Electrical Quantities

1 Use the equations Q It and Q Ne N number ofchanges

to solve problems
A basic electrical system consists of four main parts
used to provide electrical
The source battery energy this is
called an Active device as it supplies energy

2 The load eg resistor absorbs or convert electricalenergy

and is called a passive device
3 The transmissionsystem a set of connecting insulated wires

that connects the same to the load

1 The control system A switch to control the periods
for which the active device supplies the passive device

Electre change Q is the property of a subatomicparticle to

experience a force in an electric field
Q It where I is current and t is time
Q Ne where N is thenumberof changes it carries

1.2 Define the Colomb

The colomb is defined as the total charge that would have

flowed
point in a circuit after one second if
past a a

constantcurrent of 1 Ampere flowsthrough that point

The colomb is thefore defined as the Ampere second

3 Define potential difference and the bolt

The not of potential difference is the volt U
1 Joule 1 JC 1
1 volt per Colomb or IV

The potential difference between two points on a current is

defined as the amount of electrical converted to other
energy
forms
of energy per colomb of change passing from one
point to the other

The volt is defined as

The potential difference between two points in a circuit is
Ivolt if I Joule of electrical energy is converted to other
forms of electrical energy when I cohomb of change passes
from one point to the other

Potentate
engaged
Also use equations like
IR P IV P I R P E IF R
 1
7 Use the formula R to determine resistivity

for auniform length of conductor having a length 1

cross sectional area A and resistance R the resistuity of
the material from which the conductor is made is given
the formula
by
Jo RE
The resistivity of a
specimen of material is theproducts of
it cross sectional area and its electrical resistance per
unit length

1.8 Use energy

considerations to distinguish between Cmfand
p.d.is

The e mit in a corent is associated with the total amount

of energy that is available from the active device in the circuit
The e m.f of a source is defined as the total energy per
Colomb it delivers round a circut joined to it

The terminal potential difference on a circuit is associated

with the amount of electrical
energy available to the passive
devices in thecircuit The terminal potential difference of a
source is defined as the amount of energy per coulomb itdelivers

the external arcut to which it is connected

Why are they different

Any active device such as a battery has internal resistance

to the internal movement of change When the device is

not connected to a circuit and thus does not have a

current through it the potential difference between its terminals

is equal to its emf However when that device has a

current through it the potential difference between its terminals

is less than its conf This is because part of the ant

is dropped across the internal resistance and the rest is

dropped acrossthe load or external resistance

Ir IR I rtr
demf Internal Resistance

If however a current is being applied to thebattery

then v E Ir This can occur when the battery in
is connected to another of a higher conf
question
 1th
sep
Active devices have internal resistance to the flow of
charge
When not connected to a current these deviceshave no

current flowing through them and no energy is lost

opposing the internal
resistance This is when the conf

3 equal to the terminal p d

When connectedcircuit current flows through
to a

the active device and energy is lost in opposing internal

resistance Terminal pd becomes less than emf

9 Explain drift velocity v in terms of the charge

carriers
A E B

Electric fields are drected from positive to negative

away
The electric field is a vector Electrons in the conductor
quantity
are then accelerated their motion theyconstantly
E and on

collide with atoms causing heat dissipation but they

continue to moves towards A with an Average velocity
called Drift velocity The reason they have an
average
velocity is because they are accelerated and they collide
with conductor atoms which causes some deceleration Hence
the velocity is not constant but instead Continuosly
increases and decreases

Simple Definition

The average velocity of electrons charged particles particles

in a conductor when an electrical field is applied across of

10 Deme the equation I neua for changes moving a

metal
Recall that
Q Me
But M is number of electrons which is N Un where n
3 number of electrons
per unit volume

Une
Current is as and U AL
given

AII
 I
negA

But I neva
I Velowy a

Ud drift velocity Rearranging

ud
Fer
Electrical Circuits

2.1 Compare Ohmic and non Ohmic devices using an IV

graph
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor is
directly proportional to the voltage across the conductor at
constant temperature
The temperature must be kept constant as the
resistance increases when temperature rises
a Metallic
Conduct
This graph indicates that the
I A current is
always directly proportional
to the applied voltage and that
when the voltage is reversed there
P.d.tw
the behaviour
is no change in

of the metallic conductor in termsof

its conduction
This type of conductor is also referred to as an
OHMIC CONDUCTOR Since its graph indicates that it
obeys Ohm's law at all times Temp remains
constant If the temperature increases however the
resistance of the conductor will also increase and the

