Goals of Networks

Computer Network means an interconnection of autonomous (standalone) computers for

information exchange. The connecting media could be a copper wire, optical fiber, microwave ,
or satellite.
Networking Elements – The computer network includes the following networking elements:
1. At least two computers
2. Transmission medium either wired or wireless
3. Protocols or rules that govern the communication
4. Network software such as Network Operating System
Network Criteria:
The criteria that have to be met by a computer network are:
1. Performance – It is measured in terms of transit time and response time.
 Transit time is the time for a message to travel from one device to another
 Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
Performance is dependent on the following factors:
 The number of users
 Type of transmission medium
 Capability of connected network
 Efficiency of software
 Bandwidth
 Network topology
 Network protocols
 Distance
 Network congestion
 Network hardware
2. Reliability – It is measured in terms of
 Frequency of failure
 Recovery from failures
 Robustness during catastrophe
 Quality of service (QoS)
 Reducing single points of failure
 Capacity planning
 Network architecture
3. Security – It means protecting data from unauthorized access.
4. Network topology- it is another crucial factor to consider when designing a computer
network. It refers to the way in which computers, devices, and links are arranged in a network.
Common topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and hybrid, each with its own advantages
and disadvantages in terms of cost, scalability, reliability, and performance. The choice of
topology depends on the specific needs and constraints of the network. Other important criteria
that must be met by a computer network include performance, reliability, and security.
Goals of Computer Networks: The following are some important goals of computer
networks:
Resource Sharing – Many organizations has a substantial number of computers in operations,
which are located apart. Ex. A group of office workers can share a common printer, fax, modem,
scanner, etc.
1. High Reliability – If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be replicated
on two or more machines. If one of them is not available, due to hardware failure, the other
copies could be used.

2. Inter-process Communication – Network users, located geographically apart, may

converse in an interactive session through the network. In order to permit this, the network
must provide almost error-free communications.

3. Flexible access – Files can be accessed from any computer in the network. The project
can be begun on one computer and finished on another.
4. Security– Computer networks must be secure to protect against unauthorized access,
data breaches, and other security threats. This includes implementing measures such as
firewalls, antivirus software, and encryption to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of data.
5. Performance– Computer networks must provide high performance and low latency to
ensure that applications and services are responsive and available when needed. This
requires optimizing network infrastructure, bandwidth utilization, and traffic management.
6. Scalability- Computer networks must be designed to scale up or down as needed to
accommodate changes in the number of users, devices, and data traffic. This requires careful
planning and management to ensure the network can meet current and future needs.
Other goals include Distribution of processing functions, Centralized management, and
allocation of network resources, Compatibility of dissimilar equipment and software, Good
network performance, Scalability, Saving money, Access to remote information, Person to
person communication, etc.

Advantages:

Resource sharing: Networks enable the sharing of resources such as printers, scanners,
storage devices, and software applications, which can reduce costs and increase efficiency.
Communication and collaboration: Networks provide a platform for communication and
collaboration among users, allowing for easy sharing of information and ideas.
Centralized management: Networks allow for centralized management of devices, users, and
resources, making it easier to control and monitor the network.
Scalability: Networks can be scaled up or down to accommodate changes in the number of
users, devices, or data volume.
Accessibility: Networks can provide remote access to resources, enabling users to work from
anywhere and improving accessibility to information and resources.

Disadvantages:

Security vulnerabilities: Networks can be vulnerable to security threats such as hacking,

viruses, and malware, which can compromise sensitive data and disrupt network operations.
Complexity: Networks can be complex to set up, configure, and maintain, requiring
specialized knowledge and expertise.
Dependence on infrastructure: Networks depend on the underlying infrastructure such as
cables, routers, switches, and servers, which can be prone to failures or downtime, disrupting
network operations.
Cost: Networks can be expensive to set up and maintain, requiring investments in hardware,
software, and personnel.
Performance limitations: Networks have performance limitations such as bandwidth
constraints, latency, and congestion, which can affect the speed and reliability of network
operations.

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

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o LAN(Local Area Network)
o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN (Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such
as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN (Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically

within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples of Personal Area Network:

o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network
connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known
as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as
printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
 o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network (LAN).

