Concepts, Formulas & Problems

Mathematics - Class 12 (NCERT)

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by
Dr. Dhirendra Singh Yadav
Lead Instructor, 1Math2Bytes (India)

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Document Version: 2025.03.r3
Updated on: March 24, 2025
 Contents

1 Relations and Functions 4

1.1 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Functions: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Composition of Functions and Invertible Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 7

2.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Matrices 9
3.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.1 Types of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.2 Operations on Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.3 Properties of Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.4 Properties of Transpose of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.5 Properties of Symmetric and Skew-symmetric Matrices: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
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3.1.6 Invertible Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3.2 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Determinants 13
4.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5 Continuity and Differentiability 17

5.1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.3 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.4 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.4.1 Algebra of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.4.2 Useful Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.5 Chain Rule for Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.6 Useful Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.7 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6 Application of Derivatives 25
6.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.2 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

7 Integrals 27
7.1 Useful Derivatives and Anti Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.2 Integration of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.3 Properties of Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.4 Methods of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.4.1 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.4.2 Integration using trigonometric identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.4.3 Integration of some particular functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.4.4 Integration Using Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.4.5 Integration by Parts . .R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.4.6 Integration of the Type ex [f (x) + f ′ (x)] dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.4.7 Integration of Some Special Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.5 Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.5.1 Area Function, Fundamental Theorems of Calculus, Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.5.2 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.5.3 Some Properties of Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

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7.6 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

7.7 Extra Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

8 Application of Integrals 35
8.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.2 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

9 Differential Equations 36
9.1 Differential Equation, Its Order and Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.2 Solving Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.3 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

10 Vector Algebra 39
10.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
10.2 Vector Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
10.3 Scalar (Dot) Product of Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
10.4 Vector (Cross) Product of Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
10.5 Areas of Triangle and Parallelogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
10.6 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

11 Three Dimensional Geometry 43

11.1 Concepts and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
11.1.1 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
11.1.2 Equation of a Line in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
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11.1.3 Angle between Two Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

11.1.4 Shortest Distance between Two Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
11.1.5 Distance b/w Parallel Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
11.2 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

12 Linear Programming 46
12.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
12.2 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

13 Probability 49
13.1 Class 11 Concepts & Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
13.2 Conditional Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
13.3 Multiplication Theorem on Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
13.4 Independent Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
13.5 Partition of a Sample Space, Total Probability and Bayes’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
13.6 Important Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
 Chapter 1 | Relations and Functions

1.1 Relations
ˆ A relation R from set A to set B is a subset of A × B. If (a, b) ∈ R, we say that a is related to b via R.
Sometimes we also denote it as a Rb or R(a) = b.
Note: In general if A and B are two finite sets with n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then A × B has pq elements
and therefore 2pq subsets. Since each subset of A × B is a relation, there are 2pq relations from A to B.
Example: If A = {a, b}, B = {1, 2, 3}, then A × B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}
If we take R = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}. Since R ⊂ A × B so R is a relation from set A to set B. Via this relation
we can say that a is related to 1, b is related to 2 and b is related to 3.
ˆ A relation R on a set A is a subset of A × A.
2
Note: If A is a finite set with n(A) = p, then A × A has p2 elements and therefore 2p subsets. Since each
2
subset of A × A is a relation in A, there are 2p relations from A to A.
ˆ Types of Relation: A relation R in set A is called:
1. Reflexive: If (a, a) ∈ R, ∀ a ∈ A
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2. Symmetric: If (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R

3. Transitive: If (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R
4. Equivalence Relation: A relation which is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
5. Empty Relation: ϕ
6. Universal Relation: A × A
ˆ Equivalence Class: If R is an equivalence relation on set A and a ∈ A, then the set of all elements b ∈ A
which are related to a (i.e. (a, b) ∈ R) is called the equivalence class of a in R. It is denoted as [a].

[a] = {b ∈ A : (a, b) ∈ R}

Note: It is easy to show that:

1. Since a ∈ [a] so [a] ̸= ∅, ∀a ∈ A.
2. if (a, b) ∈ R then [a] = [b].
Example: It is easy to check that the relation R in the set of integers Z defined by:

R = {(a, b) : 3 divides |a − b|}

is an equivalence relation and the equivalence classes of 0, 1, 2 are:

[0] = {. . . , −9, −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, . . .}

[1] = {. . . , −8, −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, . . .}
[2] = {. . . , −8, −5, −2, 2, 5, 8, 11, . . .}

1.2 Functions:
ˆ Definition: A function f from set X to set Y is a special type of relation in which each element of X is
related to one and only one element of Y . A function from X to Y is usually denoted by f : X → Y . If
(x, y) ∈ f , we also write it as f (x) = y.
X is called the domain of f and Y is called the codomain of f . The subset of all elements of Y which are
related with elements of A, is called the range of the function f (range of function f is denoted by Range(f ).
Example: Let X = {a, b, c} and Y = {1, 2, 3}, then f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2)} i.e. f (a) = 1, f (b) = 2, f (c) =
2 is a function from X to Y . Domain (f ) = {a, b, c} = X, Codmain (f ) = {1, 2, 3}, and Range(f ) = {1, 2}.
ˆ Types of Functions: A function f : X → Y is said to be:

4
 1.3. COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS AND INVERTIBLE FUNCTIONS 5

1. One-One (One-to-One or Injective): If different elements of X are mapped to different elements of Y .

Mathematically, to prove that f is one-one, we need to show that x1 ̸= x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) or
equivalently f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 for all x1 , x2 ∈ X.
2. Many-One (or Many-to-One): If f is not one-one then it is called many-one. In this case, at least one
element of codomain will be image of two or more elements of domain.
3. Onto (or Surjective): If all elements of codomain are mapped to elements of domain (i.e. Range(f) =
Codomain(f)).
Mathematically, to prove that f : X → Y is onto, we need to show that for every y ∈ Y , there exists
some x ∈ X such that f (x) = y.
4. One-One Onto (or Bijective): If f is both one-one and onto then it is called a bijective function.
5. Constant Function: The function f : X → Y given by f (x) = c, ∀ x ∈ X (where c is some fixed
element of Y ) is called a constant function.
6. Equal Functions: Functions f : X → Y and g : X → Y are said to be equal if f (x) = g(x), ∀x ∈ X
otherwise they are said to be different or unequal functions.

ˆ Identity Function: The function IX : X → X, defined by I(x) = x, ∀ x ∈ X is called the identity function
on X.

1.3 Composition of Functions and Invertible Functions

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Composition of Functions If f : X → Y and g : Y → Z are two functions, then composition of functions f and
g denoted by f ◦ g is a function from X to Z defined by

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)), ∀ x ∈ X

Example: Find g ◦ f and f ◦ g, if f : R → R and g : R → R are given by f (x) = cos x and g(x) = 3x2 . Show that
g ◦ f ̸= f ◦ g.
Solution: For x ∈ X,
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(cos x) = 3(cos x)2 = 3 cos2 x
and
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (3x2 ) = cos(3x2 )
Note that (g ◦ f )(0) = 3 cos2 0 = 3 × 1 = 3 and (f ◦ g)(0) = cos(3 × 02 ) = cos 0 = 1.. Since (g ◦ f )(0) ̸= (f ◦ g)(0),
so g ◦ f ̸= f ◦ g.

Invertible Function: A function f : X → Y is said to be invertible, if there exists a function g : Y → X such

that g ◦ f = IX and f ◦ g = IY . The function g is called the inverse of f and is denoted by f −1 .

Example: If A = {a, b, c, d}and the function f = {(a, b), (b, d), (c, a), (d, c)}. Write f −1 .
Solution: Since f maps a to b, b to d, c to a and d to c so f −1 will do the opposite i.e. it will map b to a, d to b,
a to c and c to d. Thus f −1 = {(b, a), (d, b), (a, c), (c, d)}.

Remark: Note that if f is invertible, then f must be one-one and onto and conversely, if f is one-one and onto,
then f must be invertible.

1.4 Important Problems

1. Prove that R1 and R2 are equivalence relations in a set A, then R1 ∩ R2 is also an equivalence relation in A.

2. Find the number of all one-one functions from set A = {1, 2, 3} to itself. (Ans: 3! = 6)

3. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then show that the number of relations containing (1, 2) and (2, 3) which are reflexive and
transitive but not symmetric is three.
Hint: Note that the smallest relation R containing (1, 2) and (2, 3) which is reflexive and transitive but not
symmetric is {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}

4. Show that the number of equivalence relation in the set {1, 2, 3} containing (1, 2) and (2, 1) is two.
Hint: The smallest equivalence relation R containing (1, 2) and (2, 1) is {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)}
 6 CHAPTER 1. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

5. Consider a function f : [0, π2 ] → R given by f (x) = sin x and g : [0, π2 ] → R given by g(x) = cos x. Show that
f and g are one-one, but f + g is not one-one. Hint: (f + g)(0) = (f + g)( π2 ) and 0 =
̸ π2
6. Let A = {a, b, c} and the relation R be defined on A as follows:

R = {(a, a), (b, c), (a, b)}

Then, write minumum number of ordered pairs to be added in R to make R reflexive and transitive.
Ans: (b,b), (c, c), (a,c)
√
7. Let D be the domain of of the real valued function f defined by f (x) = 25 − x2 . Then write D.
Ans: D=[-5, 5]
8. If f, g : R → R be defined by f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x2 − 2, ∀x ∈ R respectively. Then find g ◦ f . Ans:
(g ◦ f )(x) = 4x2 + 4x − 1
9. Let f : R → R be the function defined by f (x) = 2x − 3, ∀ x ∈ R. Write f −1 .
Ans: f −1 (x) = x+3
2

10. If f : R → R is defined by f (x) = x2 − 3x + 2, write f (f (x)). (i.e. the composition f ◦ f ). Ans:

f (f (x)) = x4 − 6x3 + 10x2 − 3x
11. Is g = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5), (4, 7)} a function? If g is described by g(x) = αx + β, then what value should be
assigned to α and β? Ans: α = 2, β = −1
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12. If the mappings f and g are given by f = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 1)} and g = {(2, 3), (5, 1), (1, 3)}, write f ◦ g. Ans:
f ◦ g = {(2, 5), (5, 2), (1, 5)}
13. Let C be the set of complex numbers. Prove that the mapping f : C → R given by f (z) = |z|, ∀ z ∈ C is
neither one-one nor onto. Hint: f(1) = f(-1). Negative reals are not in range.
14. Let the function f : R → R be defined by f (x) = cos x, ∀ x ∈ R. Show that f is neither one-one nor onto.
1
15. Let f : R → R be the function defined by f (x) = 2−cos x , ∀ x ∈ R. Then, find the range of f . Ans: [ 13 , 1]
16. Let R be a relation defined on the set of natural numbers N as follows:

R = {(x, y) : x ∈ N, y ∈ N, 2x + y = 41}

Find the domain and range of the relation R. Also verify whether R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Ans: Domain: {1, 2, . . . , 20}, Range: {1, 3, 5, 7, . . . , 39}. Not R, Not S, Not T
x−2
17. Let A = R − {3}, B = R − {1}. If f : A → B be defined by f (x) = x−3 , ∀ x ∈ A. Then, show that f is
bijective. Hint: i) f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 , ii). y = f (x) ⇒ x = 3y−2
y−1 with f (x) = y

18. Let A = {1, 2, . . . , 9} and R be the relation in A × A defined by (a, b)R(c, d) if a + d = b + c for (a, b), (c, d) ∈
A × A. Prove that R is an equivalence relation and also obtain the equivalent class of element (2, 5). Ans:
[(2, 5)] = {(2, 5), (1, 4), (3, 6), (4, 7), (5, 8), (6, 9)}
19. Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = √ x , then show that (f ◦ f ◦ f )(x) = √ x .
1+x2 3x2 +1
1
20. If f (x) = [4 − (x − 7)3 ], then show that f −1 (x) = 7 + (4 − x) 3 .

Other Problems

21. Check whether the relation R in R defined by R = {(a, b) : a ≤ b3 } is relfexive, symmetric and transitive.
Ans: Not R, Not S, Not T. For transitivity, a counter example is (26, 3), (3, 2 ∈ R but (26, 2) ∈
/R
22. Let A = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 9} and R be the relation in A × A defined by (a,b) R(c,d) if a + d = b + c for (a, b), (c, d)
in A × A. Prove that R is an equivalence relation and also obtain the equivalent class [(2, 5)].
23. Let R be relation defined on the set of natural number N as follows: R = {(x, y) : 2x + y = 41}. Find the
domain and range of the relation R. Also verify whether R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Ans: Domain={1, 2, 3, . . . , 20}, Range={1, 3, 5, 7, . . . , 39}. Not reflexive, not symmetric, not transitive.
 Chapter 2 | Inverse Trigonometric Functions

2.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

From Class 11, we know that domain and range of trigonometric functions are given by:

Function Actual Domain Restricted Domain (Principal Value Branch) Range

sin R [− π2 , π2 ] [−1, 1]
cosec R − {x : x = nπ, n ∈ Z} [− π2 , π2 ] − {0} R − (−1, 1)
tan R − {x : x = (2n + 1) π2 , n ∈ Z} (− π2 , π2 ) R
cos R [0, π] [−1, 1]
sec R − {x : x = (2n + 1) π2 , n ∈ Z} [0, π] − { π2 } R − (−1, 1)
cot R − {x : x = nπ, n ∈ Z} (0, π) R

We know that a funtion is invertible if and only if it is one-one and onto. All trigonometric functions with restricted
domain (principal value branch) are bijective and hence invertible The domain and range (principal value branch)
of these 6 inverse trigonometric functions are given below:

Inverse Function Domain Range (Principal Value Branch)

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y = sin−1 (x) [−1, 1] [− π2 , π2 ]

y = cosec−1 (x) R − (−1, 1) [− π2 , π2 ] − {0}

y = tan−1 (x) R (− π2 , π2 )

y = cos−1 (x) [−1, 1] [0, π]

y = sec−1 (x) R − (−1, 1) [0, π] − { π2 }

y = cot−1 (x) R (0, π)

2.2 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

ˆ The value of an inverse trigonometric functions which lies in its principal value branch is called the principal
value of that inverse trigonometric functions.
ˆ Recall that if y = sin−1 x, then x = sin y and if x = sin y, then y = sin−1 x. This is equivalent to

sin(sin−1 (x)) = x, x ∈ [−1, 1]

h π πi
sin−1 (sin(x)) = x, x ∈ − ,
2 2

For suitable values of domain similar results follow for remaining trigonometric functions.
ˆ sin−1 x should not be confused with (sin x)−1 . These two are different. Same is true for remaining trigono-
metric functions.

