CHAPTER 2

Transportation Planning
 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

CHAPTER 2

Transportation Planning

2.1 Transport Planning Process

The objective of transport planning is to build or improve various parts of transportations

system such as bridges, highways, tunnels, harbors, railways, airport runways etc. Most of
these facilities were selected for construction or improvement because those involved
concluded that the project would result in overall improvement.

Transportation can have significant effects on mobility, economic development,

environmental quality, government finance and the quality of life. Wise planning is, thus,
needed to help create high quality transportation facilities and services at a reasonable cost
with minimal environmental impact and to enhance economic activity. Failure to plan can
lead to severe traffic congestion, dangerous travel patterns, slow economic growth, adverse
environmental impact and wasteful use of money and resources.

Transportation planning is a process that develops information to help make decisions on

the future development and management of transportation systems, especially in urban
areas. It involves the determination of the need for transport facilities such as new
highways, transit systems, freight facilities, and transportation terminals. The planning
process also allows determining the location, capacity and management of these facilities.

Transportation planning is primarily focused on developing long range (15-30 years)

transportation plans that can be used to set priorities for project implementation in the
future. Such plans should ideally balance the need to build new roads and transit facilities
(supply) with future travel demand patterns with a minimum of environmental effect and
within the funding capabilities of the government agencies involved.

Problems addressed can range from broad issues of policy at the federal or state level to
specific programs and projects at a local level. Besides problems of congestion and travel
growth, these could include the following:
- Travel demand alternatives for congestion reduction
- Land use/transportation coordination
- Fuel reduction measures
- Air quality measures
- Safety measures
- Economic development/redevelopment activity

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 1

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

The transportation planning process is direct application of problem solving via system
analysis. It provides a framework for the identification of transportation problems and the
development of alternative potential solutions. In its simplest form, it can be depicted by
figure 2.1.

Problem Solution Solution Evaluation Implementation

Definition Generation Analysis and Choice and Monitoring

Feedback to all steps

Figure 2.1-The Transportation Planning Process

The simplified planning process can be summarized as follows:

• A problem is a deviation from expected or desired performance. Goals and
objectives, reflecting national or regional values, define the expected or desired
performance.
• Solution generation is a subjective process that reflects regional goals and
objectives, the nature of the identified problems, the nature of the existing
transportation system and regional preferences, as much as it reflects technical and
economic functionality.
• When the set of alternative solutions is identified, the process enters solution
analysis where each alternative is subject to formal technical analysis (such as
transport models) to assess resulting performance.
• The estimated performance of each generated alternative is then evaluated using
various measures of performance (MOEs). These MOEs describe volumes, travel
times or speed on links and intersections, and the associated impacts (such as air
quality or noise). The MOEs must also be coupled with estimated cost and standard
economic analysis techniques to assess the relative overall performance and cost of
each alternative.
• The preferred alternative is selected for implementation, thus entering
programming and project planning processes. Once the selected option is
implemented, the overall system must be monitored to assess (a) real-world
performance, (b) the degree that the problem has been addressed, and (c) the
emergence of additional performance problems.

The transportation planning process is continuous- it is applied simultaneously at multiple

levels, including various spatial scales. It is also characterized by extensive feedback. The

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 2

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

process may iterate in defining alternatives and then estimating and assessing the
associated performance. The results might be that new alternatives must be found, or
perhaps the problem needs to be re-defined. Note that the planning process continues both
during and after project construction to assess the effectiveness of the selected alternative
in addressing the identified problems.

2.2 Basic Elements of Transport Planning Process

The transportation planning process comprises seven basic elements, which are inter-
related and not necessarily carried out sequentially. The information acquired in one phase
of the process may be helpful in some earlier or later phase, so there is a continuity of effort
that finally results in a decision. The elements in the process are:

i) Facility inventory

An important starting point for transport planning inventory of the existing transport
facilities are their condition and performance.

The major purposes facility inventory is to describe the current state of the system and to
procure input to the estimation and validation of models.

The most common transport system inventory involves

➢ Description of the existing transport services

➢ The available facility and their condition
➢ Location of route and schedules
➢ Maintenance and operation costs
➢ Systems facility and existing traffic volume
➢ Travel time and delay studies
➢ Traffic flow surveys
➢ Parking surveys
➢ Origin destination surveys
➢ Parking surveys
➢ Pedestrian and cyclist movement studies
➢ Environmental impact studies.