Uses of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
 o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Examples of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

 o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers
in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

Advantages of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose
if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through
WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another
branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not
need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and
other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases
the productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and
MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security
problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can
be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can
inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

What is the Internet?

Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers across the world with each other
and to the World Wide Web. It uses standard internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect billions
of computer users worldwide. It is set up by using cables such as optical fibers and other wireless
and networking technologies. At present, internet is the fastest mean of sending or exchanging
information and data between computers across the world.

It is believed that the internet was developed by "Defense Advanced Projects Agency" (DARPA)
department of the United States. And, it was first connected in 1969.

Why is the Internet Called a Network?

Internet is called a network as it creates a network by connecting computers and servers across
the world using routers, switches and telephone lines, and other communication devices and
channels. So, it can be considered a global network of physical cables such as copper telephone
wires, fiber optic cables, tv cables, etc. Furthermore, even wireless connections like 3G, 4G, or
Wi-Fi make use of these cables to access the Internet.

Internet is different from the World Wide Web as the World Wide Web is a network of
computers and servers created by connecting them through the internet. So, the internet is the
backbone of the web as it provides the technical infrastructure to establish the WWW and acts as
a medium to transmit information from one computer to another computer. It uses web browsers
to display the information on the client, which it fetches from web servers.

The internet is not owned by a single person or organization entirely. It is a concept based on
physical infrastructure that connects networks with other networks to create a global network of
billions of computers. As of 12 August 2016, there were more than 300 crores of internet users
across the world.

Set Up

Physical copper or optical fiber data transmission cables, as well as other networking
technologies like LAN, WAN, and MAN, are used to set up the internet. Even the 2g, 3g, and 4g
services, as well as Wi-Fi, need this physical cable arrangement in order to access the Internet
connection. The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), a US-
based organization, is in charge of overseeing the management of the Internet and its
related protocols, including IP addresses.

How does internet work?

Before understanding this let us understand some basics related to internet:

The internet works with the help of clients and servers. A device such as a laptop, which is
connected to the internet, is called a client, not a server as it is not directly connected to the
internet. However, it is indirectly connected to the internet through an Internet Service Provider
(ISP) and is identified by an IP address, which is a string of numbers. Just like you have an
address for your home that uniquely identifies your home, an IP address acts as the shipping
address of your device. The IP address is provided by your ISP, and you can see what IP address
your ISP has given to your system.

A server is a large computer that stores websites. It also has an IP address. A place where a large
number of servers are stored is called a data center. The server accepts requests send by the client
through a browser over a network (internet) and responds accordingly.

To access the internet we need a domain name, which represents an IP address number, i.e., each
IP address has been assigned a domain name. For example, youtube.com, facebook.com,
paypal.com are used to represent the IP addresses. Domain names are created as it is difficult for
a person to remember a long string of numbers. However, internet does not understand the
domain name, it understands the IP address, so when you enter the domain name in the browser
search bar, the internet has to get the IP addresses of this domain name from a huge phone book,
which is known as DNS (Domain Name Server).

For example, if you have a person's name, you can find his phone number in a phone book by
searching his name. The internet uses the DNS server in the same way to find the IP address of
the domain name. DNS servers are managed by ISPs or similar organizations.

Now after understanding the basics, let us see how internet works?
When you turn on your computer and type a domain name in the browser search bar, your
browser sends a request to the DNS server to get the corresponding IP address. After getting the
IP address, the browser forwards the request to the respective server.

Once the server gets the request to provide information about a particular website, the data starts
flowing. The data is transferred through the optical fiber cables in digital format or in the form of
light pulses. As the servers are placed at distant places, the data may have to travel thousands of
miles through optical fiber cable to reach your computer.

The optical fiber is connected to a router, which converts the light signals into electrical signals.
These electrical signals are transmitted to your laptop using an Ethernet cable. Thus, you receive
the desired information through the internet, which is actually a cable that connects you with the
server.

Furthermore, if you are using wireless internet using wifi or mobile data, the signals from the
optical cable are first sent to a cell tower and from where it reaches to your cell phone in the
form of electromagnetic waves.

The internet is managed by ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers)
located in the USA. It manages IP addresses assignment, domain name registration, etc.