2.3 Important Problems

1. Find the princiapl values of :
(a) sin−1 −1 Ans: − π6


2 .
 
−1
(b) cot−1 √ 3
Ans: 2π
3

(c) cosec−1 (2) Ans: π

6

7
 8 CHAPTER 2. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

(d) cosec−1 (−2). Ans: − π4

2. Write the following functions in simplest form:
(a) tan−1 cos x
1−sin x Ans: π
4 + x
2
√
2 −1
(b) tan−1 1+xx Ans: 1
2 tan−1 x
q
(c) tan−1 1−cos x
1+cos x Ans: x
2

(d) tan−1 √ x
a2 −x2
Ans: sin−1 x
a
2 3
(e) tan−1 ( 3a x−x
a3 −3ax2 ) Ans: 3 tan−1 x
a

3. Find the values of each of the following:

(a) tan−1 [2 cos(2 sin−1 12 )] Ans: π

4
h 2
i
(b) tan 21 sin−1 1+x
2x
2 + cos
−1 1−y
1+y 2 Ans: x+y
1−xy
√ √
4. Show that tan−1 3 − cot−1 (− 3) = − π2

5. Prove that tan sin−1 53 + cot−1 32 = 17

6
x+y
6. Prove that tan−1 x + tan−1 y = tan−1 1−xy

7. Prove that tan−1 63

= sin−1 5
+ cos−1 35 .
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16 13
√
8. Prove that tan−1 x= 1
2 cos−1 1−x
1+x , x ∈ [0, 1]
√ √ 
9. Prove that cot−1 √1+sin x+√1−sin x = x2 , x ∈ (0, π4 )
1+sin x− 1−sin x
√ √ 
10. Prove that tan−1 √1+x−√1−x = π
− 1
cos−1 x, − √12 ≤ x ≤ 1 Hint: Put x = cos(2θ)
1+x+ 1−x 4 2

11. Solve 2 tan−1 (cos x) = tan−1 (2 cosec x) Ans: x = nπ + π

4

12. Solve tan−1 1−x

1+x = 1
2 tan−1 x, (x > 0) Ans: x = √1
3
 Chapter 3 | Matrices

3.1 Concepts
Matrix: A matrix is an ordered arrangement of numbers in rows and columns.
A matrix with m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n. An m × n matrix A given by
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
A= .
 
.. .. .. 
 .. . . . 
am1 am2 ... amn
is often written as A = [aij ]m×n , where aij is the ith row and jth column element of the matrix.

3.1.1 Types of Matrices

ˆ Row Matrix: A row matrix is a matrix in which the number of rows is 1.
Example: A = [1, 2, 3] is a 1 × 3 row matrix.
ˆ Column Matrix:
  A column matrix is a matrix in which the number of columns is 1.
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1
Example: A = 2 is a 3 × 1 column matrix.
3
ˆ Square Matrix: A square matrix is a matrix in which the number of rows and columns are equal.
 
1 2
Example: A = is a 2 × 2 square matrix.
3 4
ˆ Identity Matrix: A square matrix in which the elements of the diagonal are 1 and the rest are 0.
 
1 0 0
Example: I3 = 0 1 0 is an 3 × 3 identity matrix.
0 0 1
ˆ Zero Matrix: A zero matrix is a square matrix in which all the elements are 0.
 
0 0 0
Example: O3 = 0 0 0 is an 3 × 3 zero matrix.
0 0 0
ˆ Diagonal Matrix: A diagonal matrix is a matrix in which the elements of the diagonal are non-zero and
the rest are 0.
Example: 3x3 diagonal matrix is:  
1 0 0
D3 = 0 2 0
0 0 3

ˆ Transpose of a Matrix: The transpose of a matrix is obtained by swapping the rows and columns (i.e.
1st row becomes 1st column, 2nd row becomes 2nd column, and so on). The transpose of A is denoted by
A′ or AT .    
a b ′ a c
Example: If A = then A =
c d b d
ˆ Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A = A′ .
   
1 2 3 1 2 3
Example: If A = 2 4 5 then A′ = 2 4 5 =⇒ A = A′ . Hence A is symmetric.
3 5 6 3 5 6
ˆ Skew Symmetric ′
 Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if A = −A . Example:
0 1 2
A = −1 0 3 is a skew-symmetric matrix.
−2 −3 0

9
 10 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES

3.1.2 Operations on Matrices

ˆ Equality of Matrices: Two matrices A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are said to be equal if (i) they are of same
order, (ii) each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B, that is aij = bij for all i, j.
Example: Find the values of a, b, c, and d from the following equation:
   
2a + b a − 2b 4 −3
=
5c − d 4c + 3d 11 24
Solution: On solving 2a + b = 4, 5c - d = 11, a - 2b = - 3, 4c + 3d = 24, we get a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, d = 4.
ˆ Addition of matrices: If A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are two matrices of the same order, say m × n. Then,
the sum of the two matrices A and B is defined as a matrix = [cij ]m×n , where cij = aij + bij for all i, j.
     
1 2 5 6 6 8
Example: If A = , B= then A + B =
3 4 7 8 10 12
Note: If A and B are not of the same order, then A + B is not defined.
ˆ Multiplication by a Scalar: If A = [aij ]m×n is a matrix and k is a scalar(constant), then kA is another
matrix which is obtained by multiplying each element of A by the scalar k.
   
1 2 7 14
Example: If A = and k = 7, then kA = 7A =
3 4 21 28
ˆ Negative of a matrix: The negative of a matrix A is denoted by −A. We define −A = (−1)A.
   
1 2 −1 −2
Example: If A = then − A = (−1)A =
3 4 −3 −4
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ˆ Difference of matrices: If A = [aij ], B = [bij ] are two matrices of the same order say m × n, then A − B
is defined as a matrix C = [cij ]m×n , where cij = aij − bij for all i, j.
     
1 2 5 6 −4 −4
Example: If A = , B= then A − B =
3 4 7 8 −4 −4
ˆ Multiplication of Matrices: The product of two matrices A and B is defined if the number of columns of
A is equal to the number of rows of B.
Let A = [aij ] be an m × n matrix and B = [bjk ] be an n × p matrix. Then the product of the matrices A
and B is the matrix C of order m × p. The (i, k)th element cik of the matrix C, is obtained by elementwise
multiplying and adding the ith row of A with the kth column of B.
   
  7 8   39 54 69
1 2 3 58 64
Example: If A = , B =  9 10 , then A×B = and B×A = 49 68 87 
4 5 6 2×3 139 154 2×2
11 12 3×2 59 82 105 3×3
Remark: Note that even if AB is defined, BA need not be defined. In general AB ̸= BA.

3.1.3 Properties of Matrix Operations

ˆ Properties of Matrix Addition: If A = [aij ], B = [bij ] and C = [cij ] are matrices of the same order, say
m × n, then
– A + B = B + A (Commutative Law)
– (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (Associative Law)
– A + O = O + A = A, where O is m × n zero matrix. (Existence of additive identity)
– A + (−A) = (−A) + A = O (The existence of additive inverse). The matrix −A is additive inverse of A
ˆ Properties of Scalar Multiplication: If α, β are scalars and A, B are two matrices of same order, then
– α(A + B) = αA + αB
– (α + β)A = αA + βA
ˆ Properties of Matrix Multiplication: Whenever defined,
– (AB)C = A(BC) (Associative Law)
– A(B + C) = AB + AC (Left Distribution Law)
– (A + B)C = AC + BC (Right Distribution Law)
– (Existence of Multiplication Identity) If An×n is a square matrix then the identity matrix I (of order
n × n) is a matrix such that IA = AI = A
 3.2. IMPORTANT PROBLEMS 11

3.1.4 Properties of Transpose of a Matrix

For any matrices A and B of suitable orders, we have

ˆ (A′ )′ = A

ˆ (A + B)′ = A′ + B ′

ˆ (AB)′ = B ′ A′

ˆ (kA)′ = k(A′ ), where k is a constant

3.1.5 Properties of Symmetric and Skew-symmetric Matrices:

If A is a square matrix, then

ˆ If A is symmetric and k is a constant then kA is also symmetric.

ˆ If A is skew-symmetric and k is a constant then kA is also skew-symmetric.

ˆ A + A′ is a symmetric matrix.

ˆ A − A′ is a skew-symmetric matrix.

1 1
ˆ Since A = (A + A′ ) + (A − A′ ) . Thus every square square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a
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2 2
symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.

3.1.6 Invertible Matrices

If A is a square matrix of order n, and if there exists another square matrix B of the same order n, such that
AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by A−1 .
Remarks:

ˆ (Uniqueness of Inverse) Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.

ˆ If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1

3.2 Important Problems

   
3 −2 1 0
1. If A = and I = , find k so that A2 = kA − 2I. (Ans: k = 1)
4 −2 0 1

2. Prove that any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.

3. If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .
 
cos x − sin x 0
4. If F (x) =  sin x cos x 0, show that F (x)F (y) = F (x + y).
0 0 1
 
1 0 2
5. If A = 0 2 1, prove that A3 − 6A2 + 7A + 2I = O.
2 0 3

6. If A, B are symmetric matrices of same order, then prove that AB − BA is a skew symmetric matrix.
 
6 −2 2
7. Express the matrix A = −2 3 −1 as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix. (Hint:
2 −1 3
A = P + Q, where P = 2 (A + A′ ), Q = 12 (A − A′ ) )
1

8. Prove that for any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A′ is a symmetric matrix and A − A′ is a
skew symmetric matrix.
 12 CHAPTER 3. MATRICES
   
cos θ sin θ cos nθ sin nθ
9. If A = , then prove that An = , n ∈ N.
− sin θ cos θ − sin nθ cos nθ
(Hint: Use principle of mathematical induction)
10. If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then show that AB is symmetric if and only if A and
B commute, that is AB = BA.

11. Show that the matrix B ′ AB is symmetric or skew symmetric according as A is symmetric or skew symmetric.
     
2 −1 5 2 2 5
12. Let A = , B= , C= . Find a matrix D such that CD − AB = O
3 4 7 4 3 8
 
−191 −110
Ans:
77 44
13. Give an example of matrices A and B such that A ̸= O, B ̸= O but AB = O.
     
1 0 2 3 2 3
14. Show that for matrices A = ,B = , and C = , AB = AC but B ̸= C. (Remark: We
0 0 4 1 2 2
will see in the next chapter that cancellation law holds only for invertible matrix)
15. Show that, if A and B are square matrices such that AB = BA, then (A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B 2 .

16. Prove by Mathematical induction that (A′ )n = (An )′ where n ∈ N for any square matrix A.
 
α β
17. If A = is such that A2 = I, then
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γ −α
(a) 1 + α2 + βγ = 0 (c) 1 − α2 − βγ = 0
(b) 1 − α2 + βγ = 0 (d) 1 + α2 − βγ = 0

Ans: (c)
18. If the matrix A is both symmetric and skew symmetric, then

(a) A is a diagonal matrix (c) A is a square matrix

(b) A is a zero matrix (d) None of these

Ans: (b)
19. If A is square matrix such that A2 = A, then (I + A)3 − 7A is equal to

(a) A (c) I
(b) I − A (d) 3A

Ans: (c)
20. The number of all possible matrices of order 3x3 with each entry 0 or 1 is:

(a) 27 (c) 81
(b) 18 (d) 512

Hint: 29
 Chapter 4 | Determinants

4.1 Concepts
ˆ What is Determinant? For every square matrix A = [aij ]n×n of order n, we can associate a number
(real or complex) called determinant of the square matrix A.
Computation of Determinant:
– 1 × 1 matrix: If A = [a11 ]1×1 then |A| = |a11 | = a11
 
a a12 a a12
– 2 × 2 matrix: If A = 11 , then |A| = 11 = a11 a22 − a12 a21
a21 a22 2×2 a21 a22
i.e. |A| = (product of diagonal elements) - (product of anti-diagonal elements)
 
a11 a12 a13
– 3 × 3 matrix: If A = a21 a22 a23  , then (expanding along first row R1 )
a31 a32 a33 3×3
a11 a12 a13
a a23 a a23 a a22
|A| = a21 a22 a23 = a11 22 − a12 21 + a13 21
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a31 a32 a33
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ˆ Properties of Determinants:
– The determinant of a diagonal matrix is equal to the product of the diagonal elements. Example:
a 0 0
0 b 0 = abc
0 0 c
– |AB| = |A||B| i.e. det(AB) = det(A) det(B) (determinant of product = product of determinants)

– |kA| = k n |A| (where A is of order n and k is a scalar)

– |A′ | = |A| i.e. det(AT ) = det(A)

2
– In particular, |AA′ | = |A||A′ | = |A||A| = |A|2 i.e. det (AAT ) = (det(A))

1 1
– |A−1 | = = |A|−1 i.e. det(A−1 ) = = [det(A)]−1
|A| det(A)

ˆ Area of a Triangle: If the vertices of the triangle are (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 ), then it’s area is given
by the absolute value of
x y1 1
1 1
∆= x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1

ˆ Minors (Mij ) and Cofactors (Aij ):

The minor Mij of an element aij of a determinant is the determinant obtained by deleting ith row and jth
column. Thus minor of an element of a determinant of order n (where n ≥ 2) is a determinant of order n − 1.
The cofactor Aij of an element aij is Aij = (−1)i+j Mij
2 −3 5
Example: Minors and cofactors of determinant 6 0 4 are:
1 5 −7
0 4
M11 = = 0 − 20 = −20; A11 = (−1)1+1 M11 = 20.
5 −7
6 4
M12 = = −42 − 4 = −46; A12 = (−1)1+2 M12 = 46.
1 −7
6 0
M13 = = 30 − 0 = 30; A13 = (−1)1+3 M13 = 30.
1 5

13
 14 CHAPTER 4. DETERMINANTS

Remaining minors M21 , M22 , M23 , M31 , M32 , M33 and cofactors A21 , A22 , A23 , A31 , A32 , A33 can be computed
using the same method.
ˆ Properties of Cofactors:
1. Value of determinant of a matrix A is obtained by sum of product of elements of a row (or a column)
with corresponding cofactors.
 
a11 a12 a13
For example if A = a21 a22 a23 , then
a31 a32 a33
|A| = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13 (corresponding elements and cofactors of first row), or
|A| = a11 A11 + a21 A21 + a31 A31 (corresponding elements and cofactors of first column) etc.
2. If elements of one row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of elements of any other row (or
column), then their sum is zero.
Example: a11 A21 + a12 A22 + a13 A23 = 0 (elements of first row and cofactors of 2nd row) etc.
ˆ Adjoint of a Matrix: The adjoint of a matrix A = [aij ]n×n is defined as the transpose of the cofactor
matrix [Aij ]n×n (where Aij is the cofactor of aij ). It is denoted by adj A.
   T  
a11 a12 a13 A11 A12 A13 A11 A21 A31
If A = a21 a22 a23 , then adj A = A21 A22 A23  = A12 A22 A32 
a31 a32 a33 A31 A32 A33 A13 A23 A33
 
a a12
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Note: It is easy to check that for a 2 × 2 matrix A = 11 ,

a21 a22
 
a22 −a12
adj A =
−a21 a11

which simply can be obtained by swaping

  the diagonal elements and changing the signs of off-diagonal
1 2 4 −2
elements of A. For example, if A = , then adj A = .
3 4 −3 1
ˆ Theorem: For every square matrix A of order n,

A(adj A) = (adj A)A = |A| I

where I is the identity matrix of order n.