The type of data collection depends on the specific problem, for example – For a highway
planning the inventory may involve:

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 3

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

• Function classification
- Major arterials
- Minor arterials
- Local /access roads
- Collector roads
• Physical features of the road
- No. of lane
- Pavement & approach width
- Street and highway capacity
- Traffic control devices
- Traffic signals
• Traffic volume delay
• Travel time along the route
ii) Socio –economic and land-use

Transport planning process involves all of the activities required to understand the
situation that give rise to the perceived need for a transportation improvement. In this
regard, socio-economic and land-use factor should be considered which relates trip making
to the type of activities that occur in a region and also to the characteristics of the trip
maker that will influence the way this trips are made.

This is done by categorizing land-use that can then be used in transport planning to
estimate how many trips are attracted to each type of land use.

The type of data on trip maker characteristics include

• Level of income
• Number of members in house hold
• Number of vehicles in house hold
• Age composition of house hold
• Education level
• Employment etc
Example of land uses shopping center, industrial areas, residential areas, Offices etc …

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 4

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

Such and other socio economic characteristics have been shown how trips are made. The
socio economic characteristics and land use are projected and used to forecast the travel
demand in the plan year.

iii) Goals and objectives

An objective is a statement of a desired end state. However, that statement can range from
very general such as successful urban economy or higher standard quality life to a very
specific such as avoiding pollution levels above a specific threshold. Both are helpful, the
first in providing the context of strategy and a direction to it, the second in providing a
basic for assessing where the objective is being met.

To identify objectives and related problems there are two types of approaches

▪ The problem oriented approach

▪ The objective-led approach
The problem oriented approach starts with describing types of problems and the objective-
led approach starts with defining objectives and indicators. The later approach is used in
several of the integrated transport studies.

Identification of goals and objectives is critical in that they define the evaluation criteria
that will be used letter in planning process to assess the relative impact of alternative
projects and strategies. These criteria are often called measure of effectiveness.

Some of the possible set of objectives

1. Economic efficiency

Economic efficiency is achieved when it is impossible to make one person or

group of society better off without making another group worse off.

2. Environmental protection

Environmental protection involves minimizing of environmental impacts

such as noise, atmospheric pollution, vibration, visual intrusion, severances,
fear and intimidation loss of valuable objects, ancient monuments historic
buildings.

3. Safety

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 5

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

Reducing loss of life, injuries and damages to property resulting from

transportation accidents.

4. Accessibility

Accessibility can be defined as ease of reaching, and the accessibility

objective is concerned with increase the ability with which people in
different location and with different ability of transportation can reach
different types of facility.

5. Sustainability

The sustainability objective is defined as being pursuit of development that

meets the need of the present without compromising the ability of the future
generation to meet their needs.

6. Economic regeneration

Transport contributes to the encouragement of new activity by improving

accessibility to the area, by enhancing its environment and potentially by
improving the image of the area.

iv) Identify system deficiencies and opportunities

Transport planning identifies and prioritizes these elements of transport systems where
problems exist today or where problems exist in further given growth in travel. Also
transport planning can also identify areas where significant problem do not exist this time,
but system can provide opportunities for enhanced efficiency of operation.

v) Developing and analyze alternatives

In this phase of planning process consideration is given to a variety of ideas, designs,

locations, and system configurations that might provide solutions to the problems. This is
brainstorming stage in which many options may be proposed for later testing and
evaluation. The planning stage may be proposed for later testing and evaluation. This
planning stage may have been originated to determine feasibility of a particular project or
idea.

This phase include preliminary feasibility studies, data gathering field testing and cost
estimating may be necessary at this stage to determine the practicability and financial
feasibility of the alternatives being proposed.

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 6

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

Example – Improvement of highways

• New construction
• Adding new lanes
• Improving traffic controls through signals, signs etc
• Improving traffic flow through canalization.
vi) Evaluate alternatives

The purpose of evaluation phases it to determine how well each alternative achieve the
objectives of the project as defined by the criteria.

Evaluation involves methods for comparing an analytic way relative value of the
alternatives. One of the most used approaches is the benefit cost ratio, which compares the
alternatives on the bases of benefits and costs.

The benefit cost ration is the means of identifying the most economical efficient alternative
by defining benefits and costs in monitory terms. Many measures of effectiveness however
can’t be defined in monitory terms and this effective evaluation must include many
different means of preventing relevant information for decision.

vii) Action plan and implementation

Once the transport project has been selected, a detail design phase begins, in which each of
the components of the facility is specified. For transportation facility, this involves physical
location, geometric dimension, and structural configuration. Design plans are produced
that can be used to estimate the cost of building the project. When the construction firm is
selected these plans will be the bases on which the project will be built.

Sometimes the number of project that is recommended exceeds the amount of funding that
is available. In such cases properties will be privatized for implementation.