The data transfer is very fast on the internet. The moment you press enter you get the information
from a server located thousands of miles away from you. The reason for this speed is that the
data is sent in the binary form (0, 1), and these zeros and ones are divided into small pieces
called packets, which can be sent at high speed.

Uses of the internet

Generally speaking, the Internet may be used to exchange information with people all over the
world, communicate across great distances, and locate information or answers fast on almost any
subject.

Here are some examples of specific uses for the Internet:

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o Using social media and content sharing.
o Instant messaging, video conferencing, Internet Relay Chat (IRC), Internet telephony,
and email are all examples of electronic communication. These all are used through the
Internet.
o Access to online degree programs, courses, and workshops for education and self-
improvement.
o Searching for jobs: To advertise available positions, submit job applications, and hire
candidates identified on social networking sites like LinkedIn, both employers and
applicants use the Internet.

Other examples include:

o Online dating
o Online gaming
o Research
o Reading electronic newspapers and magazines
o Online shopping, or e-commerce.
o Online discussion groups and forums

Difference between the World Wide Web and the Internet

The World Wide Web (also known as the Web) and the Internet are fundamentally dissimilar
from one another because the Web is a collection of information that can be accessed using the
Internet, whereas the Internet is a global network of networks that offers access to almost all
types of information. In other words, the Web is a service that was added to the Internet's
foundation.

An Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides services for accessing,
using, managing, or participating in the Internet. ISPs can be organized in various forms, such as
commercial, community-owned, non-profit, or otherwise privately owned.
Internet services typically provided by ISPs can include internet access, internet transit, domain
name registration, web hosting, and collocation.
Layered Architecture in Computer Networks

Every network consists of a specific number of functions, layers, and tasks to perform. Layered
Architecture in a computer network is defined as a model where a whole network process is
divided into various smaller sub-tasks. These divided sub-tasks are then assigned to a specific
layer to perform only the dedicated tasks. A single layer performs only s specific type of task. To
run the application and provide all types of services to clients a lower layer adds its services to
the higher layer present above it. Therefore layered architecture provides interactions between
the sub-systems. If any type of modification is done in one layer it does not affect the next layer.

Layered Architecture

As shown in the above diagram, there are five different layers. Therefore it is a five-layered
architecture. Each layer performs a dedicated task. The lower level data for example from layer 1
data is transferred to layer 2. Below all the layers Physical Medium is present. The physical
medium is responsible for the actual communication to take place. For the transfer of data and
communication layered architecture provides with a clean cut interface.
 Features of Layered Architecture
 Use of Layered architecture in computer network provides with the feature of modularity
and distinct interfaces.
 Layered architecture ensures independence between layers, by offering services to higher
layers from the lower layers and without specifying how this services are implemented.
 Layered architecture segments as larger and unmanageable design into small sub tasks.
 In layer architecture every network has different number of functions, layers and content.
 In layered architecture, the physical route provides with communication which is
available under the layer 1.
 In layered architecture, the implementation done by one layer can be modified by the
another layer.
Elements of Layered Architecture
There are three different types of elements of a layered architecture. They are described below:
 Service: Service is defined as a set of functions and tasks being provided by a lower layer
to a higher layer. Each layer performs a different type of task. Therefore, actions provided by
each layer are different.
 Protocol: Protocol is defined as a set rules used by the layer for exchanging and
transmission of data with its peer entities. This rules can consists details regarding a type of
content and their order passed from one layer to another.
 Interface: Interface is defined as a channel that allows to transmit the messages from one
layer to the another.
Need of Layered Architecture
 Divide and Conquer Approach: Layered architecture supports divide and conquer
approach. The unmanageable and complex task is further divided into smaller sub tasks. Each
sub task is then carried out by the different layer. Therefore using this approach reduces the
complexity of the problem or design process.
 Easy to Modify: The layers are independent of each other in layered architecture. If any
sudden change occurs in the implementation of one layer, it can be changed. This change does
not affect the working of other layers involved in the task. Therefore layered architectures are
required to perform any sudden update or change.
 Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular as compared to other architecture
models in computer network. Modularity provides with more independence between the layers
and are more easier to understand.
 Easy to Test: Each layer in layered architecture performs a different and dedicated task.
Therefore each layer can be analyzed and tested individually. It helps to analyze the problem
and solve them more efficiently as compared to solving all the problems at a time.
Application of Layered Architecture in computer Networks
In computer networks, layered architecture is majorly used for communication. The two network
models that make use of layered architecture are:

Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how
computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network

o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with
equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can
lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system .
Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Client/Server Network

o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to
access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer,
etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1
wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication
with the client 2.