gradient will decrease

b filament loup
Shows that current is proportional

to the applied voltage only when there

is arelatively small applied voltage
from the point la to the point b the
graph is honor and the filanut loup
obeys Ohm's law only in regionfrom a to'b
Beyond a and b the gradient of the graph Decreases

and this indicates that the resistance is increasing A higher

current means that there are more electrons flowing per
second which means more electrons collide with thelattice
structure of the tungsten The numberof collisions per
Second is also a measure of the resistance of the
material At each collusion there is a conversion of some of

the kinetic energy of the electron into heat energy hence the
temperature rises

C Semi conductor Diode

In the forward direction the
conduction current remains at 200

payu until the the applied voltage

reaches a particular value called
Saturation voltage Th diode only begins to conduct when
the applied voltage reaches and exceeds the saturation
voltage The diode does not content in the reverse
direction because of the infinitely high resistance in the

reverse direction
2.2 Sketch the variation of resistance with temperature
for a themustor with negative temperature co efficient

NTC Negative Temperature Coefficient used mostly in temperate

sensing
PTC Positive Temperature Coefficient used mostly in

electric current control

Sybol
for themston

Ghmfmpesstanceusterporate

RTcharactustforR.TT
characteristic
aptc
themston

for a ntc themestor

LE

TIK TIK
2.6 Apply Korcholf laws to grien circuits

Kholfiᵗhow_
This law States that the sun of all currents

entering a
junction node the sun of all
is equal to
arrests leaving a junction As such their algebraic sun is

0 how is based on conservation of charge as there is

neither a buildup of charge no a depletion ofcharge

at a junction
I Iz Is considering the
junction

thftyhdnh.FI coint the algebraic Sm

ofthe ent's of the souve's
equal to
is the algebrave
sun of the potential difference of the loads The
second law is an application of the conservation of
energy
E Ez U V2 V3
2.7 Revive the formula for the effective resistance of
two or more resistors in series or parallel

See
M
Eating

According the Kirchoff ist law

I I as the
equal to the current
current entering a component is

leaving the component.by conservation of change

I I 13
I
Due to Voltage how the end of the battery is
equal
to the sun of the voltage drops across the resistors

E U 02 03

IR IR tIR IR
But I I I Is
RT R t R2 Rz
Parallel

I I Iz Is
According the Ohms law
I I 13
3
I

2.9 Use the potential divider as a same of variable

and foxedp.cl

The potential divider circuit allows us to distribute fractions

of the voltage applied across two or more resistors to

produce a variable supply or a fixed supply of a smaller
d
p
 Rz U

on

Ur
RI

I R R2
Vout IR Vin I R R2

vet EITAN
t Ttr
bout Un
Ef

Instead
that is used to measure on
a
11111

to J
men
B
wthrown emf or
difference
a potential
1 a 11ᵗʰ
Comparing emfs
19

Es
11

11
Ez

2.10 Use the Wheatstone Bridge as a means of comparing

TTthTetstone method
Bridge permits a highly accurate
of measuring resistances and determining on winknown resistance

Poud Q are fixed

g
resistances where one is
unknown
We The resistances Roud
faster
S must be adjusted

until thegalvanometer
 is zero when the switch is
closed

This means the potential at B is equal to the potential

at D as no current flow through the galvanometer

At this need condition

Ip
Roofs
Up E Fa
Ur Es
Equating the two

E
pfa E
PFF
PI RI
I I
Ip tsp
Ihhw.net
fTsn of the wheatstone bridge and it
is used to measure unknown resistances with much
more case than the Wheatstone version It operates as

a Double potential Duicder

ones

a
h B

IM is of thrown resistance and M is thewthrown one

The slide wine from the galvanometer is moved along
the resistance we AB until a balance point is obtained
At the balance point the length of wire c can be
considered as one resistor and the length d as another

resistor
3Electricalfeldse

3.1 Explain the difference between electrical conductors and

insulators

An electrical conductor has a current when a potential

difference is applied across of In a metal the charge
carriers are electrons which exists freely in a delocalized see

among retail the lattice When a conductors is

cations in

connected to a source of emf on electrical field is created

within of which accelerates electrons parallel to the field

An electrical insulator has no current within it when a
potential difference is applied acrossit There exists a substantial

energy gap
between the highest accupied energy level and
the conduction band While vacant levels exists above the
highest level electrons do not typically gown enough
energy to cross that gap