2.3 Transport Policy and Strategic Planning

Policy, defined conservatively, is a guiding principle that influences how a system behaves.
It is a plan of action agreed on or chosen by a government, business entity etc. to satisfy the
desires of a society. In this broad sense, a transport policy is a guiding principle that
influences how the transport system should behave to achieve desired outcomes and avoid
transport problems. Examples of such policies may include road expansion plans, transit
system priorities, fuel tax, emission limits etc.

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 7

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

It is the task of politicians, and of the skilled professionals who advise them, to identify the
most appropriate solutions to today's and tomorrow's transport problems. These solutions
form the basis of a transport policy, which can be designed for a nation, a city, a town or a
rural area. But it is essential that professionals are clear on the reasons for such solutions:
that is, that the objectives which are to be achieved should be specified.

An objective is a statement of a desired end-state. However, that statement can range from
the very general, such as a successful urban economy or a high standard quality of life, to
the very specific, such as avoiding pollution levels above a specified threshold. Both are
helpful, the first in providing the context for the strategy, and a direction to it; the second in
providing a basis for assessing whether the objective is being met. Objectives in transport
policy can be categorized into four classes:
• Statements of Vision: Broad indications of the type of area which politicians or the
public wish to see. These serve to identify long-term goals to which more detailed
transport policy objectives can contribute. These broad statements often say
nothing about transport itself: instead they raise the question:”how best can
transport help to realize this vision?’.
• Higher level objectives: These higher level objectives, sometimes referred to as
aims or goals, identify attributes of transport system, or its side effects, which can be
improved as a means of realizing the vision. Typical among are to reduce
congestions, protect the environment, avoid accidents and improve accessibility.
These broad objectives indicate the directions in which strategies should be
developed.
• Quantified objectives: Quantified objectives may indicate a requirement, for
example, to avoid residents without cars being more than 30 minutes from the
nearest bus station. They provide a clear basis for assessing performance of the
strategy, but they do require careful definition if the specified thresholds are to be
realistic. Once this is done, quantified objectives provide a direct basis for
identifying problems, for current or future conditions, on the basis that a problem
occurs wherever the quantified objective is not met.
• Solution-specific ‘objectives’: It is important to avoid specifying solutions within the
objectives, since this constrains the search for solutions, and may lead to an overall
strategy which is less appropriate to the area’s needs. Where politicians, or interest
groups, wish to introduce general objectives such as to impose physical restrictions
on car use, it is preferable to ask why this solution is being proposed and what it is
designed to achieve. Answer to such questions should lead to clearer specification of
the true underlying objectives.

2.3.1 The transport policy formulation process

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 8

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

There are in practice two different types of policy formulation approaches: objective-led
and problem oriented approaches.

1. Objective-led strategy formulation: broad (or more detailed) objectives are first
specified. These are then used to identify problems by assessing the extent to which
current, or predicted future conditions in the absence of new policy measures, fail to
meet the objectives. Possible solutions are then identified as ways of overcoming the
problems which have been identified. The potential solutions are then compared,
often by means of predictive model of transport systems, by appraising them against
the objectives which they are designed to meet. As the measures are implemented,
their impact is assessed, through before and after studies, again in terms of
achievement against objectives. On regular basis, too, conditions are monitored and
the current conditions and problems are reassessed, in terms of overall objectives.
Figure 2.2 presents a structure for strategy formulation in which objectives are the
starting point.

Figure 2.2 Objective-led policy formulations

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 9

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

This process may seem somewhat idealized and remote from standard practice, but
it has several virtues. First, it offers a logical basis for proposing solutions, and also
for assessing any proposals offered by others. Second, it ensures that the appraisal
of alternatives is conducted in a logical, consistent, and comprehensive way against
the full set of objectives. Third, assessing the performance of the implemented
measures improves the ability to judge the potential of similar measures elsewhere,
and to predict their impact. Fourth, regular monitoring provides a means of
checking not just on the scale of current problems, but also, through attitude
surveys, on the perception of those problems.

The main draw back with this approach is that many elected officials and the public
are less familiar with the abstract concept of objectives (such as improving
accessibility) than they are with concrete problems (such as the nearest job centre
being 50 minutes away).

2. Problem oriented approach: The alternative problem-oriented approach is to

start by defining types of problem and to use data on current (or predicted future)
conditions to identify when and where these problems occur. This approach starts
at the second box in the flow chart in figure 2.2. The objectives are implicit in the
specified problem, and may never actually be stated.
It has the merit of being easily understood. However, it is critically dependent on
developing a full list of potential problems at the outset. If particular types of
problem (like access to job centers) are not identified because the underlying
objective (accessibility) has not been considered, the resulting strategy will be
partial in its impact. It is thus probably still wise to check with elected members and
the public that the full set of problems has been identified.