Advantages of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the
data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of
the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared
resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
 Disadvantages of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.

o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients,
but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

OSI Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how different
computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer
has specific functions and responsibilities. This layered approach makes it easier for different
devices and technologies to work together. OSI Model provides a clear structure for data
transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely used as a reference to
understand how network systems function.

Layers of the OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in handling data. All the
layers are mentioned below:
 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer
Layer 1 – Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the
form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and
send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common physical
layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.
 Physical Layer

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization
at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of
bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full
duplex.
Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the
physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit
it to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as
Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver‟s
MAC address in the header.
The Receiver‟s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking, “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with
its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving
an acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices,
the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the
channel at a given time.
Layer 3 – Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver‟s
IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is
 referred to as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and
switches.
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver‟s IP addresses are placed in the header
by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Layer 4 – Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network
layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-
end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of
the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found. Protocols used in
Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.
At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80,
because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default
ports assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the
Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer
and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus, by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service

Layer 5 – Session Layer

Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections, management
of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides authentication and
security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so
 that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely,
and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full duplex.
Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in their browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which
provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0‟s and 1‟s)
so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network. Protocols
used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext, and the decrypted data is known as plain text.
A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Layer 7 – Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which
is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in the
Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.
 Application Layer

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files from a
remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.

How Data Flows in the OSI Model?

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI
model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender‟s end and then climbs back 7
layers on the receiver‟s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.

TCP/IP model

o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
 o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level
protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

1. Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in
the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on
the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

2. Internet Layer

o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

 o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses.

The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to
provide internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by
data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP
datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into
smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by
the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled
to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant
network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the
IP datagram through various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it
broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request
and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends
back its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the
physical address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header
ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is
unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a
 device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the
sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them.
The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers
because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the
router that it is passed to.

3. Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is
being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission
control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error
to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application
program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the
application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does
not contain any ID of a data segment.
o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged
before the transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is
discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.

4. Application Layer

o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system.
For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser
using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an
application layer protocol.
 Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access
the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio,
video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a
hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used
for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to
send the data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead
of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as
Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.

Functions of Network Devices

 Network devices help to send and receive data between different devices.
 Network devices allow devices to connect to the network efficiently and securely.
 Network devices improves network speed and manage data flow better.
 It protects the network by controlling access and preventing threats.
 Expand the network range and solve signal problems.

Common Types of Networking Devices and Their Uses

Network devices work as a mediator between two devices for transmission of data, and thus
play a very important role in the functioning of a computer network. Below are some common
network devices used in modern networks:
 Access Point
 Modems
 Firewalls
 Repeater
 Hub
 Bridge
 Switch
 Routers
 Gateway
 Brouter
 NIC
Access Point
An access point in networking is a device that allows wireless devices, like smartphones and
laptops, to connect to a wired network. It creates a Wi-Fi network that lets wireless devices
communicate with the internet or other devices on the network. Access points are used to extend
 the range of a network or provide Wi-Fi in areas that do not have it. They are commonly found
in homes, offices, and public places to provide wireless internet access.

Modems
Modem is also known as modulator/demodulator is a network device that is used to
convert digital signal into analog signals of different frequencies and transmits these signals to a
modem at the receiving location. These converted signals can be transmitted over the cable
systems, telephone lines, and other communication mediums. A modem is also used to convert
an analog signal back into digital signal. Modems are generally used to access the internet by
customers of an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Types of Modems
There are four main types of modems:
 DSL Modem: Uses regular phone lines to connect to the internet but it is slower
compared to other types.
 Cable Modem: Sends data through TV cables, providing faster internet than DSL.
 Wireless Modem: Connects devices to the internet using Wi-Fi relying on nearby Wi-Fi
signals.

