Chapter 3: Network Access

Comparing the two models

 At the network access layer, the TCP/IP protocol suite does not
specify which protocols to use when transmitting over a physical
medium.
 Only describes the handoff from the internet layer to the physical
network protocols.
 OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the necessary procedures to access the 2
media and the physical means to send data over a network.
Focus on Data Link Layer
IP

IP

Data Link Layer: Post-It Label on IP “box” (demo)

Physical Layer: Roll or toss tennis balls (demo) 3
Reminder of encapsulation/decapsulation
Data Link IP TCP HTTP Data Link
Data Trailer
Header Header Header Header

Data Link Data Link

IP Packet
Header Trailer

Data Link Data Link

IP Packet
Header Trailer

Data Link Data Link

IP Packet
Header Trailer

Data Link IP TCP HTTP Data Link

Header Header Header Header
Data Trailer

4
Getting it Connected
Network Interface Cards
Connecting to the Wireless LAN with a Range Extender

 Wireless devices must share access to the airwaves connecting to

the wireless access point.
 Slower network performance may occur
 A wired device does not need to share its access
 Each wired device has a separate communications channel over
its own Ethernet cable.
The
Physical
Layer

 The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that
make up a data link layer frame across the network media.
Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Media

 The physical layer produces the representation and groupings of bits

for each type of media as:
 Copper cable: The signals are patterns of electrical pulses.
 Fiber-optic cable: The signals are patterns of light.
 Wireless: The signals are patterns of microwave transmissions.
Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Standards

 Upper OSI layers are performed in software designed by software

engineers and computer scientists.
 TCP/IP suite are defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) in RFCs
Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Standards
Standard
Networking Standards
organization
• ISO 8877: Officially adopted the RJ connectors (e.g., RJ-11, RJ-45)
ISO • ISO 11801: Network cabling standard similar to EIA/TIA 568.

• TIA-568-C: Telecommunications cabling standards, used by nearly all

voice, video and data networks.
• TIA-569-B: Commercial Building Standards for Telecommunications
EIA/TIA Pathways and Spaces
• TIA-598-C: Fiber optic color coding
• TIA-942: Telecommunications Infrastructure Standard for Data Centers

ANSI • 568-C: RJ-45 pinouts. Co-developed with EIA/TIA

ITU-T • G.992: ADSL

• 802.3: Ethernet
IEEE • 802.11: Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (Wi-Fi certification)
• 802.15: Bluetooth

 Who maintaining physical layer standards?

 Different international and national organizations, regulatory
government organizations, and private companies
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles
Physical Frame Encoding Signalling
Media
Components Technique Method
• UTP • Manchester Encoding • Changes in the
• Coaxial • Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) electromagnetic field
• Connectors techniques • Intensity of the
Copper • NICs • 4B/5B codes are used with electromagnetic field
cable • Ports Multi-Level Transition Level 3 • Phase of the
• Interfaces (MLT-3) signaling electromagnetic wave
• 8B/10B
• PAM5
• Single-mode Fiber • Pulses of light • A pulse equals 1.
• Multimode Fiber • Wavelength multiplexing using • No pulse is 0.
• Connectors different colors
Fiber Optic
• NICs
cable • Interfaces
• Lasers and LEDs
• Photoreceptors
• Access Points • DSSS (direct-sequence spread- • Radio waves
Wireless • NICs spectrum)
media • Radio • OFDM (orthogonal frequency
• Antennae division multiplexing)
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles

 Encoding or line encoding - Method of converting a stream of data

bits into a predefined "codes”.
 Signaling - The physical layer must generate the electrical, optical,
or wireless signals that represent the "1" and "0" on the media.
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Encoding and Signaling

 http://www.flukenetworks.com/content/n
eal-allens-network-maintenance-and-
troubleshooting-guide-revealed
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Bandwidth

 Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data.

