CSC 217: Fundamentals of Digital Electronics

Lecture Notes 3:
Lecture Notes: Thevenin and Norton Theorems
1. Thevenin’s Theorem
1.1 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Thevenin’s Theorem states that any linear electrical network with voltage sources, current
sources, and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage
source (Vth) in series with a single resistance (Rth), which is connected across the load.
Steps to Determine Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
1. Remove the Load Resistor: Identify and disconnect the load resistor from the circuit.
2. Find Thevenin Voltage (Vth): Calculate the open-circuit voltage across the terminals where
the load was connected.
3. Find Thevenin Resistance (Rth):
o Turn off all independent voltage sources (replace them with short circuits).
o Turn off all independent current sources (replace them with open circuits).
o Calculate the equivalent resistance between the open terminals.
4. Construct the Thevenin Equivalent Circuit: Place Vth in series with Rth and reconnect the
load resistor.
Example Problem:
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of a network containing a 10V voltage source, a 5Ω resistor
in series, and a parallel combination of 10Ω and 20Ω resistors.
1.2 Applications in Circuit Simplification
• Simplifying Complex Circuits: Thevenin’s theorem is useful for reducing a complicated
network into a simple two-component circuit.
• Analyzing Power Transfer: It helps in determining the maximum power transfer to a load.
• Fault Detection and Analysis: By replacing a portion of a circuit with its Thevenin
equivalent, analyzing circuit faults becomes easier.

2. Norton’s Theorem
2.1 Norton Equivalent Circuit
Norton’s Theorem states that any linear electrical network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source (In) in parallel with a resistance (Rn) across the load terminals.
Steps to Determine Norton Equivalent Circuit:
1. Remove the Load Resistor.
2. Find Norton Current (In): This is the short-circuit current that flows when the terminals are
shorted.
3. Find Norton Resistance (Rn):
o This is the same as Thevenin Resistance (Rth) and is found using the same method.
4. Construct the Norton Equivalent Circuit: Place In in parallel with Rn and reconnect the
load resistor.
Example Problem:
Determine the Norton equivalent circuit of a network containing a 12V battery in series with a
6Ω resistor, and a parallel branch containing 3Ω and 2Ω resistors.
2.2 Conversion between Thevenin and Norton Forms
Since Thevenin and Norton equivalents represent the same circuit, they can be converted using
the following relationships:
• Norton Current (In) = Thevenin Voltage (Vth) / Thevenin Resistance (Rth)
• Thevenin Voltage (Vth) = Norton Current (In) × Norton Resistance (Rn)
• Thevenin Resistance (Rth) = Norton Resistance (Rn)
This conversion is useful when switching between analysis methods based on convenience.

Scenario-Based Questions
1. A technician is troubleshooting a complex circuit in an amplifier. How can Thevenin’s
theorem be applied to simplify the analysis of a particular section of the circuit?
2. In a power distribution system, engineers use Thevenin equivalents to analyze power
delivery to homes. How does this help in optimizing voltage regulation?
3. You are given a circuit with multiple voltage sources and resistors. How would you
determine whether Thevenin’s or Norton’s theorem is more suitable for analysis?

Discussion Questions
1. Explain why Thevenin’s theorem is particularly useful when analyzing circuits with
multiple resistors and sources.
2. Compare and contrast Thevenin and Norton theorems. Which one do you think is more
useful in real-world applications and why?
3. How does the conversion between Thevenin and Norton equivalents help in circuit
analysis?

Practice Questions
1. Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit of a circuit consisting of a 24V voltage source
in series with a 4Ω resistor, and a parallel branch of 6Ω and 3Ω resistors.
2. Convert the Thevenin equivalent circuit of a network with Vth = 15V and Rth = 5Ω into
its Norton equivalent.
3. For a circuit with a 10V source, a 10Ω resistor in series with a 5Ω resistor, find the Norton
equivalent across the 5Ω resistor.

Sentence Completion Questions

1. Thevenin’s theorem helps to simplify a complex circuit by reducing it to a single ________
source and a single ________ in series.
2. Norton’s theorem represents a network as a ________ source in parallel with a ________.
3. The Thevenin resistance is calculated by turning off all independent ________ sources and
________ sources in the circuit.
4. The conversion between Thevenin and Norton forms can be achieved using the
relationships ________ and ________.