As noted above, the problem-oriented approach to transport planning starts by identifying

problems and developing solutions to them. The objective-led approach defines problems
in terms of specified objectives. Both methods converge at the stage of problem
identification and then use these as a basis for identifying solutions and strategies (Figure
2.2). In either case it is essential to be comprehensive in the list of types of problem. This
may be difficult to achieve with the problem-oriented planning approach in which there is
no pre-defined set of objectives to prompt the question 'how do we know that we have a
problem?'

2.3.2 Policy Instruments/Measures

Transport planners have available to them, at least in principle, a wide range of

instruments/ strategies of transport policy. These are the means by which the objectives

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 10

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

described above can be achieved, and problems overcome. These instruments can be
categorized in several ways:

1. Infrastructures- new or expansion of roads, new rail lines, parking, pedestrian

walk ways etc.
2. Management- traffic management, traffic calming, bus priorities, HOV lanes etc
3. Information- signs and markings, signals, real-time transit times etc.
4. Pricing- fuel taxes, bus fares, parking charges etc.
5. Land use- development densities, master plan, urban form etc
6. Attitudinal and behavioral measures
The key question with each of the measures is its ability to achieve one or more of the
objectives.

1. Infrastructures
Provision for cars
➢New road construction
Construction new roads are one of infrastructure measures since it has the following
advantages;

- Travel time savings

- Accessibility/mobility
- Environmental benefits
E.g. bypasses
- Accident reduction: transferring traffic to high quality roads
It has also negative impacts in developed world such as

- It induces additional traffic so it will increase travel time savings and negatively impact the
environment such as increase noise level and CO2 emission
- It makes more sustainable modes of transport (public transport, cycling and walking)
relatively less attractive.
And finally it is more expensive measure.

➢off street car parks

Additional car parking can contribute economic efficiency by reducing the need to search
parking space. Since it saves user travel time. But, it has also negative impact for lack of
parking also acts as a control on car use. It may therefore be best combined with a
reduction in on street parking. This should reduce searching traffic (since parking locations
are clearer), improve the environment and increase safety and combat security problems
and improve accessibility.

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 11

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

Provision for public transport

➢New (conventional) rail
It includes significant upgrading to existing infrastructures, reopening of closed rail lines
and provision of new station.

Advantages;

- Reduce travel time for existing users

- Attract users from other modes
- Contribute positively to the environment transferring journeys off the roads
- Increasing accessibility(increase speed, decrease waiting time)
- Not affected by on road congestion

➢ Light rail
It has similar impact to conventional rail. Its main difference with conventional) rail

- It can operate on street

- Have more frequent stops
- Achieve better penetration of town centers
It is expensive, not least because of the requirements of street running. And it could be
affected by on road congestion.
➢ Guided buses
Guided buses are buses steered for part or all of their route by external means, usually on a
dedicated track. This track, which often parallels existing roads, excludes all other traffic,
permitting the maintenance of reliable schedules on heavily used corridors even during
rush hours. This vehicle provides a lower cost alternative to light rail. While totally
separate rights of way can be provided. The impact of guided bus is as yet uncertain. It
should have less adverse impact on efficiency than light rail; by requiring less space, but its
positive impact depend critically on its ability to attract patronage.
➢ Park and ride
Park and ride is a form of integrated transport that allows private transport users to park
their vehicles at a large car park and travel into the city center using a public transport
mode. The vast majorities of park and ride sites are situated outside the urban areas of city
centers and are designed to relieve road congestion along the roads leading into and
located within the city center itself.

The key objectives behind the development of park and ride services have been to reduce:
1) congestion within city centers and along the approach roads to city centers since it
increases public transport use; and
2) The environmental externalities that have accompanied increasing traffic levels. It is
commonly used at big events such as formula 1, football matches and concerts.
➢ Terminals & interchange

Provision for cyclists and pedestrian

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 12

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

➢ Cycle routes
These provide dedicated infrastructure for cyclists, and hence extend the range of cycle
priorities. As well a making cycling safer, they have been designed to attract more people to
cycle in preference to driving, hence achieving the benefits of reduced car use. It appears
that cycle routes can achieve travel time benefits for cyclists, but they will not attract more
people to cycle in the absence of other measures.

➢ Pedestrian areas
These provide a dramatic improvement in the environment for pedestrians. This will help
in achieving environmental and safety benefits. They may also have positive impacts on the
urban economy and land use policy. However, they present some accessibility problems for
car and bus users and, particularly, for goods deliveries and for disabled people.