ˆ Singular and Non-Singular Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be singular, if |A| = 0.
If |A| =
̸ 0, we say that A is non-singular.

ˆ Theorem: If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then |AB| = |A||B| (i.e. determinant of
product = product of determinants).
ˆ Theorem: If A and B are non-singular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA are also non-singular
matrices of the same order. Hint for Proof: |AB| = |A||B|
ˆ Theorem: If A is a square matrix of order n, then |adj (A)| = |A|n−1 .
Proof: Use A(adj A) = |A|I, |AB| = |A||B|, and det( |A|I ) = |A|n .
ˆ Theorem: A square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is nonsingular.

1
ˆ Theorem: If A is non-singular, then A−1 = (adj A) .
|A|

ˆ Matrix Method for Solving System of Linear Equations

The system of linear equations:

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
 4.2. IMPORTANT PROBLEMS 15

can be written in the form AX = B, where

     
a1 b1 c1 x d1
A = a2 b2 c2  , X = y  , B = d2 
a3 b3 c3 z d3
Now 3 cases arise:
̸ 0 (i.e. A is non-singular), then system is consistent and X = A−1 B is the unique solution.
1. If |A| =
2. If |A| = 0 and (adj A)B ̸= O(zero matrix), then system is inconsistent and there is no solution.
3. If |A| = 0 and (adj A)B = O, then system may or may not be consistent (system may or may not
have solutions).

4.2 Important Problems

1. Find equation of line joining (3, 1) and (9, 3) using determinants. (Ans: x − 3y = 0)
2. Show that points A(a, b + c), B(b, c + a), C(c, a + b) are collinear.
3. Find the equation of the line joining A(1, 3) and B(0, 0) using determinants and find k if D(k, 0) is a point
such that area of triangle ABD is 3 sq units. (Ans: y = 3x and k = ±2)
 
2 3
4. Show that the matrix A = satisfies the equation A2 − 4A + I = O where I is 2 × 2 identity matrix
1 2
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−1 −1 2 −3
and O is 2 × 2 zero matrix. Using this equation, find A . (Ans: A = )
−1 2
 
3 2
5. For the matrix A = , find the numbers a and b such that A2 + aA + bI = O.
1 1
(Ans: a = −4, b = 1)
 
1 1 1
6. For the matrix A = 1 2 −3, show that A3 − 6A2 + 5A + 11I = O. Hence, find A−1 .
2 −1 3
 
−3 4 5
Ans: A−1 = 111 
9 −1 −4
5 −3 −1
7. Let A be a nonsingular square matrix of order 3 × 3. Then |adj A| is equal to

(a) |A| (b) |A|2 (c) |A|3 (d) 3|A|

(Ans: |A|2 )
8. If A is an invertible matrix of order 2, then det(A−1 ) is equal to
1
(a) det(A) (b) det(A) (c) 1 (d) 0

1
(Ans: det(A) )
 
2 −3 5
9. If A = 3 2 −4, find A−1 . Using A−1 solve the system of equations
1 1 −2

2x − 3y + 5z = 11
3x + 2y − 4z = −5
x + y − 2z = −3

(Ans: x = 1, y = 2, z = 3)
10. The cost of 4 kg onion, 3 kg wheat and 2 kg rice is Rs. 60. The cost of 2 kg onion, 4 kg wheat and 6 kg
rice is Rs. 90. The cost of 6 kg onion 2 kg wheat and 3 kg rice is Rs. 70. Find cost of each item per kg by
matrix method. Ans: Onion Rs. 5/Kg, Wheat Rs. 8/Kg, Rice Rs. 8/Kg
 16 CHAPTER 4. DETERMINANTS

11. Solve the system of equations

2 3 10
+ + =4
x y z
4 6 5
− + =1
x y z
6 9 20
+ − =2
x y z
Ans: x=2, y=3, z=5
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 Chapter 5 | Continuity and Differentiability

5.1 Limits
ˆ Left Hand Limit (L.H.L) of f at a point a is the expected value of f near to the left of a. This value,
if exists, is called the left hand limit of f at a and is denoted by limx→a− f (x).
ˆ Right Hand Limit (R.H.L) of f at a point a is the expected value of f near to the right of a. This
value, if exists, is called the right hand limit of f at a and is denoted by limx→a+ f (x).
ˆ Limit of f at a : If both L.H.L. and R.H.L. of f at a exist and are equal, then the common value is called
the limit of f at a and is denoted by limx→a f (x). Thus

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = lim f (x)

x→a− x→a x→a

ˆ Algebra of Limits

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a
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lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a
lim [f (x).g(x)] = lim f (x). lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
 
f (x) limx→a f (x)
lim = , provided denominator ̸= 0
x→a g(x) limx→a g(x)
lim [(λf )(x)] = λ lim f (x) (λ is a constant)
x→a x→a

ˆ Theorem. Let f and g be two real valued functions with the same domain such that f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x.
For some a, if both limx→a f (x) and limx→a g(x) exist, then limx→a f (x) ≤ limx→a g(x).
ˆ (Sandwich Theorem) Let f , g and h be real functions such that f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in the
common domain. For some real number a, if limx→a f (x) = l = limx→a h(x), then limx→a g(x) = l
ˆ Useful Limits
xn − an
lim = nan−1
x→a x − a

sin x
lim =1
x→0 x
1 − cos x
lim =0
x→0 x

5.2 Continuity
Definition: Let f be a real function and c is a point in it’s domain. We say that f is continuous at c if:

lim f (x) = f (c)

x→c

A continuous function is continuous at ::::

each point of its domain.

Note: If f is not continuous at c, we say f is discontinuous at c and c is called a point of discontinuity of f .

Steps to Solve Continuity Based Problems:

1. Compute left hand limit (L.H.L.) at x = c:

L.H.L. = lim f (x) = lim f (c − h)

x→c− h→0

17
 18 CHAPTER 5. CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

2. Compute right hand limit (L.H.L.) at x = c:

R.H.L. = lim+ f (x) = lim f (c + h)

x→c h→0

3. Compute f (c) i.e. the value of function f at x = c.

4. Conclusion: If L.H.L. = R.H.L. = f (c), then f is continuous at c otherwise f is discontinuous at c.

Properties of Continuity / Continuous Functions:

1. Sum, difference, product and quotient of continuous functions are continuous. i.e., if f and g are continuous
functions, then

i. (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) is continuous.

ii. (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) is continuous.
iii. (f.g)(x) = f (x).g(x) is continuous.
 
iv. fg (x) = fg(x)(x)
(wherever g(x) ̸= 0) is continuous.

2. Keep in mind that every polynomial function is continuous. It is easy to verify that f (x) = |x| (absolute
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value function), and trigonometric functions are continuous.

p(x)
3. Every rational function is continuous. (Recall that a rational function is of the form f (x) = q(x) , q(x) ̸= 0),
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions.

4. (Composition of Continuous Functions is a continuous function): If f and g are continuous at c

then f ◦ g is also continuous at c.
Examples: Show that the function defined by f (x) = sin(x2 ) and f (x) = |1 − x + |x|| are continuous
functions.
Solution: For f (x) = sin(x2 ), observe that f = g ◦ h where h(x) = x2 , g(x) = sin x. For 2nd function
f = g ◦ h where h(x) = 1 − x + |x|, g(x) = |x|.

5.3 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Exponential Function:
The exponential function with base b > 1 is defined by

y = f (x) = bx

Exponential function with base b = 10 is called the common exponential function. When b = e i.e. f (x) = ex , it
is called the natural exponential function.

Properties of Exponential Function:

1. Domain: R, Range: R+ (the set of all positive real numbers).

2. The exponential function satisfies f (x + y) = f (x)f (y). Proof: f (x + y) = bx+y = bx by = f (x)f (y)

bx f (x) 1 1 n
3. f (x − y) = bx−y = y
= f (−x) = b−x = x
= f (xn ) = b(x )
= (bx )n = f (x)n
b f (y) b f (x)

4. Exponential function is ever increasing and for very large negative values of x, the exponential function is
very close to 0.
 5.4. DERIVATIVES 19

Logarithmic Function:

Let b > 1 be a real number. Then we say that logb a = x (log of a w.r.t. base b is equal to x) if bx = a.
Mathematically for b > 1, the log function logb : R+ → R is defined as logb (x) = y if by = x.

Note: If b = 10, it is called common logarithm function and if b = e, it is called the natural logarithm function.

Properties of Logarithmic Function:

1. Domain: R+ , Range: R.

2. The log function is ever increasing in its domain.

3. Most Important Properties:

 
x 1
logb (xy) = logb (x) + logb (y) logb (xn ) = n logb (x) logb = logb (x) − logb (y) logx (y) =
y logy (x)

4. Change of Base Rule

logc (x)
logb (x) =
logc (b)
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Examples:
log2 (64)
ˆ 3 = log4 (64) = log2 (4) = 6
2 =3
loge x
ˆ To change the logarithmic value of x from base 10 to base e, we can write log10 (x) = loge 10 . This is
useful for evaluating derivatives of loga x from that of loge x.

5.4 Derivatives
Derivative of a function at a point: If f is a real function and c is a point in its domain. Then the derivative
of f at c is defined by
f (x) − f (c)
f ′ (c) = lim
x→c x−c

The left hand derivative of f at c (denoted by Lf ′ (c)) and the right hand derivative of f at c (denoted by Rf ′ (c))
are respectively the left hand limit (L.H.L.) and the right hand limits (L.H.L.) of above limit, if they exist. Hence:

f (x) − f (c) f (c − h) − f (c) f (c − h) − f (c)

Lf ′ (c) = lim− = lim = lim
x→c x−c h→0 (c − h) − c h→0 −h

f (x) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c)

Rf ′ (c) = lim+ = lim = lim
x→c x−c h→0 (c + h) − c h→0 h

Derivative of a Function (First Principal): If f is a real-valued function, then the function defined by

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h

wherever the limit exists, is defined to be the derivative of f at x.

Notes:

ˆ f ′ (x) is also denoted as d

dx (f (x)).

ˆ If y = f (x), then usually we write dy

dx .
   
ˆ The value of derivative of f at x = a is denote by df
dx . If y = f (x), then usually we write dy
dx
x=a x=a
 20 CHAPTER 5. CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

5.4.1 Algebra of Derivatives

If u = f (x) and v = g(x), then
a). Sum Rule
d d d ′
[f (x) + g(x)] = f (x) + g(x) in short (u + v) = u′ + v ′
dx dx dx

b). Difference Rule

d d d
[f (x) − g(x)] = f (x) − g(x) in short (u − v)′ = u′ − v ′
dx dx dx

c). Product Rule

   
d d d
[f (x).g(x)] = f (x) .g(x) + f (x). g(x) in short (uv)′ = u′ v + uv ′
dx dx dx

d). Quotient/Devision Rule

d d



. g(x) − f (x) . u′ v − uv ′
 
dx f (x) dx g(x)
d f (x)  u ′
= in short =
dx g(x) (g(x))2 v v2

e). By product rule, it is easy to see that if k is some constant, then

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d d
(kf (x)) = k f (x)
dx dx

5.4.2 Useful Derivatives

d d d d
1. If f (x) = c, where c is a constant, then dx f (x) = dx c = 0. In particular dx 1 = 0, dx π = 0 etc.
d n
2. dx x = nxn−1 , for n ̸= 0
d d 2 d 3 d 1 d −1
= − x12 etc.


3. In particular, dx x = 1, dx x = 2x, dx x = 3x2 , dx x = dx x
d
4. (Derivative of Polynomial Functions) If f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, then dx f (x) = 2ax + b. If f (x) =
d
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then dx f (x) = 3ax2 + 2bx + c. In general,
d
if f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , then dx f (x) = nan xn−1 + (n − 1)an−1 xn−2 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .
5. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

d d d
ˆ sin x = cos x cos x = − sin x tan x = sec2 x
dx dx dx
d d d
ˆ cot x = −cosec2 x sec x = sec x tan x cosec x = −cosec x cot x
dx dx dx

SomeTips:
ˆ Derivatives of cos, cot, and cosec (name starting with letter c) have negative sign. Remaining 3 trigono-
metric functions have positive sign.
ˆ The trigonometric identities sec2 (x) = 1 + tan2 (x) and cosec2 (x) = 1 + cot2 (x) may help you recall that
derivative of sec(x) is sec(x)tan(x) and that of cosec(x) is -cosec(x)cot(x).
6. Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

d 1 d 1 d 1
sin−1 x = √ cos−1 x = − √ tan−1 x =
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − x2 dx 1 + x2

7. Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

d x d x d 1
a = ax loge a e = ex , (put a = e in the 1st formula) loge x =
dx dx dx x
 5.5. CHAIN RULE FOR DERIVATIVES 21

5.5 Chain Rule for Derivatives

dy dy dt
If y = f (t) and t = g(x), then = .
dx dt dx
From above, notice that y(x) = f (t) = f (g(x)) = (f ◦ g)(x), i.e. y = f ◦ g (y is composition of functions g and f ).
Examples:
ˆ To compute the derivative of y = sin(2x), suppose y = sin(t), where, t = 2x. Therefore by chain rule,
dy dy dt
dx = dt . dx = cos(t) . 2 = 2 cos(t) = 2 cos(2x).

ˆ If y = sinn (x), we can write y = tn , t = sin(x), so that dy

dt = ntn−1 and dt
dx = cos(x)
dy dy dt n−1 n−1
Now, dx = dt . dx = nt . cos(x) = n sin (x). cos(x).

ˆ To differentiate sin2 x w.r.t. ecos x , let u(x) = sin2 x, v(x) = ecos x .

du dv
Note that dx = 2 sin x cos x and dx = ecos x (− sin x) = − sin xecos x .
du du/dx 2 sin x cos x
∴ dv = dv/dx = − sin xecos x = − 2ecos x
cos x .