 Cellular Modem: Connects to the internet using mobile data from a cellular network not
Wi-Fi or fixed cables.

Firewalls
A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls the flow of data between your
computer or network and the internet. It acts as a barrier, blocking unauthorized access while
allowing trusted data to pass through. Firewalls help protect your network from hackers,
viruses, and other online threats by filtering traffic based on security rules. Firewalls can be
physical devices (hardware), programs (software), or even cloud-based services, which can be
offered as SaaS, through public clouds, or private virtual clouds.

Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its main function is to amplify (i.e., regenerate) the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the
length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. When the signal becomes
weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it. at its star topology connectors connecting
following the original strength. It is a 2-port device.

Hub
A hub is a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches,
for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter
data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of
all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find
out the best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub
 Active Hub: These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and
relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center.
These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub: These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from
the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them
and can‟t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub: It works like an active hub and includes remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an
administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the
hub.
Bridge
A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of
filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It typically connects multiple network
segments and each port is connected to different segment. A bridge is not strictly limited to two
ports, it can have multiple ports to connect and manage multiple network segments. Modern
multi-port bridges are often called Layer 2 switches because they perform similar functions.
Types of Bridges
 Transparent Bridges: These are the bridge in which the stations are completely
unaware of the bridge‟s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the
network, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two
processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges: In these bridges, routing operations is performed by the
source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame
by sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire
network using all possible paths to the destination.

Switch
A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer designed that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The
switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it
does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct
port only. In other words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast
domain remains the same.
Types of Switch
 Unmanaged Switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not
offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use as an
expansion to a larger network.
 Managed Switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such
as VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex networks
and allow for centralized management.
 Smart Switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are
typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.
 Layer 2 Switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and
are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.
 Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and
can route data between different network segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2
switches and are often used in larger, more complex networks.
 PoE Switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows
them to supply power to network devices over the same cable that carries data.
 Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster than
traditional Ethernet speeds.
 Rack-Mounted Switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server rack
and are suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.
 Desktop Switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a small office
environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.
 Modular Switches: These switches have modular design that allows for easy expansion
or customization. They are suitable for large networks and data centers.

Router
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The router
is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data
packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

Gateway
A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work upon
different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and
can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switches or
routers.
Brouter
It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both bridge and
router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a router, it is
capable of routing packets across networks and working as a bridge, it is capable of filtering
local area network traffic.
NIC
NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the computer to the
network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique ID that is written on
the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between
the computer and the router or modem. NIC is a layer 2 device which means that it works on
both the physical and data link layers of the network model.
 Digital Transmission

Data can be represented either in analog or digital form. The computers used the digital form to
store the information. Therefore, the data needs to be converted in digital form so that it can be
used by a computer.

DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Digital-to-digital encoding is the representation of digital information by a digital signal. When
binary 1s and 0s generated by the computer are translated into a sequence of voltage pulses that
can be propagated over a wire, this process is known as digital-to-digital encoding.

Digital-to-digital encoding is divided into three categories:

o Unipolar Encoding
o Polar Encoding
o Bipolar Encoding

Unipolar

o Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the medium link such as wire
or cable.
o In most types of encoding, one voltage level represents 0, and another voltage level
represents 1.
o The polarity of each pulse determines whether it is positive or negative.
o This type of encoding is known as Unipolar encoding as it uses only one polarity.
o In Unipolar encoding, the polarity is assigned to the 1 binary state.
o In this, 1s are represented as a positive value and 0s are represented as a zero value.
 o In Unipolar Encoding, '1' is considered as a high voltage and '0' is considered as a zero
voltage.
o Unipolar encoding is simpler and inexpensive to implement.

Unipolar encoding has two problems that make this scheme less desirable:

o DC Component
o Synchronization

Polar

o Polar encoding is an encoding scheme that uses two voltage levels: one is positive, and
another is negative.
o By using two voltage levels, an average voltage level is reduced, and the DC component
problem of unipolar encoding scheme is alleviated.
 NRZ

o NRZ stands for Non-return zero.

o In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal can be represented either positive or negative.
The two most common methods used in NRZ are:

NRZ-L: In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on the type of the bit that it
represents. If a bit is 0 or 1, then their voltages will be positive and negative respectively.
Therefore, we can say that the level of the signal is dependent on the state of the bit.