Provision for freight

➢ Lorry parks
These facilities provide a means of reducing the environmental impact of on-street
overnight parking of Lorries. Dedicated provision in a well-designed and secure parking
area, together with on-street restrictions, may well be beneficial.

➢ Transshipment facilities
These aim to provide a means of transferring goods from the larger vehicles needed for
efficient line haul to smaller, less environmentally intrusive vehicles for distribution in
town centers.

➢ Encouragement of other modes

Attempts to encourage usage of other freight modes are likely focus primarily on rail borne
freight, but in appropriate cases could extend to water and pipeline. Such modes are only
competitive over longer distances and for bulk freight, given the additional costs for
handling and road-based distribution. Moreover, the road based distribution is likely still to
take place in urban areas: the main beneficiaries are likely to be communities on inter-
urban routes.

2. Management measures

2.1 Provision for cars

➢ Conventional Traffic Management
Conventional Traffic Management involves measures designed to affect the movement of
traffic on a network. Measures include route restrictions and right of way restrictions
which serve to alter the direction and movement of traffic as well as parking (and stopping
restrictions) which allow for unhindered traffic movement on roads. These are all
implemented with the objective of smoothing traffic flow and increasing safety and do so
by making better use of the existing infrastructure. More specific forms of traffic
management designed to improve the environment, enhance safety or reduce travel
demand are considered separately.

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 13

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

Conventional traffic management measures can lead to smoother driving conditions,

reduced congestion and fewer accidents), and may also achieve environmental
improvements, but they may also result in some adverse impacts by reallocating road
space or re-routing traffic. In particular, higher traffic volumes may be introduced to
certain streets, and local access may be reduced in order to benefit through movement.
Hence the contribution to policy objectives may not always be positive. As a result, in
designing a traffic management plan, it is important to understand the conflicting demands
between various groups of users who are intending to share the road space.

➢ Traffic calming measures

Traffic calming is the use of physical and regulatory measures to reduce vehicle speeds and
acceleration. Its other aims are to alter driver behavior and improve conditions for non-
motorized street users. It focuses upon improving neighborhood safety, comfort and
livability, whilst maintaining necessary levels of traffic circulation and emergency access. It
encompasses a broad array of traffic engineering, education, and enforcement techniques
to slow and disperse or re-route traffic.

➢ Physical restrictions on car use

Physical restrictions limit car use in urban areas or other specific zones by reductions in
road capacity such as street closures or reallocation of road capacity from cars to other
traffic such as buses, cyclists and pedestrians. They include bus priorities, cycle lanes,
extensive pedestrian areas, street-running rail such as tram or light rail systems and also
traffic calming measures.
Physical restrictions on car use aim to reduce the volume of vehicles to achieve a more
balanced allocation of road space. These measures can also improve the attractiveness of
public transport, provide better facilities for cyclists and pedestrians, and improve
environmental quality and safety.
However, demand impacts will vary according to the capacity of a network at the site
where a physical restriction is implemented. If capacity is reduced on a few roads or areas
but there is still capacity available on other routes, drivers may divert onto an alternative
route which still has available capacity. This will reduce traffic congestion on a specific
road, but not lead to an overall reduction in the level of car traffic in an urban area.

➢ Parking control
Parking controls are applied to on and off street parking (multistory, ground level and
underground), although the style of control will vary with the type of parking space. The
ability to apply controls will also depend on local legislation. Controls can be applied to
bicycle and motorcycle parking, coach parking and lorry parking as well as car parking.

Parking controls can take a number of forms, including duration, cost, time of day, supply,
location of spaces, permits and parking bans. Parking charges will be considered separately
from the other controls considered here. The application of controls to existing private
spaces can be very difficult for local authorities, as they generally do not have any
jurisdiction over parking that is not for public use. Private non-residential parking is most

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 14

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

easily controlled through the planning process and is considered in more detail under
Parking Standards for New Developments. Additionally, legislation may be required to
apply other controls, such as restricting on street areas to residents only parking.

Parking controls are introduced to reduce the negative impacts of excess demand for
parking, and to allocate scares space according to priority needs.

2.2 Provision for buses

➢ Bus priority
Bus priority measures aim to reduce journey times and improve the reliability of bus
services. They include: segregation; traffic management; traffic signal control; and bus stop
improvements. Effective bus priority measures can achieve mode shift from car, and in so
doing, reduce delays for both bus users and car-drivers.

Effective bus priority measures reduce operating costs for bus operators and increase
patronage, both of which impact positively on the financial cost of bus operations. The
impacts can be beneficial across a range of objectives including the environment, the
economy and social inclusion. Some measures such as bus lanes are often faced with great
opposition from traders and residents because of concerns over loss of access and parking.
A further difficulty arises in a deregulated environment because the local authority will
have difficulty ensuring that a high quality and regular service is maintained on the newly
constructed measures. This causes political difficulties with the bus priority measures
appearing unjustifiable.