5.6 Useful Trigonometric Identities

ˆ sine/cosine functions and the unit circle:
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ˆ Most Useful Trigonometric Identities:

1. sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x cosec2 x = 1 + cot2 x

sin(−x) − sin x
2. sin(−x) = − sin(x) cos(−x) = cos(x) tan(−x) = = = − tan x
cos(−x) cos x
 22 CHAPTER 5. CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

3. (cos 0, sin 0) = (cos 2π, sin 2π) = (1, 0)

4. cos π2 , sin π2 = (0, 1)

5. cos 2π 2π


2 , sin 2 = (cos π, sin π) = (−1, 0)
3π 3π


6. cos 2 , sin 2 = (0, −1)
Remark: Since the value of sin function is zero on x-axis (when θ is a multiple of π) and that of cos function
is 0 on y-axis (θ is an odd multiple of π2 ). Therefore:
sin θ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ,
π
cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ = (2n + 1)
2
where n is some integer.
ˆ Sum and Difference of Angles

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y

sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

tan x + tan y
tan(x + y) =
1 − tan x tan y
Note: To derive angle difference formulae, replace y by -y in above identities. For example:

cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y

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sin(x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y

Remark: Above identities can also be used to prove: sin( π2 + θ) = cos θ, cos( π2 + θ) = − sin θ, tan( π2 + θ) =
− cot θ etc.
ˆ Splitting 2x into x - If we replace y by x in above formulae, we get:

1 − tan2 x
– cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1 cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin2 x cos 2x =
1 + tan2 x
2 tan x
– sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x sin 2x =
1 + tan2 x
2 tan x
– tan 2x =
1 − tan2 x

Note: Above identities imply that sin θ = 2 sin θ2 cos θ2 etc.

ˆ Splitting 3x into x - No need to memorize below listed identities. These can be proved using the ‘Sum
Formula’. For example: sin 3x = sin(2x + x) etc.

sin 3x = 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x

cos 3x = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x

3 tan x − tan3 x
tan 3x =
1 − 3 tan2 x

ˆ Splitting product of sin/cos into sum or differece (read from right to left)

cos(x + y) + cos(x − y) = 2 cos x cos y

cos(x + y) − cos(x − y) = −2 sin x sin y

sin(x + y) + sin(x − y) = 2 sin x cos y

sin(x + y) − sin(x − y) = 2 cos x sin y

Note: Above formulae are trivial to prove using sum and difference of angles related identities. No need to
memorize them.
 5.7. IMPORTANT PROBLEMS 23

ˆ Splitting sum or differece of sine/cos into product

   
A+B A−B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cos A − cos B = −2 sin sin
2 2
   
A+B A−B
sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
sin A − sin B = 2 cos sin
2 2

Note: To prove above identities, use ’splitting product into sum’ formulae and put x + y = A and x − y = B.

5.7 Important Problems

1. Discuss the continuity of sin, cos and tan functions.

2. Find the relationship between a and b so that the function f defined by

(
ax + 1, if x ≤ 3
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f (x) =
bx + 3, if x > 3

is continuous at x = 3. (Ans: a = b + 32 )

3. Find the values of a and b such that the function defined By


5,
 if x ≤ 2
f (x) = ax + b, if 2 < x < 10

21, if x ≥ 10


is a continuous function. (Ans: a = 2, b = 1)

4. Show that the function defined by g(x) = x − [x] is discontinuous at all integral points. Here [x] denotes the
greatest integer less than or equal to x.

5. Find all the points of discontinuity of f defined by f (x) = |x| − |x + 1|. (Ans: No point of discontinuity.)
1
6. Prove that the function f given By f (x) = x is continuous at x = 0.

f (x) = |x − 1|, x ∈ R

is not differentiable at x = 1.

7. Prove that greatest integer function defined by

f (x) = [x], 0 < x < 3

is not differentiable at x = 1 and x = 2.

8. Find the derivatives of sin−1 x, cos−1 x, and tan−1 x.

 
dy
9. Find dx , if y = sec−1 2x21−1 , 0 < x < √12 .

10. Differentiate log(log x), x > 0 with respect to x. (Ans: 1/x log x)
dy dy y x log y+yxy−1
11. Find dx , if xy + y x = 1. Ans: dx = xy log x+xy x−1

dy dy y(x−1)
12. Find dx , if xy = e(x−y) . Ans: dx = x(y+1) .

dy dy
13. If x = a cos θ, y = b cos θ, find dx without eliminating the parameter θ. (Ans: dx = ab )
 24 CHAPTER 5. CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY
√ √ dy
= − xy .
−1
14. If x = asin t, y= acos−1 t , show that dx

d2 y
15. If y = A sin x + B cos x, then prove that dx2 + y = 0.
d2 y dy
16. If y = Aemx + Benx , show that dx2 − (m + n) dx + mny = 0.
17. If y = (tan−1 x)2 , show that (x2 + 1)2 y2 + 2x(x2 + 1)y1 = 2
1
18. Differentiate log7 (log x) w.r.t. x. (Ans: x log 7 log x )

19. Differentiate sin2 x w.r.t. ecos x . Ans: du

dv = − 2ecos x
cos x

h√ √ i
1+sin x+√1−sin x dy
20. If y = cot−1 √1+sin x− 1−sin x
,0 < x < π
2, show that dx = 12 .
√
21. Find dy
dx , if y = sin−1 x + sin−1 1 − x2 , 0 < x < 1. Ans: dy
dx =0
22. If f (x) = |x|3 , show that f ′′ (x) exists for all real x and find it.
Ans: f ′′ (x) = 6|x| i.e. f ′′ (x) = 6x, when x ≥ 0, and − 6x, if x < 0.
23. Using the fact that sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B and the differentiation, obtain the sum formula for
cosines. Hint: Take A, B as function of a parameter θ and differentiate w.r.t. θ.
24. Does there exist a function which is continuous everywhere but not differentiable at exactly two points?
Justify your answer.
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Hint: Is f (x) = |x − 1| + |x − 2| differentiable at 1 and 2? You can find many such functions wchich are not
differentaible at exactly one, three, four, and so on points.
 Chapter 6 | Application of Derivatives

6.1 Concepts
Increasing and Decreasing Functions: A function is increasing if its graph is increasing and decreasing if its
graph is decreasing. Algebraically, a function f defined on an interval I is:

1. Increasing: If x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), ∀ x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b]. Alternatively, if f ′ (x) > 0, ∀x∈I

2. Decreasing: If x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ), ∀ x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b]. Alternatively, if f ′ (x) < 0, ∀x∈I

3. Constant: If f (x) = constant, ∀ x ∈ I

Critical Points of a Function: Points at which either the derivative is zero or the function is not differentaible
are called critical points.

Tests for Finding Maxima and Minima

1. Second Derivative Test: A critical point c is a local maxima if f ′′ (c) > 0 and a local minima if f ′′ (c) < 0.
If f ′′ (c) = 0, test fails and you need to try the “first derivative test”.
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2. First Derivative Test: A critical point c is:

ˆ a local maxima if f ′ (x) > 0 at points left of c and f ′ (x) < 0 at points right of c in some sufficiently
small interval.
ˆ a local minima if f ′ (x) < 0 at points left of c and f ′ (x) > 0 at points right of c in some sufficiently
small interval.
ˆ If f ′ (x) doesn’t change sign in sufficiently small interval around c, then c is called a point of inflexion.
For example x = 1 is a point of inflexion for f (x) = 2x3 − 6x2 + 6x + 5

In calculus, a point of inflection (or inflection point) is a point on a curve where the concavity changes from concave
upwards to concave downwards, or vice versa. Formally, it is a point x = c on the graph of a function where the
second derivative f ′′ (c) changes sign.

A short note on inflexion/inflection point

ˆ Concave upwards function: A function is concave upwards if it curves upwards like a smiley face (∪),
meaning its second derivative f ′′ (x) > 0 in that region.

ˆ Concave downwards function: A function is concave downwards if it curves downwards like a frown (∩),
meaning its second derivative f ′′ (x) < 0 in that region.

In calculus, a point of inflection (or inflection point) is a point on a curve where the concavity changes from concave
upwards to concave downwards, or vice versa.
Graphically, an inflection point looks like a point where the curvature of the graph changes direction. It’s important
to note that not every point where the second derivative is zero is an inflection point; the sign change of the second
derivative is what defines it as such.

Analytically, a point x = c on the graph of a function where the second derivative f ′′ (x) changes sign is an inflection
point.
Example: For f (x) = x3 , f ′ (x) = 3x2 and f ′′ (x) = 6x. Note that f ′′ (x) = 6x changes sign at x = 0, therefore
x = 0 is an inflection point for f (x) = x3 .

6.2 Important Problems

1. The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 3 cm/minute and the width y is increasing at the rate
of 2cm/minute. When x = 10cm and y = 6cm, find the rates of change of (a) the perimeter and (b) the area
of the rectangle. Ans: −2 cm/minute, 2 cm2 /minute

25
 26 CHAPTER 6. APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

2. A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at the speed of 5 cm/s. At the instant when
the radius of the circular wave is 8 cm, how fast is the enclosed area increasing? Ans: 80π cm2 /s
3. A ladder 5 m long is leaning against a wall. The bottom of the ladder is pulled along the ground, away from
the wall, at the rate of 2cm/s. How fast is its height on the wall decreasing when the foot of the ladder is 4
m away from the wall ? Ans: 8/3 cm/s
4. A particle moves along the curve 6y = x3 + 2. Find the points on the curve at which the y-coordinate is
changing 8 times as fast as the x-coordinate. Ans: (4, 11) and (−4, −31/3)
5. The total cost C(x) in Rupees associated with the production of x units of an item is given by
C(x) = 0.007x3 − 0.003x2 + 15x + 4000
Find the marginal cost when 17 units are produced. Ans: Rs. 20.96
6. The total revenue in Rupees received from the sale of x units of a product is given by
R(x) = 13x2 + 26x + 15.
Find the marginal revenue when x = 7. Ans: Rs.208
7. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 4x3 −6x2 −72x+30 is (a) increasing (b) decreasing.
Ans: Increasing in (−∞, −2), (3, ∞), decreasing in (−2, 3)
8. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = sin x + cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π is increasing or
decreasing. Ans: In [0, π4 ) increasing. In ( π4 , 5π 5π
4 ) decreasing. In ( 4 , 2π) increasing
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9. For what values of a the function f given by f (x) = x2 + ax + 1 is increasing on [1, 2]? Ans: a > −2
10. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = log sin x is increasing on (0, π2 ) and decreasing on ( π2 , π).
11. Prove that the function f given by f (x) = log | cos x| is decreasing on (0, π2 ) and increasing on ( 3π
2 , 2π).

12. Find two positive numbers whose sum is 15 and the sum of whose squares is minimum. Ans: 15/2, 15/2
√
1 4c−1
13. Find the shortest distance of the point (0, c) from the parabola y = x2 , where 2 ≤ c ≤ 5. Ans: 2

14. Let AP and BQ be two vertical poles at points A and B, respectively. If AP = 16m, BQ = 22m and
AB = 20m, then find the distance of a point R on AB from the point A such that RP 2 + RQ2 is minimum.
Ans: AR = 10m
15. If length of three sides of a trapezium other than base are equal to 10cm, then find the area of the trapezium
√
when it is maximum.[Hint: Area of trapezium = 1/2 (sum of parallel sides) * height] Ans: 75 3cm2
16. Prove that the radius of the right circular cylinder of greatest curved surface area which can be inscribed in
a given cone is half of that of the cone.
17. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a function f given by f (x) = 2x3 − 15x2 + 36x + 1 on
the interval [1, 5].
Ans: Absolute/global maxima at x = 5 (value 56). absolute minima at x = 1 (value 24)
18. An Apache helicopter of enemy is flying along the curve given by y = x2 + 7. A soldier, placed at (3,√
7),
wants to shoot down the helicopter when it is nearest to him. Find the nearest distance. Ans: 5
√
19. What is the maximum value of the function sin x + cos x? Ans: 2
20. Find the maximum and minimum values of x + sin 2x on [0, 2π]. Ans: Maxima at x = 2π, minima at x = 0
21. Find two numbers whose sum is 24 and whose product is as large as possible. Ans: 12, 12
22. Show that of all the rectangles inscribed in a given fixed circle, the square has the maximum area.
23. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface and maximum volume is such that its height is equal
to the diameter of the base.
√
24. Show that the right circular cone of least curved surface and given volume hasan altitude equal to 2 time
the radius of the base.
√
25. Show that the semi-vertical angle of the cone of the maximum volume and of given slant height is tan−1 2.
26. Show that semi-vertical angle of right circular cone of given surface area and maximum volume is sin−1 ( 31 ).
 Chapter 7 | Integrals

7.1 Useful Derivatives and Anti Derivatives

S.N. Derivative Anti Derivative
d
R
0. dx (x)
 n+1 = 1 1 dx = x + C
n+1
d x
= xn x dx = xn+1 + C, n ̸= −1
R n
1. dx n+1
d
R
2. dx (sin x) = cos x R cos x dx = sin x + C
d
3. dx (cos x) = − sin x R sin 2x dx = − cos x + C
d 2
4. dx (tan x) = sec x R sec x2 dx = tan x + C
d 2
5. dx (cot x) = −cosec x R cosec x dx = − cot x + C
d
6. dx (sec x) = sec x tan x R sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
d
7. dx (cosec x) = −cosec x cot x R cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + C
−1
8. d
dx (sin x) = √1−x1
2
√ 1
2
dx = sin−1 x + C
−1
R 1−x
8. d
dx (cos x) = − √ 1
1−x2
√ 1
2
dx = − cos−1 x + C
d −1 1
R 1−x1 −1
8. dx (tan x) = 1+x2 2 dx = tan x+C
d x x
R 1+x
x x
9. dx (e ) = e e dx = e + C
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d
|x|) = x1
R 1
10. dx (log dx = log |x| + C
d a x
x
R xx ax
11. dx ( log a ) = a a dx = log a +C

7.2 Integration of Trigonometric Functions

S.N. Integral
R of
1 R sin x dx = − cos x + c
2 R cos x dx = sin x + c
3 R tan x dx = log | sec x| + c
4 R cot x dx = log | sin x| + c
5 R sec x dx = log | sec x + tan x| + c
6 cosecx dx = log |cosecx − cot x| + c

7.3 Properties of Indefinite Integral

Z Z Z
ˆ [f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx (i.e. Integral of Sum = Sum of Integrals)

Z Z
ˆ If k is a constant then kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx

Z Z Z Z
ˆ In general, [k1 f1 (x) + k2 f2 (x) + · · · + kn fn (x)]dx = k1 f1 (x) dx + k2 f2 (x) dx + · · · + kn fn (x) dx

7.4 Methods of Integration

7.4.1 Integration by Substitution
dx
= g ′ (t)
R
Using this method to compute RI = f (x) dx,
R we put x = g(t) (some function of new variable t), then dt
and so dx = g ′ (t)dt. Thus I = f (x) dx = f (g(t))g ′ (t)dt.
Examples:

27
 28 CHAPTER 7. INTEGRALS

ˆ Evaluate 2x sin(x2 + 1)dx.

