Our Mediterranean garrisons were largely composed of
militia, which force also formed, at that time, our only reliable
recruiting-ground, and in our home forts were foreign legionary
soldiers. The only things that were left, after a while, of the
experience we had gained in the Crimea were the establishment of
the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness, the foundation of the great
hospital at Netley, the framework of the present commissariat and
transport corps, and the building of the Staff College.
Still, though reduction and economy (or what was thought
economy) naturally followed the conclusion of peace, a new era, as
far as the army went, dawned. The camp at Chobham, before the
war, had emphasised the value of such field training, and hence,
largely through the advice and energy of the late Prince Consort, a
considerable area of waste land was purchased at Aldershot, and the
“Camp” was permanently formed, Crimean huts being utilised for
barracks. Bounties had always been largely used, in the just finished
war, as before it, to induce recruits to join; but out of it the
numerous small personal requirements of the soldier were
purchased. Now this was changed, and a “free kit” of “necessaries”
were given to the recruit, as well as his uniform and equipment. Still
he paid for his rations out of his daily pay. The supply of clothing,
too, which had hitherto been a regimental matter, in the hands of
the commanding officer, subject to inspection by a board of general
officers, now passed into the hands of the War Office, a course
which not only insured uniformity, but closed a door open to possible
wrong-doing.
The Victoria Cross for Valour was inaugurated, and many of the
Crimean heroes received the coveted decoration, which meant to the
men not only an honour, but carried with it a pension of £10 a year.
Since its introduction, some 412 officers and men have received the
coveted reward, and of these, apparently, 166 are still living. It has
reached all classes. There are still serving with the colours (in 1896)
1 field-marshal, 6 generals, 2 major-generals, 6 colonels, 4
lieutenant-colonels, 4 majors, 5 captains, 1 lieutenant, 1
quartermaster, 1 surgeon-lieutenant-colonel, 2 surgeon-majors, 2
surgeon-captains, 1 sergeant-major, 1 colour-sergeant, 1 corporal,
and 2 privates who wear the bronze cross. Medals were issued to all
the rank and file, with clasps for the actions in which they had
shared; and to these were added a certain proportion of Turkish,
Sardinian, and French medals for special distribution.
Many other small regulations were made for the benefit of both
officers and men, and people of all classes vied in welcoming the
soldiers home. At last the long-expiring dread of an army was nearly
dead. At Sheffield, Mr. Roebuck, at a dinner given to the 4th
Dragoon Guards, said in his speech that our soldiers are “the
protectors of England, they are the protectors of our glory, they are
the protectors of our freedom. And here now is one striking instance
that your institution affords of the thorough confidence we have in
you, and in the institution to which you belong. We are not afraid of
soldiers. We love you as brethren, and we know that you will protect
us as such.” These are welcome words to those who have seen how
strong had been the antipathy to a standing army in the past. By
sheer patience, sheer bravery, and continuous good behaviour, the
standing army had won its place in the national heart.
All the infantry were now armed with a new rifle, the Enfield.
The Minié, introduced in 1853, was very heavy, indeed far too heavy,
and carried an ounce ball. Its calibre had been that of the Brown
Bess, the heavy flintlock musket that preceded the percussion
weapon of 1840, and which had won for us much of our Empire; as
this in its turn had followed the wheel-lock and matchlock arms. The
survival of the first infantry missile weapon since the days of bow
and crossbow is shown in the term “firelock,” applied to the musket
of the rank and file, even long after the campaign of Waterloo. It
was now replaced by a lighter weapon, so that sixty rounds of ball
ammunition could be carried on the person.
So with the bayonet. At first it was merely a dagger which was
thrust, not screwed, into the muzzle of the smooth-bore gun. Then it
became socketed and lengthened. When the length of the gun barrel
was diminished, it was also lengthened, as either the “sword
bayonet,” or the very long bayonet that was, for a while, introduced
with the Martini-Henry rifle. Finally, it has reverted more or less to its
original form and length, and the Lee-Mitford has ceased to be a
serious pike.
 CHAPTER XIV
THE ARMY IN INDIA: (a) THE EAST INDIA COMPANY, ITS
RISE—1600–1825