No comprehensive post implementation studies were found, but the general evidence
suggests that the measures are justifiable on the grounds of benefits to bus users and
operators without having a significant detrimental effect on car journey times.
Bus priority measures are particularly effective wherever bus journey times and reliability
are affected by traffic congestion.

➢ High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes

High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes are designed to discourage single or low occupancy
car use by providing priority to vehicles with more than a minimum number of occupants
(usually two or three) and to buses. They encourage car sharing or public transport use, or
both, by allowing users to reduce their journey times relative to single-occupant vehicles,
particularly when the general purpose lanes are congested. This in turn reduces the
number of cars on the network and this reduction in the demand for road space can reduce
overall congestion, fuel consumption and environmental impacts.

An HOV lane can be created by converting an existing multi-user road lane into an HOV
lane (for all or part of the day), by adding an extra inside or outside lane to an existing road
or by converting an existing bus way or bus lane into an HOV lane.
HOV lanes can be a part of motorway (as is common in the USA) or of a major arterial road
(as in Leeds, UK). They can be ‘tidal’ to help the traffic in the busiest direction (usually

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 15

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

inbound towards city canters during the morning peak, outbound during evening peak).
They can be permanent and separated by a physical barrier from the general purpose lanes
or may be defined by purely nonphysical means such as lane markings and special traffic
signs. The hours and days of HOV lane operation can vary depending on the congested
hours and function of the road stretch to which they are applied; for example during
morning peak hours only, on weekdays or at all times.

Conclusions on the effects of HOV lanes vary from one study to other. They have been
reported to reduce vehicle trips on HOV corridors by between 4 per cent and 30 per cent. It
has also been reported that willingness to share cars and to use buses increases after the
opening of an HOV lane. There is evidence that HOV lanes are more effective in these terms
in cases where delays to general traffic due to congestion are greatest. There is, however,
also a view that HOV lanes may be less effective in some cases than general purpose lanes.

2.3 Provision for cyclists and pedestrian

➢ Cycle lanes and other specific facilities
The purpose of cycle lanes and other specific facilities for cyclists is to improve access,
safety, personal security and convenience. New cycle facilities can be of many different
kinds such as on-carriageway cycle lanes, segregated paths and advanced stop lines.
Increased cycling offers a multitude of benefits to the society and the environment, not at
least in terms of efficient use of scare urban space and health benefits. The focus of this
review is on the potential of cycle facilities to reduce traffic congestion.

2.4 Provision for freight

Road freight fleet management systems
Road freight fleet management systems generally consist of a number of telematics systems
which use remote devices on both freight vehicles and trailers to control and monitor
freight operations and present this data in a useable format to freight managers, either as
real time data or static data. The effective use of these systems can lead to improvements in
fleet efficiency and productivity via reductions in fleet mileage, operational costs and fuel
consumption. In addition effective fleet management can lead to improvements in safety
and a reduction in the environmental impact of freight fleets. To maximize the impact of
road freight fleet management systems careful fuel management, driver training and
training in the use of the freight fleet system should be seen as being essential.

3. Information provision
Provision for cars
➢ Conventional signs and markings
Conventional signs and markings are visual means of providing information, guidance and
instruction to travelers during their journey. Their objective is to promote the safe and
efficient use of the transport system. Both signs and markings impart information but also
have a role in the management of traffic. In many cases, signs and markings are used in
conjunction with each other.
Signs and markings include:

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 16

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

• Upright signs - various types of upright signs with textual or graphical images, for
information, regulation or warning
• Road markings – provided to channel traffic and to convey warnings, regulatory
requirements or basic information

• Miscellaneous signs – including traffic signals, temporary signs and lamps to identify
refuges or provide additional warning in cases of dangerous obstructions.
Common standards for signs and markings exist to help ensure that travelers can easily
understand signs wherever they might be travelling.
Conventional direction signing can provide benefits to car users, and other traffic, by
reducing journey lengths and travel times; direction signing can also be used to divert
traffic away from environmentally sensitive routes.

Signs and markings are also important in road safety by providing information necessary to
make safe decisions while travelling.