3.2 Use Colombs low F to calculate the

force between free to solve

changes in
space
or our

prblem
Coulombs law states that the electrostatic force
of
attraction or repulsion acting on each of two stationary

point changes is directly proportional to the product of the

changes and inversely proportional to the square of their
distance of separation

F
FLQ.EE KQ.fr
or F
q ultra
K 9 10 Nm C2
12 2
Eo is 8.85 10

3.4 Calculate the field strength of the uniform field between

changed parallel plates

Electrical field a region around a changed body where

a fore is experienced

Electric field the fore acting permit positive charge

Strength

placed at that point A vector quantity and as such it

direction must be considered in
any calculation
 ay
I
Electin field Strength but NC
Forget

E Statuary Electric Change

p orly

Consoler
for parallel metalplates separated by a distance d and
having difference between them
a potential
E Com
G potentialgradent

Formula used to find the Electric Field

Strength in the region between two
charged parallel metal plates

3.5 Calculate the fare on a charged particle in a

uniform elective field

F EQ
tune for
pair of parallel plates that
a are separated

distance I and having a potential difference

by a

across the plates the force on a charge Q that

is placed in the space between the plates is given by
 placed

3.6 Describe the effect of a uniform electrical field on the

motion of Charged particles

Regardless of the direction of motion relative to the field

charge will experience a
a positive force in the direction
of the field while a negative charge will experience a
force on the opposite direction to the field

Parallel to Electrical field

Recall that F by Newton's second law But from
ma

before we throw that F QE As such we can determine

the acceleration of a charged particle on the field
due to electrostatic fare
QE where
SO
QI
ma O m

is the charged particle

Perpendicular to the field

If a ejected perpendicular to the electrical
particle is
field it will follow a path similar to that of a
projective on a gravitational field
 If you recall projectile motion thismotion is somber
Fstead of gravity the force due to the electric field
will beinfluencing the motion of the projectile particle instead
a negativechange

Irfan
mass I

motion of
positive charge
in a uniform
electric field

5 t
1 utu

S ut at or s ut Kat
v2 u 205
a
U U at E
3.10 Use the equation U for the potential
q

due to or point charge

Electrical potential the work done on bringing a unit

positive charge from infinity to that point
 Potential wok done per change
Electrical potentialEnergy
change
111s

when a charge Q moves

7 through a
pid of U the work
done on thecharge is W QU
The wit is the JC which is
equivalent
to the volt

When a charge is moved in an electric field work is

done Above we see that electric potential describes
moving a change from infinity to a point on a

electric field

for a field of positive charge Q 0C this is

positive work
for a field of negative charge Q COC this is
negative work
W Q DU
W Q Up Ui
U.Capacite

Ypatihfrdti.to the charge stored in a coranto

per unit potential

difference The higher the capacitance
the more charge stored
per unit potential
difference and
the mere charge toproduce a unit potential
required
difference
across the capacitor

C
EAT
E E Er

factors affecting Capacitance

for two parallel plates having an area of overlap A and

separated by a distance of the capacitance of the parallel
C
plate capacitor is given by Ef
Where E is the permittivity of free space hence the

formula is
A
Hener the magnitude of the Capacitance is determined
by
3 factors
c The dielectric constant of the material between the
plates
i The area of owlop of the plates
iii The distance of separation of theplates

Importance of Dielectrics

1 It serves to keep the plates at a small constant

fixed distance
apart
2 It allows the capacitor to acquire
a much higher
voltage whilst reducing thepossibility of sparking
3 The dielectric increases the capacitance of the
capacitor

4 Down the forula for capacitors in series and parallel

and series to solve problems

See
 U V2 V3
01 v2
92
U

QT Q

In t.tt
Parallel
QT Q Qt 93
Q CU Q2 Cruz 03 6203
QT CTU
UT U

Gu Gu Gu Gu
G 4 Cz 63
4.6 Use the formle for energy stored on a capacitor as
we w and w

4.7 Recoll
the equations
for capacitor change and
discharge

Cu I oral t RC
I Io e
t RC
Q Q e
V the
be
Deschanging
time

1 a a.ci e

57pm U Vo i e
tire

ILI.tt which the potential

difference across the

capacitor falls to te of its initial value during a discharge