NRZ-I: NRZ-I is an inversion of the voltage level that represents 1 bit. In the NRZ-I encoding
scheme, a transition occurs between the positive and negative voltage that represents 1 bit. In this
scheme, 0 bit represents no change and 1 bit represents a change in voltage level.
 RZ

o RZ stands for Return to zero.

o There must be a signal change for each bit to achieve synchronization. However, to
change with every bit, we need to have three values: positive, negative and zero.
o RZ is an encoding scheme that provides three values, positive voltage represents 1, the
negative voltage represents 0, and zero voltage represents none.
o In the RZ scheme, halfway through each interval, the signal returns to zero.
o In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by positive-to-zero and 0 bit is represented by
negative-to-zero.

Disadvantage of RZ:

It performs two signal changes to encode one bit that acquires more bandwidth.

Biphase

o Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the middle of the bit interval
but does not return to zero.
Biphase encoding is implemented in two different ways:

Manchester
 o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero for
synchronization.
o In Manchester encoding, a negative-to-positive transition represents binary 1, and
positive-to-negative transition represents 0.
o Manchester has the same level of synchronization as RZ scheme except that it has two
levels of amplitude.
Differential Manchester

o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval for synchronization, but the presence
or absence of the transition at the beginning of the interval determines the bit. A
transition means binary 0 and no transition means binary 1.
o In Manchester Encoding scheme, two signal changes represent 0 and one signal change
represent 1.
 Bipolar

o Bipolar encoding scheme represents three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.
o In Bipolar encoding scheme, zero level represents binary 0, and binary 1 is represented
by alternating positive and negative voltages.
o If the first 1 bit is represented by positive amplitude, then the second 1 bit is represented
by negative voltage, third 1 bit is represented by the positive amplitude and so on. This
alternation can also occur even when the 1bits are not consecutive.
Bipolar can be classified as:

AMI

o AMI stands for alternate mark inversion where mark work comes from telegraphy which
means 1. So, it can be redefined as alternate 1 inversion.
o In Bipolar AMI encoding scheme, 0 bit is represented by zero level and 1 bit is
represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
Advantage:

o DC component is zero.
o Sequence of 1s bits are synchronized.
Disadvantage:

o This encoding scheme does not ensure the synchronization of a long string of 0s bits.

B8ZS

o B8ZS stands for Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution.

o This technique is adopted in North America to provide synchronization of a long
sequence of 0s bits.
o In most of the cases, the functionality of B8ZS is similar to the bipolar AMI, but the only
difference is that it provides the synchronization when a long sequence of 0s bits occur.
o B8ZS ensures synchronization of a long string of 0s by providing force artificial signal
changes called violations, within 0 string pattern.
o When eight 0 occurs, then B8ZS implements some changes in 0s string pattern based on
the polarity of the previous 1 bit.
 o If the polarity of the previous 1 bit is positive, the eight 0s will be encoded as zero, zero,
zero, positive, negative, zero, negative, positive.

o If the polarity of previous 1 bit is negative, then the eight 0s will be encoded as zero,
zero, zero, negative, positive, zero, positive, negative.

HDB3

o HDB3 stands for High-Density Bipolar 3.

o HDB3 technique was first adopted in Europe and Japan.
o HDB3 technique is designed to provide the synchronization of a long sequence of 0s bits.
o In the HDB3 technique, the pattern of violation is based on the polarity of the previous
bit.
o When four 0s occur, HDB3 looks at the number of 1s bits occurred since the last
substitution.
o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then the violation is made on the fourth consecutive of 0.
If the polarity of the previous bit is positive, then the violation is positive. If the polarity
of the previous bit is negative, then the violation is negative.
If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is odd.
If the number of 1s bits is even, then the violation is made on the place of the first and fourth
consecutive 0s. If the polarity of the previous bit is positive, then violations are negative, and if
the polarity of the previous bit is negative, then violations are positive.

If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is even.

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
 Switching techniques

In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching technique
will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.