R

Solution:
Z Z
2
2x sin(x + 1)dx = sin t dt (putting x2 + 1 = t, 2xdx = dt)

= − cos t + C
= cos(x2 + 1) + C

7.4.2 Integration using trigonometric identities

Examples: Find (i) cos2 x dx, (ii) sin 2x cos 3x dx, (iii) sin3 x dx
R R R

Solution:
Z Z  
1 1 + cos 2x
cos2 x dx = (1 + cos 2x)dx ∵ cos 2x = 2cos2 x − 1 ⇒ cos2 x =
2 2
Z Z
1 1
= dx + cos 2x dx
2 2
x 1
= + sin 2x + C
2 4

We can use the identities 2 sin x cos y = sin(x + y) + sin(x − y) and sin 3x = 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x to solve the remaining
two integrals.
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7.4.3 Integration of some particular functions

A. Based on Partial Fractions

SN Integration Hint
x−a
Z
dx 1 1 1 1 1
1. = log | |+c x2 −a2 = 2a [ x−a − x+a ]
x2 − a2 2a x+a
R dx 1 a+x 1 1 1 1
2. a2 −x2 = 2a log | a−x | + c a2 −x2 = 2a [ a−x − a+x ]

B. Based on Trigonometric Substitution

SN Integration Hint
Z
dx x
3. √ = sin−1 + c Put x = a sin θ
a 2 − x2 a
Z
dx 1 x
4. 2 2
= tan−1 + c Put x = a tan θ
x +a a a
√
√ dx
R R
5. = log |x + x 2 − a2 | + c Put x = a sec θ. Use sec θdθ = log | sec θ + tan θ| + c
2 −a2
R xdx √
6. √
x2 +a2
= log |x + x2 + a2 | + c Put x = a tan θ

C. Remaining Particlular Integrals

SN Integration Hint
dx b 2 b2
ax2 + bx + c = a[(x + 2a ) + ( ac − 4a b
R
7. 2 )]. Put x + 2a = t
R ax2 +bx+c
dx
8. √
2 +bx+c
Proceed as above.
R axpx+q d
9. Find A,B s.t. px + q = A dx (ax2 + bx + c) + B. I = I1 + I2
R ax2px+q
+bx+c
10. √
ax2 +bx+c
As above. Reduce the integral to some known form

7.4.4 Integration Using Partial Fractions

R P (x)
This method can be used to compute Q(x) dx, where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x and Q(x) ̸= 0 and
deg(P (x)) < deg(Q(x)) i.e. it’s a proper rational function.
 7.4. METHODS OF INTEGRATION 29

SN Rational Function Partial Fraction

px + q A B
1. , a ̸= b x−a + x−b
(x − a)(x − b)
px + q A B
2. x−a + (x−a)2
(x − a)2
px2 + qx + r A B C
3. x−a + x−b + x−c
(x − a)(x − b)(x − c)
px2 +qx+r A B C
4. (x−a)2 (x−b) x−a + (x−a)2 + x−b
px2 +qx+r A Bx+C
5. (x−a)(x2 +bx+c) , where x2 + bx + c cannot be factorised further x−a + x2 +bx+c

Examples:
x2 +1
ˆ To compute dx. First divide x2 + 1 by x2 − 5x + 6 so that
R
x2 −5x+6

x2 + 1 5x − 5 5x − 5
=1+ 2 =1+
x2 − 5x + 6 x − 5x + 6 (x − 2)(x − 3)
5x−5 px+q A B
Now (x−2)(x−3) is of the form (x−a)(x−b) so can be broken into partial fraction as x−2 + x−3 on comparing
1 0
coefficients of x , x on both sides, we get A = −5, B = 10. Therefore

x2 + 1
Z Z  
5 10
dx = 1− + dx = x − 5 log |x − 2| + log |x − 3| + C
x2 − 5x + 6 x−2 x−3
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ˆ 3x−1
(x+1)2 (x+3)
A
= x+1 B
+ (x+1) C
2 + x+3 . On comparing coefficients of x2 , x1 , x0 on both sides and solving 3
equations, we get A = 11/4, B = −5/2, C = −11/4.
x2
ˆ To split (x2 +1)(x2 +4) into partial fractions, we can put x2 = y,

x2 y A B
= = +
(x2 + 1)(x2 + 4) (y + 1)(y + 4) y+1 y+4

on comparing coefficients of y 1 , Y 0 on both sides, we get A = −1/3 and B = 4/3 can be computed as above.
Therefore
x2
Z Z  
A B 1 x
2 2
dx = 2
+ 2 dx = A tan−1 x + B tan−1 + C
(x + 1)(x + 4) x +1 x +4 2 2

(3 sin ϕ−2) cos ϕ (3x−2)

ˆ 3x−2
R R R
5−cos2 ϕ−4 sin ϕ dϕ = 5−(1−x2 )−4x dx (on putting sin ϕ = x ) = (x−2)2 dx. Now we can apply partial
fractions.
 
x2 +x+1
ˆ (x+2)(x2 +1) = A
x+2 + Bx+C
x2 +1 = 3
5(x+2) + 1
5
2x+1
x2 +1

7.4.5 Integration by Parts

Z Z Z  Z 
d
f (x).g(x) dx = f (x) g(x)dx − f (x) g(x)dx dx
dx
i.e.

Integral of 1st . 2nd = (1st ) . (Integral of 2nd ) - Integral of [(derivative of 1st ) . (Integral of 2nd )]

Examples:
R
a. Find x cos x dx.
Solution: Put f (x) = x (first function) and g(x) = cos x (second function) and integrating by parts:
Z Z Z  Z 
d
x cos x dx = x cos x dx − (x) cos x dx dx
dx
Z
= x sin x − 1. sin x dx = x sin x + cos x + C
 30 CHAPTER 7. INTEGRALS

R
b. Find log x dx.
Solution:
Z Z Z Z  Z 
d
log x dx = log x . 1 dx = log x 1dx − (log x) 1 dx dx
dx
Z
1
= (log x)x − x dx = x log x − x + C
x

ex [f (x) + f ′ (x)] dx
R
7.4.6 Integration of the Type
Z
ex [f (x) + f ′ (x)]dx = ex f (x) + C

Z Z Z Z
Proof: I = ex [f (x) + f ′ (x)]dx = ex f (x)dx + ex f ′ (x)dx = I1 + ex f ′ (x)dx
Z Z
Now, I1 = ex f (x)dx = f (x)ex − f ′ (x)ex dx + C (integrating by parts taking f(x) as the first function)
Z Z
∴ I = f (x)e − f (x)e dx + C + ex f ′ (x)dx = ex f (x) + C
x ′ x

Examples:
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ˆ ex (tan−1 x + 1
dx = ex tan−1 x + C N ote that : f (x) = tan−1 x and f ′ (x) = 1
R
1+x2 ) 1+x2

(x2 +1)ex ex [x2 −1+2]

ˆ ex [ x−1 2
dx = ex x−1 x−1
R R R
(x+1)2 dx = (x+1)2 dx = x+1 + (x+1)2 ] x+1 + C. (Note that f (x) = x+1 and
f ′ (x) = (x+1)
2
2)

7.4.7 Integration of Some Special Types

Taking constant function 1 as the second function and integrating by parts, we get:

a2
Z p
1 p x
A. a2 − x2 dx = x a2 − x2 + sin−1 + C (Memorize it. We’ll use it a lot in applications of integrals)
2 2 a

a2
Z p
1 p p
B. x2 − a2 dx = x x2 − a2 − log |x + x2 − a2 | + C
2 2

a2
Z p
1 p p
C. x2 + a2 dx = x x2 + a2 + log |x + x2 + a2 | + C
2 2

Integrals (i), (ii) and (iii) can found by ”integration by parts” (taking 1 as the second function) or alternatively
substituting x = a sec θ in (i), x = a tan θ in (ii) and x = a sin θ in (iii) respectively.

7.5 Definite Integral

Rb
A definite integral is denoted by a f (x) dx where a is called the :::::lower :::::
limit of the integral and b is called the
upper limit
::::::::::
of the integral.
The definite integral is introduced either as the limit of a sum or if it has an anti derivative F in the interval [a, b],
then its value is the difference between the values of F at the end points, i.e., F (b) − F (a).

7.5.1 Area Function, Fundamental Theorems of Calculus, Definite Integrals

Rb
ˆ Area Function: By definition a f (x) dx is the area of the region bounded by the curve y = f (x), x =
Rx
1, x = b and the x-axis. If x is any point in [a, b], then a f (x) dx represents the area in the interval [a, x]
and the x-axis. This area is function of x, called the area function and is denoted by A(x).
Z x
A(x) = f (x) dx
a
 7.5. DEFINITE INTEGRAL 31

Figure 7.1: Area Function

ˆ First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus: Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval
[a, b] and let A(x) be the area function. Then A′ (x) = f (x), for all x ∈ [a, b].

ˆ Second Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus: Let f be continuous function defined on the
closed interval [a, b] and F be an anti derivative of f . Then
Z b
b
f (x) dx = [F (x)]a = F (b) − F (a)
a
.
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Rb
ˆ Steps for Calculating f (x)dx: a
R
1. Find indefinite integral f (x) dx = F (x)(say)
Rb
2. Then a f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a)

7.5.2 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution:

Rb
Steps to evaluate a
f (x) dx:

1. Use suitable substitution to reduce the given integral into standard form.

2. Change the limits of new variables accordingly.

3. Evaluate F (upper limt) − F (lower limit).

7.5.3 Some Properties of Definite Integrals

These properties can be useful in evaluating the definite integrals more efficiently.
Rb Rb
P0 : a f (x) dx = a f (t) dt
Z b Z a Ra
P1 : f (x) dx = − f (x) dx . In particular a
f (x) dx = 0
a b

Z b Z c Z b
P2 : f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a c

Example:
Z 2 Z 0 Z 1 Z 2
|x3 − x| dx = |x3 − x| dx + |x3 − x| dx + |x3 − x| dx
−1 −1 0 1
Z 0 Z 1 Z 2
3 3
= (x − x) dx + [−(x − x)] dx + (x3 − x) dx
−1 0 1

Z b Z b
P3 : f (x) dx = f (a + b − x) dx
a a

Examples:
 32 CHAPTER 7. INTEGRALS

π π √ π √
cos√x
ˆ I= dx sin√x
R R R
π
3 √
1+ tan x
= π
3
√
cos x+ sin x
dx ⇒ I = π
3
√
cos x+ sin x
dx (Aftre applying P3)
6 6 6
R π3
Therefore 2I = π 1 dx = π6 . Hence I = 12
π
6

Z a Z a
P4 : f (x) dx = f (a − x) dx (It’s a particular case of P3 )
0 0

Examples:
ˆ
π Z π Z π
(π − x) sin(π − x)
Z
x sin x sin x
I= 2
dx = 2
dx = π 2
dx − I
0 1 + cos x 0 1 + cos (π − x) 0 1 + cos x
Z π
sin x
⇒ 2I = π dx
1 + cos2 x
Z0 π
π sin x
⇒I= dx. (put cos x = t and simplify)
2 0 1 + cos2 x
π2
⇒I=
4
π
sin4 x
ˆ π
R 2
0 sin4 x+cos4 x
dx = 4

Z 2a Z a Z a
P5 : f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (2a − x) dx
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o o 0

( Ra
2a
if f (2a − x) = f (x)
Z
2 0 f (x) dx ,
P6 : f (x) dx =
0 0, if f (2a − x) = −f (x)

Examples:
Rπ
ˆ Evaluate 02 log sin x dx.
Rπ Rπ Rπ
Let I = 02 log sin x dx, then using P4 , we get I = 02 log sin( π2 − x) dx = 02 log cos x dx. Adding the
2 values of I, we get
Z π Z π Z π
2 2 2
2I = (log sin x + log cos x) dx = log sin 2x dx − log 2 dx (by P6 as sin(π − t) = sin t)
0 0 0
π
Z π Z
1 π 2 2 π π
⇒ 2I = log sin t dt − log 2 = log sin t dt − log 2 = I − log 2
2 0 2 2 0 2 2
Hence I = − π2 log 2
( Ra
Z a
2 0 f (x) dx , if f (−x) = f (x) i.e. f is an even function
P7 : f (x) dx =
−a 0 , if f (−x) = −f (x) i.e. f is an odd function
R1
Example: I = −1
sin5 x cos4 x dx.
Here f (x) = sin5 x cos4 x and f (−x) = sin5 (−x) cos4 (−x) = − sin5 x cos4 x = −f (x). So I = 0.