 Typically measured in kilobits per second (kb/s) or megabits per
second (Mb/s).
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Throughput

 Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media

over a given period of time.
 Due to a number of factors, throughput usually does not match the
specified bandwidth in physical layer implementations.
 http://www.speedtest.net/
 http://ipv6-test.com/speedtest/
Network Media
Copper Cabling
Copper Cabling
Characteristics of Copper Media

1 2

4
3

 Signal attenuation - the longer the signal travels, the more it

deteriorates - susceptible to interference
 Crosstalk - a disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic fields
of a signal on one wire to the signal in an adjacent wire.
Copper
Cabling
Copper
Media

 Counter the negative effects of different types of interference some cables

are wrapped in metallic shielding
 Counter the negative effects of crosstalk, some cables have opposing
circuit wire pairs twisted together which effectively cancels the crosstalk.
Copper Cabling
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

 Read this section… good stuff!

Copper Cabling
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

Braided or Foil Shield

Foil Shields
Copper Cabling
Coaxial Cable
Copper Cabling
Cooper Media Safety
UTP Cabling
Properties of UTP Cabling

 Read this section… more good stuff!

UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards
UTP Cabling
UTP Connectors
UTP Cabling
Types of UTP Cable
UTP Cabling
Testing UTP Cables
Fiber Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber Media Cable Design

 Please read this section…. More good stuff!

Fiber Optic Cabling
Types of Fiber Media
Fiber Optic Cabling
Network Fiber Connectors
Fiber Optic Cabling
Testing Fiber Cables
Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber versus Copper
Implementation issues Copper media Fibre-optic

Bandwidth supported 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps 10 Mbps – 100 Gbps

Relatively short Relatively High

Distance (1 – 100 meters) (1 – 100,000 meters)

High
Immunity to EMI and RFI Low
(Completely immune)

High
Immunity to electrical hazards Low
(Completely immune)

Media and connector costs Lowest Highest

Installation skills required Lowest Highest

Safety precautions Lowest Highest

Wireless Media
Properties of Wireless Media
Wireless Media
Types of Wireless Media
• IEEE 802.11 standards
• Commonly referred to as Wi-Fi.
• Uses CSMA/CA
• Variations include:
• 802.11a: 54 Mbps, 5 GHz
• 802.11b: 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
• 802.11g: 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
• 802.11n: 600 Mbps, 2.4 and 5 GHz
• 802.11ac: 1 Gbps, 5 GHz
• 802.11ad: 7 Gbps, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 GHz

• IEEE 802.15 standard

• Supports speeds up to 3 Mbps
• Provides device pairing over distances from 1 to
100 meters.

• IEEE 802.16 standard

• Provides speeds up to 1 Gbps
• Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide
wireless broadband access.
Wireless Media
802.11 Wi-Fi Standards
Maximum Backwards
Standard Frequency
Speed compatible

802.11a 54 Mbps 5 GHz No

802.11b 11 Mbps 2.4 GHz No

802.11g 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz 802.11b

802.11n 600 Mbps 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz 802.11b/g

1.3 Gbps 2.4 GHz and 5.5

802.11ac (1300 Mbps) GHz
802.11b/g/n

7 Gbps 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz and

802.11ad (7000 Mbps) 60 GHz
802.11b/g/n/ac
The Data
Link
Layer

 The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that
make up a data link layer frame across the network media.
Purpose of the Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer

 The data link layer is responsible for the exchange of frames

between nodes over a physical network media.
Purpose of the Data Link Layer Network

Data Link Sublayers

LLC Sublayer

Data Link

MAC Sublayer

Bluetooth
Ethernet
Physical

802.15
802.11
Wi-Fi
802.3
 Data Link layer has two sublayers (sometimes):
 Logical Link Control (LLC) – Software processes that provide services
to the Network layer protocols.
 Frame information that identifies the Network layer protocol.
 Multiple Layer 3 protocols, (ICMP, IPv4 and IPv6) can use the same
network interface and media.
 Media Access Control (MAC) - Media access processes performed by
the hardware.
 Provides Data Link layer addressing and framing of the data
according to the protocol in use.
Purpose of the Data Link Layer
Providing Access to Media