➢ Variable Message Signs

Variable Message Signs (VMS) are digital road signs used to inform car drivers about
specific temporary events and real-time traffic conditions. The signs are often linked to a
manned control centre via a local network or a radio link. Variable message signs (VMS)
are an integral part of Intelligent Transportation Systems.
The aim of using VMS is to provide drivers with mandatory and/or advisory information at
the roadside. VMS can be used for many different purposes with the potential benefits of
reducing car drivers’ stress, travel time and increasing traffic safety. VMS may ask drivers
to change travel speed, change lanes, divert to a different route, direct to the available
parking space, or simply to be aware of a change in current or future traffic conditions by
providing information. The information is intended to assist drivers in selecting
appropriate routes avoiding congestion and to reduce drivers’ anxiety.
The benefits of the signs in general are difficult to measure. VMS are often used to inform
drivers of congestion, incidents ahead and unexpected delays and can as such reduce
drivers’ stress. Signs can be particularly beneficial where drivers can be informed of
alternative routes or park and ride sites to avoid further delays, but this may require the
VMS to be an integral part of a wider and more costly traffic monitoring system.

➢ Parking Guidance and Information (PGI) systems

Parking Guidance and Information (PGI) systems use variable message signs (VMS) to
provide drivers with information on the location and the availability of spaces in car parks.
They have been in use since the 1970s, initially implemented in Aachen (Germany). Over
subsequent years, their use has increased and it has been estimated that over 50 systems of
this type are in operation worldwide.
Earlier systems involved limited function signs with very simple space counters and
availability display units. However the technology used has evolved and nowadays
electronic message signs are able to display a full range of messages and symbols.

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 17

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

A typical PGI system consists of monitoring equipment to establish the flow into and out of
the car park, a central computer to process the counts and control the dissemination of
information to the public via VMS or other media such as radio or a web site. VMS displays
should be located at suitable decision points on the network, so that a driver’s journey time
to a vacant space is minimized.
The aim of PGI systems is to manage the available parking spaces in highly populated urban
areas more efficiently. Studies have shown that PGI systems can influence drivers’ choice of
car park and reduce the time spent looking for a parking space. This affects traffic flows
and queuing outside the most popular car parks. The overall effect is a reduction in
congestion and air pollution which will lead to enhancement of urban areas.

Provision for buses

➢ Real Time Passenger Information systems
Real Time Passenger Information systems allow passengers to access real i.e. live
departure information for public transport services via a variety of different sources. Such
systems have been shown to be of value to public transport passengers, to operators and to
public transport regulating agencies. The primary benefit to passengers is that they reduce
the psychological anxiety associated with waiting for public transport as well as
uncertainty and frustration. For the operators, RTPI technology has helped in the fleet
management and improvement of bus performance and schedule adherence and hence
contributes to improving the image of public transport. Whether RTPI alone can increase
patronage of public transport is open to debate; while some evidence suggests it can, on
balance experience suggests that any ridership increase is usually achieved by a
combination of measures to promote public transport services. Hence RTPI is implemented
as part of a package improving the quality of public transport. Implementation costs may
be high due to the associated computer technology and strong project management will be
required. Nevertheless with advances in technology, such costs are likely to fall rapidly.

4. Pricing
Provision for cars
➢ Vehicle ownership taxation
Vehicle ownership taxation (an indirect tax) has two key purposes. Firstly, as a general
revenue generator - income is rarely hypothecated. Secondly, to regulate the number of
vehicles owned and potentially the age of the vehicle stock to meet environmental
objectives.
➢ Private parking charges
Private parking charges are, in the main, levied by local authorities on existing or future
non-residential developments, e.g. office buildings. They are designed to help suppress the
demand for car parking and thus traffic levels, particularly in urban centers where
commuting to work makes up a large percentage of the traffic. Much less common are
instances of private parking charges being introduced by individual companies as part of a
conscious effort to either implement travel plans that reduces car use amongst their work
force or to reduce land take costs associated with car parking.

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 18

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

➢ Fuel taxes
Fuel taxes are levied on the purchase of fuel in most countries. Levying a tax on fuel
consumption not only raises revenues, it is also a relatively unselective means of charging
for road use. However, there is some differentiation by fuel type and mode. Fuels that are
considered to be the most polluting are often taxed at a higher level. Fuel tax escalators
have also been applied to raise fuel tax on an annual basis regardless of need to generate
income. This differentiation and annual incrementation are both designed to influence
purchasing decisions in favor of more environmentally friendly choices. Some consumers,
e.g. bus operators, are offered rebates or tax-free purchase, constituting a subsidy. Fuel tax
income is rarely hypothecated.