I
t was not until the year 1600 that the attention of English
merchants was seriously turned to India. Long before that,
Portugal first, then its conqueror, Spain, next the Dutch, and
finally the French, had gained a footing in Hindustan, and with
factories had established trade. The beginnings were small enough.
Surat near Bombay and Bantam in Java were first occupied by us,
and in 1640 a footing was obtained on the mainland, and Madras
came into being. This replaced Bantam, as the cession of Bombay
did Surat. Similarly, a factory, higher up the Hooghley, was
transferred to Fort-William, around which grew up Calcutta. By 1708
the various rival companies which had been formed were united
under one head; and while the privileges of the Company were
continually renewed and extended, the foreign opposition of our
rivals in India, save France established at Chandernagore and
Pondicherry on the Madras side, gradually died away and
disappeared.

In 1744 the two opposing forces came into active antagonism.

On the French side, Dupleix, already at the head of the French “Raj,”
a man of considerable ability, had gained enormous influence over
the factions that made up the Mogul empire. He, with
Labourdonnais, from Mauritius, had even captured, and held to
ransom, Madras; while, by fighting and diplomacy, the French
completely controlled the policy of the Carnatic and Deccan.
 But rising into note on the opposing side was Robert Clive; who,
after defeating the French and their allies at Arcot and Conjeveram,
raised the siege of Trichinopoly. Both French leaders had failed, and
both died in France in suffering and comparative poverty; but Clive,
after a journey home, returned to India, to find that Surajah Dowlah,
Nabob of Bengal, had captured Calcutta and caused the death of the
majority of the survivors by their imprisonment in the “Black Hole.”
The intricate, and not very creditable, diplomacy that ensued
culminated in the battle of Plassy, notorious as being won against
extraordinary odds, and as leading directly to the destruction of the
French power in India.
The European, or at first largely half-caste army employed there
was not numerous. The remains of the garrison that had been sent
to take possession of the Bombay dowry formed the nucleus of the
“Bombay Regiment,” which became the Bengal Fusiliers, or “Old
Toughs,” and is now the 2nd Battalion Royal Dublin Fusiliers. They
behaved gallantly in the early fighting at Cuddalore and Davicottah,
but did not come on the strength of the home army until 1858. In
1754 the first true European regiment, the 39th, was despatched to
hold Madras. For this it is distinguished by the motto “Primus in
Indis.” It is most curious to note, therefore, in all these early efforts
at dominion in India, the Madras Sepoy took a most important part,
and behaved manfully.
Two smaller “affairs,” the capture of Fort Hooghley and
Chandernagore, preceded the more important battle of Plassy, where
the Indian army numbered 50,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, and 50
guns, and met Clive in the “groves of Plassy,” with a force roughly
estimated at 1000 Europeans, namely, the 39th, the 1st Bengal and
1st Bombay Fusiliers (now the 1st Battalion Royal Munster and 2nd
Battalion Royal Dublin Fusiliers), with 2000 Sepoys and 8 six-
pounders, with 2 howitzers. The battle lasted from the 22nd till the
morning of the 23rd June, and resulted in the dispersion of the
enemy with a loss in killed and wounded on the British side of but
seventy-two men. But though far reaching in its results, it, however
decisive, cannot be classed among the great battles of history. The
insignificant numbers of Clive’s army on the one side, the treachery
displayed by most of the great chieftains of Surajah Dowlah, even
the small cost of the victory, show that the fighting itself could not
have been severe. But for the disloyalty of Mir Jafar and others, the
British army must have been driven into the river they had crossed
in order to engage the enemy. Had this been otherwise, the history
of India might have been differently written. As it was, the moral
effect was great. It was the first real military footing the British had
in the Indian Peninsula. “It was Plassy which forced her to become
one of the main factors in the settlement of the burning Eastern
Question; Plassy which necessitated the conquest and colonisation
of the Cape of Good Hope, of the Mauritius, and the protectorship
over Egypt.”
By 1761, therefore, the French power was but a name; and,
reinforced now from home by three more battalions, of which the
79th was one, the British defeated the French at Wandewash, where
only European troops were engaged on the British side. There the
old 79th behaved magnificently; and later on, the war led to the
addition of the names of Buxar and Carnatic (as well as that of
Plassy) to the colours of the 103rd.
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