Important Questions with Detailed Answers for Computer Networks (GCUF)

1. Analog and Digital Transmission, Noise, Media, and Encoding

Analog and Digital Transmission: Analog transmission is the method of transmitting data in a
continuous wave form that changes amplitude, phase, or frequency according to the data. Analog
signals are susceptible to noise and degradation. Digital transmission involves sending data in
binary format (0s and 1s). It offers better noise immunity, efficient error detection, and data
compression.

Difference Table:

Feature Analog Transmission Digital Transmission

Signal Type Continuous Discrete (binary)
Noise Sensitivity High Low
Transmission Quality Degrades over distance High over long distances
Example Telephone, Radio Computer Networks

Transmission Impairments and Noise: Transmission impairment refers to any undesirable

effect that distorts the signal during transmission.

Types of Noise:

 Thermal Noise: Produced by the random motion of electrons; exists in all electronic
devices.
 Crosstalk: Occurs when signals from one line interfere with another.
 Impulse Noise: Sudden irregular noise like spikes due to electromagnetic interference.
 Attenuation: Loss of signal strength over distance.
 Distortion: Signal changes shape due to differing propagation speeds of signal
components.

Transmission Media:

 Guided Media: Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optics. Physical media that
direct signals.
 Unguided Media: Radio waves, microwaves, and infrared signals transmitted through
the air.

Encoding Techniques:

 NRZ (Non-Return to Zero): Simple binary encoding using voltage levels.

 Manchester Encoding: Each bit has a transition, combining clock and data, ideal for
synchronization.
  4B/5B Encoding: Prevents long strings of 0s or 1s, increasing efficiency.

2. Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

Asynchronous Transmission: Data is sent one byte at a time, with start and stop bits. Suitable
for low-speed communication.

Synchronous Transmission: Data sent in large blocks or frames with synchronized timing.
More efficient but requires synchronization.

Feature Asynchronous Synchronous

Start/Stop Bits Required Not required
Clock Synchronization Not necessary Necessary
Transmission Speed Slower Faster
Example Keyboard input File transfer

Timing Issues: In synchronous communication, both sender and receiver must share a clock or
use phase-locking mechanisms. Any discrepancy causes miscommunication.

3. Protocol Design Issues

Key Issues in Protocol Design:

 Error Control: Uses techniques like ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) to detect and
retransmit corrupted frames.
 Flow Control: Prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver. Protocols like Stop-
and-Wait, Sliding Window are used.
 Addressing: Each device on the network is given a unique identifier.
 Sequencing: Ensures that data is received in the correct order.
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation: Wrapping and unwrapping of data as it travels
through layers.

4. Network System Architecture (OSI and TCP/IP Models)

OSI Model (7 Layers):

1. Physical Layer: Deals with hardware transmission of raw bitstreams over a medium.
2. Data Link Layer: Ensures error-free transfer of frames between nodes.
 3. Network Layer: Manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices, and
determines the best path to move data.
4. Transport Layer: Ensures complete data transfer.
5. Session Layer: Maintains, manages, and terminates connections between applications.
6. Presentation Layer: Translates data between the application and network format.
7. Application Layer: Interfaces directly with end-user software.

TCP/IP Model:

 Application Layer: Combines OSI’s application, presentation, and session layers.

 Transport Layer: Ensures end-to-end communication, error checking (TCP/UDP).
 Internet Layer: Equivalent to OSI’s network layer, handles IP addressing and routing.
 Network Access Layer: Manages hardware addressing and physical transmission.

Encapsulation: Each layer adds its header to data before transmission. Upon reception, layers
remove headers (decapsulation).

5. Internetworking

Definition: Internetworking connects different types of networks (e.g., LAN, WAN) using
devices like routers and gateways.

Devices Used:

 Routers: Direct data packets between networks using IP addresses.

 Gateways: Connect dissimilar systems, performing protocol conversion.
 Switches and Bridges: Connect segments within the same network.

Purpose: Allows communication between networks with different architectures, protocols, or

technologies.

6. Routing

Definition: Routing is the process of finding a path for data from source to destination across
multiple networks.

Static Routing: Manually configured. Suitable for small networks. No adaptability.

Dynamic Routing: Routers exchange information automatically to update routing tables.

Routing Algorithms:
  Distance Vector: Based on Bellman-Ford algorithm. Routers share distance vectors with
neighbors (e.g., RIP).
 Link State: Routers broadcast information to build a full map of network (e.g., OSPF).

Metrics: Hop count, bandwidth, delay, load.

7. Local Area Network (LAN)

Definition: A LAN connects computers in a limited area like an office or campus.

Features:

 High data transfer rates.

 Typically owned by a single organization.
 Low latency and high-speed communication.

LAN Topologies:

 Bus: One main cable; terminators at ends.

 Star: Central hub/switch; easy to manage.
 Ring: Data travels in circular path.
 Mesh: Devices interconnected; high fault tolerance.

Technologies: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11).

Comparison:

Network Area Covered Speed Example

LAN Small High Office
MAN City-wide Medium ISPs
WAN Worldwide Low Internet

8. Network Security Issues

Common Threats:

 Viruses/Worms: Self-replicating malware.

 Phishing: Tricking users into revealing sensitive data.
 DoS (Denial of Service): Overwhelms network resources.
 Sniffing: Intercepting data on the network.

Security Techniques:
  Cryptography: Encryption (AES, RSA) to protect confidentiality.
 Firewall: Filters incoming and outgoing traffic.
 IDS/IPS: Detects and prevents attacks.
 Authentication Protocols: Ensure user/device legitimacy (e.g., Kerberos).

9. MAC Layer Protocol

Definition: MAC (Media Access Control) is responsible for controlling how devices in a
network gain access to a medium and permission to transmit data.

Protocols:

 CSMA/CD (Collision Detection): Used in wired Ethernet. Devices sense channel; if

collision occurs, retransmit.
 CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance): Used in wireless networks. Devices send signals to
avoid collisions.

Other Techniques:

 Token Passing: Only the device with the token can transmit.
 Polling: Central controller asks devices one-by-one to transmit.

MAC Addressing: Each network device has a unique MAC address (48-bit) for identification at
the data link layer.