provisions for buses

➢ Fares levels
Fares can be described as the monetary charge for making a trip by public transport, e.g.
the price of a rail or bus ticket. Fares can also be described as the main source of revenue
for public transport operators. When fare levels change they influence the level of demand
for public transport. In general, all other things being equal, an increase in fares will reduce
patronage, whilst a decrease in fares will increase patronage. The size and direction of the
change in demand following a change in fares can be expressed in terms of fare elasticity.
For example, if the fare elasticity of bus demand with respect to bus fares is –0.4 and all
fares were to increase by 10% we would expect patronage to decrease by 4%. The fare
elasticity is therefore a measure of the price sensitivity of bus passengers.
A wide range of factors influence the size of fare elasticity, e.g. current fare levels (the
higher the current fare the more sensitive passengers will be to fare changes), size of the
fare change (the larger the change in the fare the more sensitive passengers will be to the
fare change), service quality (passengers may be less sensitive to fare changes if the quality
of service is high) etc. Whilst these factors can be discussed in isolation it is likely that more
than one of them will exert an influence at the same time.
Fare levels tend to reflect the costs facing operators. As such fare levels will tend to differ
between modes and also within mode between different operators. Over time fare levels
will tend to rise to reflect the rise in costs facing operators, however fare levels can also
differ in the short run for the same service, for example peak and off-peak fares. This
reflects a desire of the operator to maximize his profits by introducing price segmentation
into the market place and charging what the market will bear market. Factors that affect
price elasticities include income levels, service quality, competition from other modes, age
and sex, and journey purpose, to name but a few.

5. Land use measures

Influence where homes, works place, hopes and other facilities are located
- development mix
- development density
- parking standards

Development densities and the mix

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 19

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

Development densities and the mix of those developments have a key role to play in
affecting both the level of travel and overall travel patterns. Higher densities of
development may encourage shorter journeys and, thus, the use of walking and cycling.
They may also help to make public transport more viable. In a similar manner, a better mix
of developments can improve accessibility and hence reduce the need to travel.

Encouraging public transport use through land use planning

Encouraging public transport use through land use planning involves the planning of new
land development and the management of existing land in such a way as to:
• Improve conditions for the efficient operation of public transport;
• Locate land uses close to public transport services which serve them, and
• Increase the demand for public transport, particularly by encouraging mode change
from the private car.
This is normally done by organizing the location and mix of land use types to suit public
transport use, or both. Public transport nodes, including rail stations, can serve as a catalyst
for more accessible land use by creating pedestrian-orientated centers. Households living
in such neighborhoods will tend to travel less by cars compared to households in lower
density less mixed areas. Similarly, workers in such areas are more likely to commute to
work using alternative modes and carry out lunchtime errands by foot. These factors can
lead to higher levels of public transport commuting, increased non-motorized travel for
non-commuting trips (such as shopping and trips to school), and a reduction in car travel.
In effect a ‘multiplier' effect may be in evidence since the addition of one commuter bus
mile may lead to a reduction in several car miles (i.e. not using the car at lunchtime).

In practical terms there are two specific, inter-related ways in which land use planning can
encourage the use of public transport:
1. By locating trip origins and destinations near public transport routes:
2. By ensuring trip densities are sufficiently intense to establish an efficient service.
With both, the general principle is thus to ensure that trip origins and destinations are
arranged in nodal or linear patterns which are compatible with the demand patterns
needed to ensure that public transport services, both bus and rail, are viable and efficient.
In addition major activities, employment nodes and higher density residential areas should
be encouraged near stations, significant stops and interchanges along public transport
routes.

Parking standards
Parking standards are the controls applied to private non-residential (PNR) parking
through the planning system. Parking standards are set by local authorities to specify the
minimum and maximum number of spaces permitted for particular types of new
development. The number of spaces permitted in new developments varies between land
uses and local authorities. Office developments and retail developments are the two most
common building projects requiring PNR parking.

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 20

 2024/25
2nd semester
Department of Civil Engineering

As with parking controls and pricing, parking standards are applied to meet demand and
regulate supply to influence demand. Additionally, parking spaces take up land, so reducing
parking capacity may reduce land take. There are a number of approaches to the setting of
parking standards.

6. Attitudinal and behavioral measures (Assignment #1)

(For more detail and exhaustive explanation of transport policy and strategies, please refer to
O’Flaherty 1997, Chapters 3 and 6)

References

C.A. O’Flaherty et.al, Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering, Elsevier, 1997

C. J. Khisty and B.K. Lall, Transportation Engineering: An Introduction, 3rd Edition, Prentice
Hall of India, 2006

J.D. Ortuzar & L.G. Willumsen, Modeling Transport, 3rd edition, Wiley, 2001

P.H.L Bovy, M.C.J Blemier & R. van Nes, Transportation Modeling: CT4801 Course Notes,
Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, 2006

Transport Planning and Modeling Lecture Note: Chapter 2 Page 21