Lecture Notes: Steady-State and Impulse Response

1. Steady-State Response to Sinusoidal Excitation
1.1 Phasor Representation of AC Circuits
Definition: The steady-state response of a circuit to a sinusoidal input is the behavior of the circuit
after all transient effects have disappeared. In AC circuit analysis, phasors are used to simplify
calculations by converting differential equations into algebraic equations.
Scenario-Based Questions
1. A sound system engineer needs to analyze the frequency response of a speaker. How can
phasor representation help in this analysis?
2. In an electrical filter, the designer wants to suppress high-frequency noise. How would the
impulse response of the filter be useful in this process?
3. A radio antenna circuit exhibits a peak response at 100 MHz. How can frequency response
 analysis be used to determine its behavior at other frequencies?
Discussion Questions
1. Explain why phasor representation simplifies AC circuit analysis compared to time-domain
methods.
2. How does the impulse response help in determining the stability of a circuit?
3. What is the significance of bandwidth in a circuit’s frequency response?

Sentence Completion Questions

1. The phasor representation converts a sinusoidal function into a ________ quantity for
easier analysis.
2. The frequency response describes how a system reacts to different ________ components
in the input signal.
3. The impulse response is the output of a system when the input is a ________ function.
4. The Laplace Transform of the impulse response gives the system’s ________ function.

Lecture Notes: Semiconductor Basics and Transistors

1. Semiconductor Materials
1.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors
Definition: A semiconductor is a material whose electrical conductivity falls between that of a
conductor and an insulator. The two main types of semiconductors are intrinsic and extrinsic.
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
• Pure semiconductors (e.g., Silicon and Germanium) with no impurities.
• Conductivity depends on temperature.
• Equal number of electrons and holes.
Extrinsic Semiconductors:
• Doped semiconductors with added impurities to improve conductivity.
• Two types:
o N-type: Doped with donor atoms (e.g., Phosphorus in Silicon) to provide extra
electrons.
o P-type: Doped with acceptor atoms (e.g., Boron in Silicon) to create holes.

1.2 Doping and Charge Carriers

Doping: The process of adding impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor to enhance its electrical
properties.
• Donor Atoms: Elements with extra electrons that create N-type semiconductors.
• Acceptor Atoms: Elements that create holes, forming P-type semiconductors.
 • Majority Carriers: Electrons in N-type and holes in P-type semiconductors.
• Minority Carriers: Holes in N-type and electrons in P-type semiconductors.

2. Transistors
2.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): Working and Characteristics
Definition: A BJT is a three-terminal semiconductor device that amplifies current. It consists of
two PN junctions.
Structure:
• Two types: NPN and PNP.
• Three terminals: Emitter (E), Base (B), Collector (C).
Operation:
• Active Region: Used for amplification.
• Saturation Region: Both junctions forward biased (acts as a switch ON).
• Cutoff Region: Both junctions reverse biased (acts as a switch OFF).
Characteristics:
• Input-Output Relationship: Current controlled by the base-emitter voltage.
• Current Gain (β): Ratio of collector current to base current.

2.2 Field Effect Transistor (FET): Types and Applications

Definition: A FET is a voltage-controlled device with high input impedance.
Types of FETs:
1. Junction FET (JFET): Uses a PN junction to control current.
2. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET (MOSFET): Uses an oxide layer for insulation, allowing
better control.
Applications:
• Used in amplifiers, oscillators, and digital circuits.
• MOSFETs are widely used in microprocessors and power electronics.

Scenario-Based Questions
1. A semiconductor manufacturer wants to increase the conductivity of silicon wafers. What
doping process should they use?
2. An engineer designs a circuit that requires a high-gain amplifier. Which type of transistor
should be used and why?
3. In a microprocessor design, power efficiency is crucial. Should the designer use a BJT or
MOSFET?

Discussion Questions
1. Why are extrinsic semiconductors preferred over intrinsic ones for electronic applications?
2. Compare the working principles of BJTs and FETs.
3. What advantages do MOSFETs have over BJTs in digital circuit design?

Practice Questions
1. Explain the process of doping in semiconductors and its impact on charge carriers.
2. Describe the different operating regions of a BJT.
3. A MOSFET has a threshold voltage of 2V. If the gate voltage is 5V, is the device in ON or
OFF state?
Sentence Completion Questions
1. A P-type semiconductor is created by adding ________ atoms.
2. In an NPN transistor, the majority charge carriers are ________.
3. MOSFETs are preferred in microprocessors because they have ________ power
consumption.