7.6 Important Problems

1−sin x
R
1. Show that cos2 x dx = tan x − sec x + C
2. Prove the following standard integrals:
R
(a) sec x dx = log sec x + tan x + C
R
(b) tan x dx = log sec x + C
R
(c) cot x dx = log sin x + C
R
(d) cosec x dx = log |cosec x − cot x| + C
3. Find the following integrals:
 7.6. IMPORTANT PROBLEMS 33

sinx cos2 x dx
R
(a)
sin x
R
(b) sin(x+a) dx Ans: x cos a − sin a log | sin(x + a)| + C
1 x 1
R
(c) 1+tan x dx Ans: 2 + 2 log | cos x + sin x| + C
4. Evaluate the folowing integrals using trigonometric identities:
(a) cos2 x dx
R
R
(b) sin 2x cos 3x dx
(c) sin3 x dx
R

5. Find the integrals of the following functions:

1−cos x 1−cos x x
(a) 1+cos x Hint: 1+cos x = tan2 2
cos x cos x 1 1 2 x
(b) 1+cos x Hint: 1+cos x =1− 1+cos x =1− 2 sec 2
4
(c) sin x dx Hint: Use cos 2x
4
(d) tan x Hint: sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x
(e) 1
sin x cos3 x Hint: In the numerator, write 1 = cos2 x + sin2 x
1 1
(f) cos(x−a) cos(x−b) Hint: 1
cos(x−a) cos(x−b)= sin(a−b)

6. Evaluate following integrals using partial fractions:

dx x+1
R
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(a) (x+1)(x+2) Ans: log x+2 +C

2
(b) x2x−5x+6
+1
R
dx Ans: x − 5 log |x − 2| + 10 log |x − 3| + C
3x−2 11 x+1 5
R
(c) (x+1) 2 (x+3) dx Ans: 4 log x+3 + 2x+1 +C
x2
Ans: − 13 tan−1 x + 2
tan−1 x
+ C. Hint: For partial fraction, x2 = y
R
(d) (x2 +1)(x 2 +4) dx 3 2
R (3 sin ϕ−2) cos ϕ
(e) Evaluate 5−cos 2 ϕ−4 sin ϕ dϕ

4
Ans: 3 log(2 − sin ϕ) + 2−sin ϕ + C.
3x−2 A B
Hint: Put sin ϕ = x, and break into partial fractions (x−2)2 = x−2 + (x−2)2 .
4 2
x dx x 1 1
log(x2 + 1) − 1
tan−1 x + C
R
(f) (x−1)(x2 +1) Ans: 2 +x+ 2 log |x − 1| − 4 2
1 1 xn
. Hint: Put xn = t
R
(g) Evaluate x(xn +1) dx. Ans: n log xn +1

cos x 2−sin x
R
(h) Evaluate (1−sin x)(2−sin x) dx Ans: log 1−sin x + C. Hint: Put sin x = t
1 |ex −1|
+ C. Hint: Put ex = t
R
(i) Evaluate ex −1 dx Ans: log ex

7. Find integrals of the following functions:

3x
(a) 1+2x4 Hint: Put x2 = t
x2
(b) 1−x6 Hint: Put x3 = t
(c) √x−1 Hint: Put √x−1 = 2x − 21
x2 −1 x2 −1 x −1 x −1
1 1 √ 1
(d) √
7−6x−x2
Hint: √
7−6x−x2
=
42 −(x+3)2
5x−2 d
(e) 1+2x+3x2 Hint: Denominator cannot be factored. Try 5x − 2 = A dx (3x2 + 2x + 1) + B
8. Evaluate the following integrals:
R
(a) x cos x dx
R
(b) log x dx Hint: Take 1 as 2nd function and try integraion by parts.
(c) ex sin x dx Hint: Take ex as the first function
R

9. Evaluate the following definite integrals:

R2
(a) −1 |x3 − x| dx Hint: Observe that x3 − x ≥ 0 on [−1, 0], ≤ 0 on [0, 1], and ≥ 0 on [1, 2].
R π4
(b) −π sin2 x dx Ans: π4 − 12
4
 34 CHAPTER 7. INTEGRALS

Rπ x sin x π2
(c) 0 1+cos2 x
dx Ans: 4 . Hint: Use P3
R1
(d) −1
sin5 x cos4 x dx Ans: 0
π 4
sin x π
R
(e) 2
0 sin4 x+cos4 x
dx Ans: 4. Hint: Use P3
π
dx π
R
(f) π
3 √
1+ tan x
Ans: 12 . Hint: P3
6
π
Ans: − π2 log 2. Hint: P3
R
(g) 0
2
log sin x dx
π √
sin x π
R
(h) 2
0
√ √
sin x+ cos x
dx Ans: 4. Hint: P3
R1 1
(i) 0
x(1 − x)n dx Ans: (n+1)(n+2) . Hint: P3
π
π
R
(j) 0
4
log(1 + tan x) dx Ans: 8 log 2. Hint: P3
R π x dx
(k) 0 1+sin x
Ans: π. Hint: P3
π
sin x−cos x
R
(l) 2
0 1+sin x cos x dx Ans: 0. Hint: P3
Ra Ra
10. Show that f (x)g(x) dx = 2 0 f (x) dx, if f and g are defined as f (x) = f (a − x) and g(x) + g(a − x) = 4.
0
Ra Ra Ra Ra
Hint: I = 0 f (x)g(x) dx = 0 f (a − x)[4 − g(a − x)] dx = 4 0 f (a − x) dx − 0 f (a − x)g(a − x) dx. Now
put t = a − x in both integrals.
Rπ
11. Evaluate 0 a2 cos2 xx+b
dx
2 sin2 x dx

π2 π
Ans: 2ab . Hint: Use P3 to eleminate x from numerator. Use P6 to change integral limit from 0 to 2.
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7.7 Extra Problems

R1
1. Evaluate 0
log( x1 − 1) dx Ans: 0: Hint: Use P3. 2I = 0.
(ae)x
ex log a ex dx.
R
2. Evaluate Ans: log(ae) +c
R log x x
3. Find (1+log x)2 dx. Ans: 1+log x + c. Hint: Break it into two integrals by adding and subtracting 1 in the
numerator. Integrate the first integral by parts.
R 2π √
4. Find 0 ex sin( π4 + x2 ) dx. Ans: − 52 (e2π + 1). Hint: Integrate by parts (take ex as the first function)
√
−1 7 tan x
5. Evaluate: 3 sindx 1
) + c. Hint: Multiply numerator and denominator by sec2 x
R
2 x+4 . Ans: 2√ tan ( 2
7
and then put tan x = t.
√
6. Evaluate: sin√x−cos x
dx Ans: − log | sin x + cos x + sin 2x| + c. Hint: Use sin 2x = (sin x + cos x)2 − 1 and
R
sin 2x
then put sin x + cos x = t
R q a−x √
7. Evaluate: a+x dx. Ans: a sin−1 xa + a2 − x2 + c. Hint: Rationalize the integrand.
 Chapter 8 | Application of Integrals

8.1 Concepts
ˆ The area of the region bounded by the curve y = f (x), x−axis and the lines x = a and x = b (b > a) is given
by:
Z x=b Z b
Area = y dx = f (x) dx
x=a a

ˆ The area of the region bounded by the curve x = g(y), y−axis and the lines y = c and y = d (d > c) is given
by:
Z y=d Z d
Area = x dy = g(y) dy
y=c c

ˆ The area of the region enclosed between two curves y = f (x), y = g (x) and the lines x = a, x = b is given
by the formula.
Z b
Area = (f (x) − g(x)) dx, where f (x) > g(x) in [a, b]
a
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ˆ If f (x) ≥ g(x) in [a, c] and f (x) ≤ g(x) in [c, b], a < c < b, then
Z b Z b
Area = (f (x) − g(x)) dx + (g(x) − f (x)) dx
a c

a2
Z p
xp 2 x
ˆ Useful intergrals: a2 − x2 dx = a − x2 + sin−1 + C
2 2 a

8.2 Important Problems

1. Find the area enclosed by the circle x2 + y 2 = a2 by taking both vertical and horizontal stripts and verify
that both methods give the same result. Ans: πa2
x2 y2
2. Find the area enclosed by the eclipse a2 + b2 = 1 by taking both vertical and horizontal stripts. Ans: πab
3. Find the area of the region bounded by the line y = 3x + 2, the x−axis and the ordinates x = −1 and x = 1.
13
Ans: 3 square units.
R −2 R1
Hint: Area = | 3
−1
(3x + 2) dx| + −2 (3x + 2) dx
3

4. Find the area bounded by the curve y = cos x between x = 0 and x = 2π. Ans: 4 squre units.
Rπ R 3π R 2π
Hint: Area = 02 cos x dx + | π2 cos x dx| + 3π cos x dx
2 2

5. Find the area bounded by the curve y = sin x between x = 0 and x = 2π.

35
 Chapter 9 | Differential Equations

9.1 Differential Equation, Its Order and Degree

ˆ Differential Equation: An equation involving derivatives of the dependent variable(usually taken as y)
with respect to independent variable (usually taken as x).
Examples:

dy
1. dx = ex . A differential equation with Order=1 and Degree=1.
d2 y
2. dx2 + y = 0. Order:2 Degree:1
 2 3
d3 y d y
3. dx3 + x2 dx 2 = 0. Order:3, Degree:1

ˆ Order of a Differential Equation: The order of a differential equation is the highest derivative present
in the equation.

ˆ Degree of a Differential Equation: The degree of a differential equation is defined only if it is a polynomial
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dy d2 y d3 y
equation in its derivatives i.e. dx , dx2 , dx3 etc. Degree (when defined) of a differential equation is the highest
power (positive integer only) of the highest order derivative in it.

Example 1:

d2 y dy
+3 + 2y = 0
dx2 dx
2
d y
Order: 2 (since the highest derivative is dx 2)

Degree: 1 (since the highest derivative is raised to the power of 1)

Example 2:

2
d3 y

dy
+ =0
dx3 dx
d3 y
Order: 3 (since the highest derivative is dx3 )
d3 y
Degree: 2 (since the highest derivative dx3 is raised to the power of 2)

Example 3:

d2 y
 
dy
+ sin =0
dx2 dx
2
d y
Order: 2 (since the highest derivative is dx 2)
dy
Degree: Not defined (since dx is inside a sine function, which is not a polynomial expression)

ˆ Solution of a Differential Equation: A solution of a differential equation is a function that satisfies the
differential equation.
Note: The solution which contains as many arbitrary constants as the order of the differential equation is
called a general solution and the solution free from arbitrary constants is called particular solution.

36
 9.2. SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 37

9.2 Solving Differential Equations

1. Variable Separable Method: Express the equation in the form f (y) dy = g(x) dx and integrate.
2
dy 1+y
Example: To find the general solution of the differential equation dx = 1+x 2 , we see that variables are
1 1 1 −1
R R 1
separable and we can write 1+y2 dy = 1+x2 dx. On integrating both sides 1+y2 dy = 1+x 2 dx. i.e. tan y=
−1
tan x + C which is the general solution.

2. Homogeneous Differential Equations: A function F (x, y) is said to be homogeneous function of degree

n if F (λx, λy) = λn F (x, y) for any nonzero constant λ.
Steps:
dy
(a) Express the equation in the form dx = f ( xy ).
y dy dv
(b) Put x = v i.e. y = vx and therefore dx = v + x dx
(c) Express the equation in the form f (v)dv = g(x)dx and use the variable separation method to integrate.
dy
Example: Show that the differential equation (x − y) dx = x + 2y is homogeneous and solve it.
dy
Solution: The given differential equation can be expressed as dx = x+2y x+2y
x−y . If we take F (x, y) = x−y then
F (λx, λy) = λ0 F (x, y). Therefore, F(x, y) is a homogenous function of degree zero. So, the given differential
equation is a homogenous differential equation.

dy
3. Linear Differential Equations of the Form +P y =Q .
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dx
Steps:
dy
(a) Write the given differential equation in the form dx + P y = Q where P, Q are either constants or
functions of x only.
R
P dx
(b) Find the Integrating Factorm (I.F.) = e
(c) The solution of the differential equation is
Z
y (I.F.) = Q(I.F.) dx

dx
Note: If the diffrential equation is of the form + P1 x = Q1 , where, P1 and Q1 are constants or functions
dy
R
P1 dy
of y only. Then, (I.F.) = e and the solution of the differential equation is
Z
x (I.F.) = Q1 (I.F.) dy

Examples:

ˆ To find the general solution of dx

dy
+ x2 y = x. We see that given differential equation is of the form
dy 2
dx + P y = Q, where P = x and Q = x.
2
R R 2
Therefore I.F. = e P dx = e x dx = e2 log x = elog x = x2 , so the solution is y(I.F.) = Q(I.F.) dx i.e.
R
4 2
yx2 = xx2 dx = x3 dx = x4 + c. This gives us y = x4 + xC2 as the general solution.
R R

9.3 Important Problems

1. Find the order and degree, if defined, of each of the following differential equations:
dy
(a) − cos x = 0
dx Ans: Order: 1, Degree: 1
 2
d2 y dy dy
(b) xy dx 2 + x dx − y dx =0 Ans: Order: 2, Degree: 1
′′′ ′
(c) y + y 2 + ey = 0 Ans: Order: 3, Degree: Not defined
d2 y
2. Verify that the function y = a cos x+b sin x, where, a, b ∈ R is a solution of the differential equation dx2 +y =0
 38 CHAPTER 9. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

3. Find the equation of the curve passing through the point (1, 1) whose differential equation is x dy = (2x2 +
1)dx (x ≠ 0). Ans: y = x2 + log |x| + C
4. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (−2, 3), given that the slope of the tangent to the
1
curve at any point (x, y) is 2x
y2 . Ans: y = (3x2 + 15) 3

5. In a bank, principal increases continuously at the rate of 5% per year. In how many years Rs 1000 double
itself? Ans: 20 loge 2
6. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 0) and whose differential equation is y ′ = ex sin x.
Ans: 2y − 1 = ex (sin x − cos x)

7. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, −2) given that at any point (x, y) on the curve,
the product of the slope of its tangent and y coordinate of the point is equal to the x coordinate of the point.
Ans: y 2 − x2 = 4
8. At any point (x, y) of a curve, the slope of the tangent is twice the slope of the line segment joining the point
of contact to the point (−4, −3). Find the equation of the curve given that it passes through (−2, 1).
Ans: y + 3 = (x + 4)2
9. The volume of spherical balloon being inflated changes at a constant rate. If initially its radius is 3 units
and after 3 seconds it is 6 units. Find the radius of balloon after t seconds.
1
Ans: r = (63t + 27) 3 . Hint: V = 43 πr3 . Given dV
dt = k so 4πr2 dr
dt = k
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10. In a culture, the bacteria count is 1,00,000. The number is increased by 10% in 2 hours. In how many hours
will the count reach 2,00,000, if the rate of growth of bacteria is proportional to the number present?
2 log 2
Ans: t = log 11
Hours. Hint: Let N be the number of bacteria present in the culture at any time t, then
10
dN
dt ∝N i.e. dNdt = kN
dy
11. Show that the differential equation (x − y) dx = x + 2y is homogeneous and solve it.
x2 +y 2
12. Show that the family of curves for which the slope of the tangent at any point (x, y) on it is 2xy , is given
by x2 − y 2 = cx.
13. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 1). If the slope of the tangent to the curve at
any point (x, y) is equal to the sum of the x coordinate (abscissa) and the product of the x coordinate and
x2
y coordinate (ordinate) of that point. Ans: y = −1 + 2e 2

14. Find the equation of a curve passing through the origin given that the slope of the tangent to the curve at
any point (x, y) is equal to the sum of the coordinates of the point. Ans: x + y + 1 = ex
15. Find the equation of a curve passing through the point (0, 2) given that the sum of the coordinates of any
point on the curve exceeds the magnitude of the slope of the tangent to the curve at that point by 5. Ans:
y = 4 − x − 2ex
dy
16. Find the general solution of the differential equation (x + y) dx =1 Ans: (x + y + 1) = Cey
dy π
17. Find a particlular solution of the differential equation dx + 2y tan x = sin x; y = 0 when x = 3 Ans:
y = cos x − 2 cos2 x
18. Find the integrating factor of the differential equation (1 − y 2 ) dx
dy + yx = ay; −1 < y < 1. Ans: √ 1
1−y 2

dy
19. Find the particular solution of the differential equation log( dx ) = 3x + 4y given that y = 0 when x = 0.
Ans: 4e3x + 3e−4y − 7 = 0
−1
20. Solve the differential equation (tan−1 y − x)dy = (1 + y 2 )dx. Ans: x = (tan−1 y − 1) + Ce− tan y .
q
1−y 2
dy
21. Find the general solution of the differential equation dx + 1−x 2 = 0. Ans: sin−1 y + sin−1 x = C
 Chapter 10 | Vector Algebra

10.1 Definitions
ˆ Vector: A vector is a quantity that has magnitude as well as direction.
−−→
Example: A directed line segment denoted by AB is a vector as it has both direction and magnitude
(length). The arrow indicates the direction of the vector.
Types of Vectors -

– Zero Vector: A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide, is called a zero vector (or null
vector), and denoted as ⃗0.
– Unit Vector: A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit) is called a unit vector. The unit vector
in the direction of a given vector ⃗a is denoted by â.
– Equal Vectors: Two vectors are said to be equal, if they have the same magnitude and direction
regardless of the positions of their initial points, and written as ⃗a = ⃗b.
– Negative of a Vector: A vector having equal magnitude but opposit direction is called the negative
of the given vector.
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
Example: The vector BA is negative of the vector AB and we write it as BA = −AB .
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Remark: The vectors defined above are such that any of them may be subject to its parallel displacement
without changing its magnitude and direction. Such vectors are called free vectors. We will study free vectors
only.
−−→
ˆ Initial and Terminal Points of a Vector: If AB is a vector then the point A from where the vector
starts is called its initial point, and the point B where it ends is called its terminal point.

