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CHEMISTRY

The document covers key concepts in chemistry, including factors affecting reaction rates, energetics of exothermic and endothermic reactions, and the reactivity series of metals. It also discusses acid-base chemistry, qualitative analysis of ions, periodic trends, isotopes, organic chemistry, fractional distillation, environmental impacts of metals, balancing equations, and methods for metal extraction. Each section provides essential information on the principles and applications of these topics.

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11 views3 pages

CHEMISTRY

The document covers key concepts in chemistry, including factors affecting reaction rates, energetics of exothermic and endothermic reactions, and the reactivity series of metals. It also discusses acid-base chemistry, qualitative analysis of ions, periodic trends, isotopes, organic chemistry, fractional distillation, environmental impacts of metals, balancing equations, and methods for metal extraction. Each section provides essential information on the principles and applications of these topics.

Uploaded by

jhaidannehamilton
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CHEMISTRY

Rates of Reactions

●​ Factors Affecting Reaction Rates:


○​ Temperature: Higher temperatures increase particle movement, leading to more
collisions.
○​ Concentration: Higher concentration results in more frequent collisions.
○​ Surface Area: Smaller particles provide more surface area for reactions.
○​ Catalysts: Speed up reactions without being consumed.
●​ Graph Interpretation: Reaction rate is determined by the slope of the curve.

Energetics

●​ Exothermic Reactions: Release heat (e.g., combustion, respiration).


●​ Endothermic Reactions: Absorb heat (e.g., photosynthesis, melting ice).
●​ Energy Calculations: Use bond enthalpies to determine energy changes.

Reactivity Series

●​ Highly Reactive Metals: Potassium, Sodium, Calcium.


●​ Moderate Reactivity: Magnesium, Zinc, Iron.
●​ Least Reactive: Copper, Silver, Gold.
●​ Reactions with Water and Acids: More reactive metals react vigorously with acids and
water.

Acid-Base Chemistry

●​ pH Scale: 0-14, acids <7, bases >7.


●​ Indicators:
○​ Litmus: Red (acid), Blue (base).
○​ Phenolphthalein: Colorless (acid), Pink (base).
○​ Methyl Orange: Red (acid), Yellow (base).

Qualitative Analysis

●​ Ion Colors:
○​ Cu²⁺: Blue
○​ Fe²⁺: Green
○​ Fe³⁺: Brown
●​ Confirmatory Tests:
○​ Precipitation reactions with sodium hydroxide or ammonia.
Periodic Table & Periodicity

●​ Trends in the Periodic Table:


○​ Atomic Size: Decreases across a period, increases down a group.
○​ Electronegativity: Increases across a period, decreases down a group.
●​ Dot and Cross Diagrams: Represent valence electrons in bonding.

Isotopes & Radioactivity

●​ Definition: Same element, different neutron numbers.


●​ Uses:
○​ Carbon dating
○​ Medical tracers
○​ Nuclear energy production

Organic Chemistry

●​ Isomers: Different structural forms of the same molecular formula.


●​ Alkanes up to Hexane: Methane (CH₄) to Hexane (C₆H₁₄).

Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil

●​ Fractions and Carbon Chains:


○​ Gases (C1-C4)
○​ Petrol/Gasoline (C5-C10)
○​ Diesel (C12-C20)
○​ Bitumen (>C35)

Metals & Alloys

●​ Environmental Impact:
○​ Mining causes habitat destruction and pollution.
○​ Recycling metals reduces environmental damage.

Balancing Equations

●​ Steps:
○​ Identify reactants and products.
○​ Adjust coefficients to balance atoms on both sides.
○​ Ensure charge balance in ionic reactions.
●​ Redox Reactions:
○​ Oxidation: Loss of electrons.
○​ Reduction: Gain of electrons.
Extraction of Metals

●​ Methods:
○​ Electrolysis: Used for highly reactive metals (e.g., aluminum from bauxite).
○​ Blast Furnace: Used for extracting iron from ore.
○​ Reduction with Carbon: Used for less reactive metals (e.g., Zinc, Lead).

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