Classification Of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching

o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between

sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated
path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video,
a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment
to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment,
dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Circuit establishment
 o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single transmission

path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set of crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar switch is
a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control
unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx crossbar
switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switches.
Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:

o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch

Crossbar Switch
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar switch has
n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.

Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:

The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it

becomes very expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.

Multistage Switch

o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units and then
interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
 o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data can
be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for
each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, then
the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if
the channel is free.

Message Switching

o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a

complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between
the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This
type of network is known as store and forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency
of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
 o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it
supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store
the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the
message switching technique.

Packet Switching

o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but
it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be
sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered

as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the destination and
switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender
and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the
nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the sender
and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the
message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.
Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach

Datagram Virtual Circuit

Node takes routing decisions to Node does not take any routing
forward the packets. decision.

Congestion can occur when the node

Congestion cannot occur as all the
is busy, and it does not allow other
packets travel in different directions.
packets to pass through.

It is more flexible as all the packets

It is not very flexible.
are treated as an independent entity.

Advantages of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require massive

secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore,
we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the
Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established
path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same communication channel
simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require low
delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high
implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets.
It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.
Multiplexing (Channel Sharing) in Computer Network

Multiplexing means multiple sources but one link. An alternative approach is a Direct point-to-
point connection, but it has several problems as it requires an I/O port for each device, a need
line for each device, and also a large amount of wiring needed if on different floors. Instead, if
we use a multiplexer approach then all devices are connected to MUX and one line to the host,

Why Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which multiple
signals coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a single
communication/physical line. Multiplexing in computer networks is done using a device
Multiplexer called MUX that takes „n‟ input lines to generate a single output line. On the other
hand, there is a device called DEMUX (Demultiplexer) that takes a single input line and
generates „n‟ output lines.

Multiplexing

The „n‟ input lines shown above are transmitted via a multiplexer and it combines the signals
to form a composite signal. Now, these signals are passed through DEMUX and it transfers
those signals to their respective destinations.
Types of Multiplexing in Computer Networks
Multiplexing can be classified as:
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 Types of Multiplexer

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

The frequency spectrum is divided among the logical channels and each user has exclusive
access to his channel. It sends signals in several distinct frequency ranges and carries multiple
video channels on a single cable. Each signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency
and carrier frequencies are separated by guard bands. The bandwidth of the transmission
medium exceeds the required bandwidth of all the signals. Usually, for frequency division
multiplexing analog signaling is used in order to transmit the signals, i.e. more susceptible to
noise. Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to each user or signal on a medium.
Thus, all signals are transmitted at the same time, each using different frequencies.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

The multiplexer is attached to the high-speed communication line. The frequency spectrum is
divided up among the logical channels where each user hangs onto a particular frequency. The
radio spectrum is an example of the media and the mechanism for extracting information from
the medium.
Advantages of FDM
 The process is simple and easy to modulate.
 A corresponding multiplexer or de-multiplexer is on the end of the high-speed line and
separates the multiplexed signals.
 For frequency division multiplexing analog signaling is used in order to transmit the
signals.
Disadvantages of FDM
 One problem with FDM is that it cannot utilize the full capacity of the cable.
 It is important that the frequency bands do not overlap.
 There must be a considerable gap between the frequency bands in order to ensure that
signals from one band do not affect signals in another band.
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Each user periodically gets the entire bandwidth for a small burst of time, i.e. entire channel is
dedicated to one user but only for a short period of time. It is very extensively used in
computer communication and telecommunication. Sharing of the channel is accomplished by
dividing available transmission time on a medium among users. It exclusively uses Digital
Signaling instead of dividing the cable into frequency bands. TDM splits cable usage into time
slots. The data rate of transmission media exceeds the data rate of signals. Uses a frame and
one slot for each slice of time and the time slots are transmitted whether the source has data or
not.