ˆ Magnitude (Length) of a Vector: The distance between initial and terminal points of a vector is called
−−→
the magnitude (or length) of the vector. It is denoted by |AB|.

ˆ Position Vector: If a point P in three dimensional space has coordinates (x, y, z) with respect to the origin
−−→
O(0, 0, 0), then, the vector OP (or ⃗r) is called the position vector of the point P with respect to O. Note
−−→
that, the magnitue of OP is given by:

−−→ p
|⃗r| = |OP | = x2 + y 2 + z 2

Figure 10.1: Position Vector and Direction Cosines

−−→
ˆ Direction Angles, Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios: If vector AB = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ makes an
angle α, β, γ with positive x−axis, y−axis, and z−axis respectively, then angles α, β, γ are called the direction

39
 40 CHAPTER 10. VECTOR ALGEBRA

−−→
angles and cos α = xr , cos β = yr , cos γ = zr (where r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) are called the direction cosines of AB.
p

Direction cosines are usually denoted by letters l, m, and n respectively.

−−→
Numbers x, y, z are called the direction ratios of vector AB.

Notes:
D E
a b c
1. If a, b, c are direction ratios then direction cosines are √a2 +b 2 +c2
, √
a2 +b2 +c2
, √
a2 +b2 +c2
y
p
2. Notice that x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r so ( xr )2 + ( r )2 + ( zr )2 = 1, i.e. l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 .
ˆ Section Formulas

10.2 Vector Operations

ˆ Triangle Law of Vector Addition:
−−→ −−→ −→
AB + BC = AC
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Figure 10.2: Triangle Law of Vector Addition

ˆ Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar: Let ⃗a be a given vector and λ a scalar. Then the product of
the vector ⃗a by the scalar λ, denoted as λ⃗a, is called the multiplication of vector by the scalar λ.
Note that, λ⃗a is also a vector, collinear to the vector ⃗a. The vector λ⃗a has the direction same (or opposite)
to that of vector according as the value of λ is positive (or negative). Also, the magnitude of vector λ⃗a is |λ|
times the magnitude of the vector ⃗a , i.e., |λ⃗a| = |λ| · |⃗a| .

Figure 10.3: Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

−→ −−→ −−→
ˆ Unit Vectors along Axes and Components of a vector: The vectors OA, OB, and OC are called unit
vectors along the axes OX, OY and OZ, respectively, and denoted by î, ĵ, and k̂ respectively.
ˆ Components of a Position Vector: The position vector of a point P (x, y, z) can be written as
−−→
OP ( or ⃗r) = xî + y ĵ + z k̂

This form of any vector is called its component form. In this form x, y and z are called the scalar
components of ⃗r, and xî, y ĵ and z k̂ are called the vector components of r̂ along the respective axes.
ˆ Vector Joining Two Points: If P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) are any two points, then
−−−→ −−−→ p
P1 P2 = (x2 − x1 )î + (y2 − y1 )ĵ + (z2 − z1 )k̂ and |P1 P2 | = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2
 10.3. SCALAR (DOT) PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS 41

Figure 10.4: Unit Vectors and Components of a Vector

10.3 Scalar (Dot) Product of Two Vectors

The scalar or dot product of two non-zero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, denoted by ⃗a.⃗b, is defined as

⃗a.⃗b = |⃗a||⃗b| cos θ

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where θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π) is the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b

Properties:

1. ⃗a.⃗b is a real number.

2. If ⃗a and ⃗b are nonzero vectors then ⃗a.⃗b = 0 if and only if ⃗a is perpendicular to ⃗b.

3. (Commutative property) ⃗a.⃗b = ⃗b.⃗a

4. The angle between two nonzero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is given By

⃗a.⃗b
cos θ =
|⃗a||⃗b|

5. If ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ and ⃗b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂ then ⃗a.⃗b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

1 ⃗
6. Projection of a vector ⃗a on other vector ⃗b , is (⃗a.b)
⃗
|b|

10.4 Vector (Cross) Product of Two Vectors

The cross product of two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b having an angle θ between them is given as

⃗a × ⃗b = |⃗a||⃗b| sin θ n̂

where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing ⃗a and ⃗b. Here ⃗a, ⃗b, and n̂ form a right handed
system.

Properties:

1. ⃗a × ⃗b is a vector perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b.

2. If ⃗a and ⃗b are nonzero vectors then ⃗a × ⃗b = 0 if and only if ⃗a is parallel to ⃗b.

 42 CHAPTER 10. VECTOR ALGEBRA

3. ⃗a × ⃗b = −⃗b × ⃗a

4. Distribution Law ⃗a × (⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗a × ⃗c

5. λ(⃗a × ⃗b) = (λ⃗a) × ⃗b = ⃗a × (λ⃗b) , where λ is a scalar.

6. î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0

7. î × ĵ = k̂, ĵ × k̂ = î, k̂ × î = ĵ and ĵ × î = −k̂, k̂ × ĵ = −î, î × k̂ = −ĵ

8. If ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ and ⃗b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂ then

î ĵ k̂
⃗a × ⃗b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

10.5 Areas of Triangle and Parallelogram

1. If ⃗a and ⃗b represent the adjacent sides of a triangle then its area is 12 |⃗a × ⃗b|

2. If ⃗a and ⃗b represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram then its area is |⃗a × ⃗b|
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10.6 Important Problems

1. Find a vector in the direction of vector ⃗a = î − 2ĵ that has magnitude 7 units. Ans: √1 (7î − 14ĵ)
5

2. Find the vector joining the points P (2, 3, 0) and Q(−1, −2, −4) directed from P to Q.
−−→
Ans: P Q = −3î − 5ĵ − 4k̂
3. Show that the points A(2î − ĵ + k̂), B(î − 3ĵ − 5k̂), C(3î − 4ĵ − 4k̂) are the vertices of a right angled triangle.

4. Find the direction cosines of the vector î + 2ĵ + 3k̂. Ans: < √1 , √2 , √3 >
14 14 14

5. Find the direction cosines of the vector joining the points A(1, 2, −3) and B(−1, −2, 1), directed from A to
B. Ans: < −1 −2 2
3 , 3 , 3 >

6. Show that the vector î + ĵ + k̂ is equally inclined to the axes OX, OY and OZ. Hint: Compute DCs
7. Find the angle between two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b with magnitudes 1 and 2 respectively and when ⃗a.⃗b = 1. Ans: π
3

8. Find the angle θ between the vectors ⃗a = î + ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = î − ĵ + k̂ Ans: θ = cos−1 13

√
9. Find the projection of the vector ⃗a = 2î + 3ĵ + 2k̂ on the vector ⃗b = î + 2ĵ + k̂. Ans: 53 6
√
10. Find |⃗a − ⃗b|, if two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are such that |⃗a| = 2 and |⃗b| = 3 and ⃗a.⃗b = 4. Ans: 5

11. Show that for any two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, we always have |⃗a.⃗b| ≤ |⃗a||⃗b| (Cauchy-Schwartz inequality).

12. Show that for any two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, we always have |⃗a + ⃗b| ≤ |⃗a| + |⃗b| (triangle inequality).
Hint: |⃗a + ⃗b|2 = (⃗a + ⃗b).(⃗a + ⃗b) ≤ (|⃗a + |⃗b|)2
13. Show that the points A(−2i + 3j + 5k), B(i + 2j + 3k) and C(7i − k) are collinear.
−→ −−→ −−→
Hint: |AC| = |AB| + |BC|

14. Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors (⃗a +⃗b) and (⃗a −⃗b), where ⃗a = î+ ĵ+ k̂ and ⃗b = î+2ĵ+3k̂.
+ 2ĵ − k̂)
Ans: √1 (−î
6
√
15. Find the area of a triangle having the points A(1, 1, 1), B(1, 2, 3) and C(2, 3, 1) as its vertices. Ans: 12 21

16. Find the ⃗

√ area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are given by the vectors ⃗a = 3î+ ĵ +4k̂ and b = î− ĵ + k̂.
Ans: 42
 Chapter 11 | Three Dimensional Geometry

11.1 Concepts and Formulas

11.1.1 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line
Direction cosines of a line are the cosines of the angles made by the line with the positive directions of the coordinate
axes.

Formulas:

1. If l, m, n are direction cosines of a line then l2 + m2 + n2 = 1

x2 −x1 y2 −y1 z2 −z1
2. Direction cosines of a line joining two points P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are PQ , PQ , PQ
p
where P Q = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 .

3. Direction ratios of a line are the numbers which are proportional to the direction cosines of a line.

4. If l, m, n are the direction cosines and a, b, c are the direction ratios of a line then

a b c
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l= √ ; m= √ ; n= √
a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2

11.1.2 Equation of a Line in Space

A line is uniquely determined if

1. It passes through a given point and has given direction, or

2. It passes through two given points.

Formulas:

1. Vector equation of a line that passes through the given point whose position vector is ⃗a and parallel to a
given vector ⃗b is ⃗r = ⃗a + λ⃗b .

2. (Vector Two Point Form) The vector equation of a line which passes through two points whose position
vectors are ⃗a and ⃗b is
⃗r = ⃗a + λ(⃗b − ⃗a)

3. Equation of a line through a point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and having direction cosines l, m, n is given by

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
l m n

4. (Cartesian Two Point Form) Equation of a line passing through points (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is given
by
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1

11.1.3 Angle between Two Lines

Skew lines are lines in space which are neither parallel nor intersecting. They lie in different planes. Angle between
skew lines is the angle between two intersecting lines drawn from any point (preferably through the origin) parallel
to each of the skew lines.

Formulas:

43
 44 CHAPTER 11. THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

1. (In Terms of Direction Cosines) If l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are the direction cosines of two lines and θ
is the acute angle between the two lines then

cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 |

2. (In Terms of Direction Ratios) If a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 are the direction ratios of two lines and θ is the
acute angle between the two lines then

a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22

3. Parallelity and Perpendicularity of Lines: Two lines with direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 are

ˆ Perpendicular if a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0
a1 b1 c1
ˆ Parallel if = =
a2 b2 c2

4. (Vector Form) If θ is the acute angle between ⃗r = a⃗1 + λb⃗1 and ⃗r = a⃗2 + λb⃗2 then

b⃗1 .b⃗2
cos θ =
|b⃗1 ||b⃗2 |
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11.1.4 Shortest Distance between Two Lines

Formulas:
1. (Vector Form) The shortest distance between ⃗r = a⃗1 + λb⃗1 and ⃗r = a⃗2 + µb⃗2 is given by

(b⃗1 × b⃗2 ).(a⃗2 − a⃗1 )

d=
|b⃗1 × b⃗2 |

y−y1 y−y2
2. (Cartesian Form) The shortest distance between the lines x−x a1 = b1 = c1 and
1 z−z1 x−x2
a2 = b2 = z−z2
c2
is given by
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
d= p
(b1 c2 − b2 c1 ) + (c1 a2 − c2 a1 ) + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2
2 2

11.1.5 Distance b/w Parallel Lines

Distance between parallel lines ⃗r = a⃗1 + λ⃗b and ⃗r = a⃗2 + µ⃗b is given by

⃗b × (a⃗2 − a⃗1 )
d=
|⃗b|

11.2 Important Problems

1. Find the direction cosines of the line passing through the two points (-2, 4, -5) and (1, 2, 3).
−2 √8
√3 , √
Ans: 77 77
, 77

2. Find the direction cosines of x, y and z-axis. Ans: x-axis : 1, 0, 0, y-axis : 0, 1, 0, z-axis : 0, 0, 1
3. Show that the points A(2, 3, -4), B(1, -2, 3) and C(3, 8, -11) are collinear.
 11.2. IMPORTANT PROBLEMS 45

4. Find the direction cosines of a line which makes equal angles with the coordinate axes.
Ans: < √1 , √1 , √1 > or < − √13 , − √13 , − √13 >
3 3 3

5. Find the angle between the pair of lines given by ⃗r = 3î+2ĵ −4k̂+λ(î+2ĵ +2k̂) and ⃗r = 5î−2ĵ +µ(3î+2ĵ +6k̂)
Ans: cos−1 ( 21
19
)
√
y−1 y−4
6. Find the angle between the pair of lines x+3
3 = 5 = z+3
4 and x+1
1 = 1 = z−5
2 Ans: cos−1 ( 8153 )

7. Find the shortest distance between the lines l1 and l2 whose vector equations are ⃗r = î + ĵ + λ(2î − ĵ + k̂)
and ⃗r = 2î + ĵ − k̂ + µ(3î − 5ĵ + 2k̂). Ans: √1059 units

8. Find the distance between the lines l1 and l2 given by ⃗r = î + 2ĵ − 4k̂ + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂) and ⃗r =√3î + 3ĵ −
5k̂ + µ(2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂). Ans: 2937 units
y+1
√
9. Find the shortest distance between the lines x+1
7 = 6 = 1 and
z+1 x−32
1 = y−5
−2 = 1 .
z−7
Ans: 2 29 units