 At each hop along the path, a router:

 Accepts a frame from a medium
 De-encapsulates the frame
 Re-encapsulates the packet into a
new frame
 Forwards the new frame
appropriate to the medium of that
segment of the physical network
Data Link Layer
Layer 2 Frame Structure

 The data link layer prepares a packet for transport across the local
media by encapsulating it with a header and a trailer to create a
frame.
Topologies
Controlling Access to the Media
Media
Access
Control

 Media Access Control - Regulates the placement of data frames

onto the media.
 The method of media access control used depends on:
 Media sharing
 Do more than two nodes share the media?
 If so, how? (Switches, hubs, etc.)

43
Serial vs multi-access Multi-access

Point-to-Point

 Point-to-Point networks
 Only two nodes
 /30 subnets are common (later)
 Protocols: PPP, HDLC, Frame Relay
 Multi-access networks (LANs)
 Multiple nodes
 Subnets mask range depends upon the number of hosts (nodes)
 Protocols: Ethernet, 802.11 (wireless), Frame Relay Multipoint 44
Topologies
Physical and Logical Topologies
LAN Topologies
Logical Topology for Shared Media
LAN Topologies
Contention-Based Access

Characteristics Contention-Based Technologies

• Stations can transmit at any time • CSMA/CD for 802.3 Ethernet networks
• Collision exist • CSMA/CA for 802.11 wireless networks
• There are mechanisms to resolve
contention for the media
Media Access Control

 The media access control methods used by logical multi-access

topologies are typically:
 CSMA/CD - Hubs
 CSMA/CA - Wireless
 Token passing – Token Ring
 Later

48
WAN Topologies
Half and Full Duplex
Duplex Transmissions

 Simplex Transmission: One way and one way only.

 One way street
 Half-duplex Transmission: Either way, but only one way at a time.
 Two way street, but only one way at a time (land slide).
 Ethernet hubs use half-duplex
 Full-duplex Transmission: Both ways at the same time.
 Two way street
 Ethernet switches use full-duplex
50
 Most serial links are full-duplex
Data Link Frame Fields

 Data Link frame header fields may include:

 Start Frame field - Indicates the beginning of the frame
 Source and Destination address fields - Indicates the source
and destination nodes on the media
 Priority/Quality of Service field - Indicates a particular type of
communication service for processing
 Type field - Indicates the upper layer service contained in the
frame
 Logical connection control field - Used to establish a logical
connection between nodes
 Physical link control field - Used to establish the media link
 Flow control field - Used to start and stop traffic over the media
 Congestion control field - Indicates congestion in the media 51
Framing- The Trailer

 The signals on the media could be subject to:

 Interference
 Distortion
 Loss
 This would change the bit values that those signals represent.

 The trailer is used to determine if the frame arrived without error.

 Error detection.
 The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field is used to determine if
errors occurred in the transmission and reception of the frame.

52
Cyclic Redundancy Check

 Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is commonly used.

 Sending node includes a logical summary of the bits in the frame.
 Receiving node calculates its own logical summary, or CRC.
 Compares the two CRC values.
 Equal – Accepts the frame
 Different – Discards the frame

53
Ethernet Protocol for LANs

 Ethernet is a family of networking technologies that are defined in

the IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 standards.
 Uses 48 bit addressing (Ethernet MAC addresses) for Source and
Destination
 More next week!

54
Point-to-Point Protocol for WANs

 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a protocol used to deliver frames

between two nodes.
 PPP can be used on various physical media, including:
 Twisted pair
 Fiber optic lines
 Satellite transmission

55
Wireless Protocol for LANs

 802.11 is an extension of the IEEE 802 standards.

 It uses the same 48-bit addressing scheme as other 802 LANs.
 Contention-based system using a Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

56