Time Division Multiplexing

There are two types of TDMs which are as follows:

1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
2. Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
3. Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
4. Interleaving Time Division Multiplexing
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing: It is synchronous because the multiplexer and the
de-multiplexer have to agree on the time slots. The original time-division multiplexing. The
multiplexer accepts input from attached devices in a round-robin fashion and transmits the data
in a never-ending pattern. Some common examples of this are T-1 and ISDN telephone lines.
If one device generates data at a faster rate than other devices, then the multiplexor must either
sample the incoming data stream from that device more often than it samples the other devices
or buffers the faster incoming stream. If a device has nothing to transmit, the multiplexor must
still insert a piece of data from that device into the multiplexed stream.
 Synchronous TDM

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing: It is a time-division but on-demand rather than fixed,
rescheduling links on a per-packet basis and packets from different sources interleaved on the
link. It allows the connection of more nodes to the circuit than the capacity of the circuit.
Works on the premise that not all the nodes will transmit at full capacity at all times. It must
transmit a terminal identification i.e destination id no. and may require storage. A statistical
multiplexer transmits only the data from active workstations. If a workstation is not active, no
space is wasted on the multiplexed stream. It accepts the incoming data streams and creates a
frame containing only the data to be transmitted.
 Statistical TDM

Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing: It is a type of multiplexing, where the rate of

sampling is different and also does not require a general clock, it is called Asynchronous Time
Division Multiplexing. Asynchronous TDMs have generally low bandwidth. In case when
there is nothing to transmit, this type of TDM gives its time slot to other devices.
Interleaving Time Division Multiplexing: Interleaving TDM can be taken as two switches
rotating at high speed, one on the multiplexing and the other on the demultiplexing surface.
These switches can also be rotated in the reverse direction. At once, when it leaves the surface
of multiplexing and releases at the surface of de-multiplexer, it is called Interleaving.
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing(WDM)
It is the same as FDM but applied to fibers, only the difference is that here the operating
frequencies are much higher actually they are in the optical range. There‟s great potential for
fibers since the bandwidth is so huge. Fibers with different energy bands are passed through a
diffraction grating prism. Combined on the long-distance link and then split at the destination.
It has got high reliability and very high capacity.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

It multiplexes multiple data streams onto a single fiber optic line. Different wavelength
lasers(called lambdas) transmit multiple signals. Each signal carried on the fiber can be
transmitted at a different rate from the other signals.
 Dense wavelength division multiplexing: It combines many (30, 40, 50, or more)
channels onto one fiber. DWDM channels have a very high capacity and it keeps on
improving.
 Coarse wavelength division multiplexing: It combines only a few lambdas. In this,
channels are more widely spaced and are a cheaper version of DWDM.
Some Other Types of Multiplexing
There are some more types of multiplexing that are discussed here.
1. Code Division Multiplexing
It is a type of multiplexing where each code is distributed among different spectrums so that
each one of them can work at the same time simultaneously. It is also called Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA). CDMA makes use of spectrum technology along with analog-to-
digital conversion(ADC). It is thus used by various radio communication technologies. Mainly,
it is used for mobile communication.
 Advantages of Code Division Multiplexing
 It provides enhanced data communication capabilities.
 It does not compress the bandwidth of other frequencies.
2. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a digital communication technique
initially developed for use in cable television systems. OFDM is similar to the broadcasting
technique known as frequency division multiplexing (also known as FDM), which uses a
multitude of transmitters and receivers to send information on different frequencies over a
single wire, such as an electrical power cable.

OFDM vs FDM

Uses of OFDM
 OFDM is used in Digital radio, Digital Radio Mondiale, digital audio broadcasting, and
satellite radio.
 OFDM is used in Wired data transmission.
3. Space Division Multiplexing
Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) is the combination of Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). It basically means that a particular channel is
used against a particular frequency band for some time.
 Advantages of Space Division Multiplexing
 It provides a high data transmission rate.
 Some Passive Optical Network (POV) implementations use SDM.
Advantages of Multiplexing
 Multiplexing allows the efficient usage of computer resources.
 Multiplexing is Cost effective
 Frequency Divison Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
 Time Division Multiplexing is used for Fair Resource Allocation that is each device is
allocated a specific time band for their transmission.
 Code Division Multiplexing is used to increase the security so that only authorized user
can access data.
 Multiplexing also provide scalability.
Disadvantage of Multiplexing
 It increase the complexity of the system
 There is a problem of SPoF(Single Point of Failure) that means if there is failure in
singel point than the entire system become fails.
 This is not fault tolerant.