10. Find the shortest distance between the lines whose vector equations are ⃗r = (1 − t)î + (t − 2)ĵ + (3 − 2t)k̂
and ⃗r = (s + 1)î + (2s − 1)ĵ − (2s + 1)k̂. Ans: √829 units

11. Find the angle between the lines whose direction ratios are a, b, c and b − c, c − a, a − b. Ans: 90◦
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−1 y−1 z−6
12. If the lines −3 = 2k = 2 and 3k = 1 = −5 are perpendicular, find the value of k. Ans: k = − 10
7

13. Find the vector equation of the line passing through the point (1, 2, -4) and perpendicular to the two lines:
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x−8 y + 19 z − 10 x − 15 y − 29 z−5
= = and = =
3 −16 7 3 8 −5

Ans: ⃗r = î + 2ĵ − 4k̂ + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂)

 Chapter 12 | Linear Programming

12.1 Concepts
ˆ Linear Programming Problem - Linear programming (LP) is a method to achieve the best outcome
(such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a mathematical model whose requirements are represented by
linear relationships. It involves optimizing (either maximizing or minimizing) a linear objective function,
subject to a set of linear equality and inequality constraints
A linear programming problem is typically defined by the following components:

1. Decision Variables (X): These are the variables representing the quantities to be determined. They
are the decision choices that need to be made in order to optimize the objective.
2. Objective Function (Z): This is a linear mathematical expression that needs to be either maximized
or minimized. It is usually in the form Z = c1 x1 + c2 x2 + · · · + cn xn
3. Constraints: These are restrictions or limitations on the decision variables. Constraints can be repre-
sented by linear inequalities or equalities and define the feasible region of the problem. Constraints are
of the form:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn ≤ b1

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a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn ≤ b2

..
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn ≤ bm

where, aij are coefficients and bi are constants, and m is the number of constraints.
4. Non-negativity Constraints: In many cases, decision variables must be non-negative. That is, xi ≥ 0
for all i.
ˆ Graphical Method for Solving an LPP: Consider for example a linear programming problem in 2
decision variables x and y:

maximise z = 4x + y, subject to the constraints:

x + y ≤ 50,
3x + y ≤ 90,
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0

46
 12.2. IMPORTANT PROBLEMS 47

Figure 12.1: Feasible Region of the LPP

The graph of this system (shaded region) consists of the points common to all inequalities.

The common region determined by all the constraints including non-negative constraints x, y ≥ 0 is
called the feasible region (or solution region) for the problem.
The region other than feasible region is called an infeasible region.
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Points within and on the boundary of the feasible region represent feasible solutions of the constraints.
Any point in the feasible region that gives the optimal value (maximum or minimum) of the objective
function is called an optimal (feasible) solution.
A corner point of a feasible region is a point in the region which is the intersection of two boundary
lines.
A feasible region of a system of linear inequalities is said to be bounded if it can be enclosed within
a circle. Otherwise, it is called unbounded. Unbounded means that the feasible region does extend
indefinitely in some direction.

ˆ Corner Point Theorem - If an LPP has an optimal solution, then the optimal value must occur at a
corner point (vertex) of the feasible region.

ˆ Theorem - Let R be the feasible region for an LPP with Z = ax + by as the objective function. If R is
bounded, then the objective function Z has both a maximum and a minimum value on R and each of these
occurs at acorner point (vertex) of R.
Remark If R is unbounded, then a maximum or a minimum value of the objective function may not exist.
However, if it exists, it must occur at a corner point of R.

ˆ Steps for Solving an LPP by Corner Point Method

1. Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem and determine its corner points.
2. Evaluate the objective function Z = ax + by at each corner point. Let M and m, respectively denote
the largest and smallest values of these points.
3. If feasible reagion is bounded, M and m are the maximum and minimum values of Z. Proceed to next
step only if feasible region is unbounded.
4. In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we have:
i. M is the maximum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by ax + by > M has no point in
common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z has no maximum value.
ii. Similarly, m is the minimum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by ax + by < m has no
point in common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z has no minimum value.

12.2 Important Problems

1. Minimise Z = −3x + 4y subject to x + 2y ≤ 8, 3x + 2y ≤ 12, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
Ans: Minimum Z = - 12 at (4, 0)
 48 CHAPTER 12. LINEAR PROGRAMMING

2. Maximise Z = 3x + 2y s.t. x + 2y ≤ 10, 3x + y ≤ 15, x, y ≥ 0. [Ans: Max. Z = 18 at (4, 3)]

3. Minimise Z = x + 2y subject to 2x + y ≥ 3, x + 2y ≥ 6, x, y ≥ 0.
Ans: Minimum Z = 6 at all points joining the points (6, 0) and (0, 3).

4. Maximise Z = x + y, subject to x − y ≤ −1, −x + y ≤ 0, x, y ≥ 0.

Ans: No feasible region, hence no maximum value of Z
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 Chapter 13 | Probability

13.1 Class 11 Concepts & Formulas

ˆ Equally likely outcomes mean, all outcomes have equal probability.

ˆ Axiomatic Definition of Probability: Let S be the sample space of a random experiment. The
probability P is a real valued funtion whose domain is the power set of S and range is the interval [0, 1]
satisfying the following axioms

1. For every event E, P (E) ≥ 0

2. P (S) = 1

3. If E and F are mutually exclusive events then P (E ∪ F ) = P (E) + P (F )

ˆ Properties of Probability Function: Let S be a sample space containing outcomes ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn i.e.

S = {ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn }, then

1. P (ϕ) = 0 (Proof: S = ϕ ∪ S. Now use 3rd axiom)

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2. 0 ≤ P (ωi ) ≤ 1, ∀ ωi ∈ S
3. P (ω1 ) + P (ω2 ) + . . . + P (ωn ) = 1
X
4. If E ⊂ S i.e. E is an event, then P (A) = P (ω) .
ω∈E

For example if E = {ω1 , ω2 , ω3 } then P (E) = P (ω1 ) + P (ω2 ) + P (ω3 )

ˆ Probability of Equally Likely Outcomes - Let S be the sample space of a random experiment and E
be an event. If all outcomes are equally likely, then

n(E) Number of Elements in E

P (E) = =
n(S) Number of Elements in S

ˆ Probability of the event ‘A or B’ i.e. P (A ∪ B)

P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B)

In particular, if A ∩ B = ϕ then P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B)

ˆ Probability of the event ‘Not A’ i.e. P (A′ )

Since S = A ∪ A′ and A and A′ are mutually exclusive events so P (S) = P (A) + P (A′ ) i.e. 1 = P (A) + P (A′ ).
Hence
P (A′ ) = 1 − P (A)

ˆ Probability of the Event A ∩ B ′

Since A = (A ∩ B ′ ) ∪ (A ∩ B) and A ∩ B ′ and A ∩ B are mutually exclusive events (check using Venn diagram)
so by 3rd axiom, P (A) = P (A ∩ B ′ ) + P (A ∩ B) which gives

P (A ∩ B ′ ) = P (A) − P (A ∩ B)

ˆ Probability using Demorgan’s Laws

1. Since A′ ∩ B ′ = (A ∪ B)′ so P (A′ ∩ B ′ ) = P ((A ∪ B)′ ) = 1 − P (A ∪ B) i.e. P (A′ ∩ B ′ ) = 1 − P (A ∪ B)

2. Since A′ ∪ B ′ = (A ∩ B)′ so P (A′ ∪ B ′ ) = P ((A ∩ B)′ ) = 1 − P (A ∩ B) i.e. P (A′ ∪ B ′ ) = 1 − P (A ∩ B)

49
 50 CHAPTER 13. PROBABILITY

13.2 Conditional Probability

If E and F are two events associated with the same sample space of a random experiment, the conditional
probability of the event E given that F has occurred, i.e. P (E|F ) is given by

P (E ∩ F )
P (E|F ) =
P (F )

Properties of Conditional Probability:

Let E and F be events of a sample space S of an experiment, then we have
ˆ P (S|F ) = P (F |F ) = 1

ˆ P ((A ∪ B)|F ) = P (A|F ) + P (B|F ) − P ((A ∩ B)|F ) .

In particular, if A and B are disjoint events, then P ((A ∪ B)|F ) = P (A|F ) + P (B|F )

ˆ P (E ′ |F ) = 1 − P (E|F )

13.3 Multiplication Theorem on Probability

Note: The event E ∩ F is also written as EF .
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ˆ For 2 events:
P (E ∩ F ) = P (E) P (F |E) and P (E ∩ F ) = P (F ) P (E|F )

ˆ For more than two events: If E, F and G are three events of sample space, we have

P (E ∩ F ∩ G) = P (E) P (F |E) P (G|E ∩ F ) or P (E ∩ F ∩ G) = P (F ) P (E|F ) P (G|EF )

13.4 Independent Events

Let E and F be two events associated with the same random experiment, then E and F are said to be independent
if
P (E ∩ F ) = P (E) . P (F )
Note: Original Definiton of Independent Events: Two events E and F are said to be independent, if P (F |E) =
P (F ) provided P (E) ̸= 0 and P (E|F ) = P (E) provided P (F ) ̸= 0.

13.5 Partition of a Sample Space, Total Probability and Bayes’ The-

orem
ˆ Partition of a Sample Space: A set of events E1 , E2 , ..., En is said to represent a partition of the sample
space S if
1. Ei ∩ Ej = ϕ for i ̸= j, i, j = 1, 2, ..., n
2. E1 ∪ E2 ∪ ... ∪ En = S
3. P (Ei ) > 0 for i = 1, 2, ..., n
ˆ Theorem of Total Probability: Let E1 , E2 , ..., En be a partition of the sample space S. Let A be any
event associated with S, then

P (A) = P (E1 ) P (A|E1 ) + P (E2 ) P (A|E2 ) + . . . + P (En ) P (A|En )

ˆ Bayes’ Theorem: If E1 , E2 , ..., En are n non empty events which constitute a partition of sample space
S, i.e. E1 , E2 , ..., En are pairwise disjoint and E1 ∪ E2 ∪ . . . ∪ En = S and A is any event of nonzero
probability, then

P (Ei )P (A|Ei )
P (Ei |A) = for any i = 1, 2, . . . , n
P (E1 )P (A|E1 ) + P (E2 )P (A|E2 ) + . . . + P (En )P (A|En )
 13.6. IMPORTANT PROBLEMS 51

13.6 Important Problems

1. A family has two children. What is the probability that both the children are boys given that at least one
of them is a boy? Ans: 13

2. In a school, there are 1000 students, out of which 430 are girls. It is known that out of 430, 10% of the girls
study in class XII. What is the probability that a student chosen randomly studies in Class XII given that
the chosen student is a girl? Ans: 0.1

3. If each born child is equally likely to be a boy or a girl. If a family has two children, what is the conditional
probability that both are girls given that (i) the youngest is a girl, (ii) at least one is a girl? Ans: 13

4. An instructor has a question bank consisting of 300 easy True / False questions, 200 difficult True / False
questions, 500 easy multiple choice questions and 400 difficult multiple choice questions. If a question is
selected at random from the question bank, what is the probability that it will be an easy question given
that it is a multiple choice question? Ans: 59

5. An urn contains 10 black and 5 white balls. Two balls are drawn from the urn one after the other without
replacement. What is the probability that both drawn balls are black?
3
Ans: 7 Hint: If E:1st ball is black, F: 2nd ball is black. Then P (E ∩ F ) = P (E)P (F |E)

6. Three cards are drawn successively, without replacement from a pack of 52 well shuffled cards. What is the
probability that first two cards are kings and the third card drawn is an ace?
2 4 3 4
Ans: 5525 . Hint: P (KKA) = P (K)P (K|K)P (A|KK) = × ×
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52 51 50

7. A die is thrown. If E is the event ‘the number appearing is a multiple of 3’ and F be the event ‘the number
appearing is even’ then find whether E and F are independent? Ans: Yes

8. Prove that if E and F are independent events, then so are the events E and F’.
Hint: P (E ∩ F ′ ) = P (E) − P (E ∩ F )

9. If A and B are two independent events, then the probability of occurrence of at least one of A and B is given
by 1 − P (A′ )P (B ′ ). Hint: P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B)

10. A person has undertaken a construction job. The probabilities are 0.65 that there will be strike, 0.80 that
the construction job will be completed on time if there is no strike, and 0.32 that the construction job will be
completed on time if there is a strike. Determine the probability that the construction job will be completed
on time. Ans: 0.488

11. Bag I contains 3 red and 4 black balls while another Bag II contains 5 red and 6 black balls. One ball is
drawn at random from one of the bags and it is found to be red. Find the probability that it was drawn
35
from Bag II. Ans: 68

12. Given three identical boxes I, II and III, each containing two coins. In box I, both coins are gold coins, in
box II, both are silver coins and in the box III, there is one gold and one silver coin. A person chooses a box
at random and takes out a coin. If the coin is of gold, what is the probability that the other coin in the box
is also of gold? Ans: 23

13. Suppose that the reliability of a covid test is specified as follows: Of people having covid, 90% of the test
detect the disease but 10% go undetected. Of people free of covid, 99% of the test are judged covid-ive but
1% are diagnosed as showing covid+ive. From a large population of which only 0.1% have covid, one person
is selected at random, given the covid test, and the pathologist reports him/her as covid+ive. What is the
probability that the person actually has covid? Ans: 0.083 approx.

14. In a factory which manufactures bolts, machines A, B and C manufacture respectively 25%, 35% and 40%
of the bolts. Of their outputs, 5, 4 and 2 percent are respectively defective bolts. A bolt is drawn at random
from the product and is found to be defective. What is the probability that it is manufactured by the machine
B? Ans: 28
69

15. A doctor is to visit a patient. From the past experience, it is known that the probabilities that he will come
3 1 1
by train, bus, scooter or by other means of transport are respectively 10 , 5 , 10 and 25 . The probabilities that
1 1 1
he will be late are 4 , 3 , and 12 , if he comes by train, bus and scooter respectively, but if he comes by other
means of transport, then he will not be late. When he arrives, he is late. What is the probability that he
comes by train? Ans: 12
 52 CHAPTER 13. PROBABILITY

16. A man is known to speak truth 3 out of 4 times. He throws a die and reports that it is a six. Find the
probability that it is actually a six. Ans: 38
17. A and B throw a die alternatively till one of them gets a ‘6’ and wins the game. Find their respective
6
probabilities of winning, if A starts first. Ans: P(A wins) = 11
2
18. If a leap year is selected at random, what is the chance that it will contain 53 tuesdays? Ans: 7
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