Cognitive Science An Introduction to the Study of Mind 4th

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BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface xix

About the Authors xxvii

CHAPTER 1 • Introduction: Exploring Mental Space 1

CHAPTER 2 • The Philosophical Approach:

Enduring Questions 25

CHAPTER 3 • The Psychological Approach:

A Profusion of Theories 57

CHAPTER 4 • The Cognitive Approach I:

Vision, Pattern Recognition, and Attention 83

CHAPTER 5 • The Cognitive Approach II:

Memory, Imagery, Concepts, and Problem Solving 111

CHAPTER 6 • The Neuroscience Approach:

Mind as Brain 147

CHAPTER 7 • The Network Approach: Mind as a Web 189

CHAPTER 8 • The Evolutionary Approach:

Change Over Time 229

CHAPTER 9 • The Linguistic Approach: Language

and Cognitive Science 263

CHAPTER 10 • The Emotional Approach: Mind as Emotion 297

CHAPTER 11 • The Social Approach: Mind as Society 319

CHAPTER 12 • The Artificial Intelligence Approach I:

The Computer as a Cognitive Agent 355
CHAPTER 13 • The Artificial Intelligence Approach II:
Embedded Intelligence and Robotics 401

CHAPTER 14 • The Embodied Ecological Approach:

A Dynamic Future for Cognitive Science? 437

Glossary 475
References 495
Index 529
DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface xix

About the Authors xxvii

CHAPTER 1 • Introduction: Exploring Mental Space 1

A Brave New World 1
What Is Cognitive Science? 2
Representation 3
Types of Representation 5
Computation 7
The Tri-Level Hypothesis 8
Differing Views of Representation and Computation 10
The Interdisciplinary Perspective 12
The Philosophical Approach 14
´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Science and Philosophy 14
The Psychological Approach 15
The Cognitive Approach 16
The Neuroscience Approach 17
The Network Approach 18
The Evolutionary Approach 18
The Linguistic Approach 19
The Emotion Approach 19
The Social Approach 20
The Artificial Intelligence Approach 20
The Robotics Approach 21
The Embodied Ecological Approach 21
Integrating Approaches 22
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 1 22

CHAPTER 2 • The Philosophical Approach:

Enduring Questions 25
What Is Philosophy? 25
Chapter Overview 25
The Mind–Body Problem: What Is Mind? 26
 Monism 28
Evaluating the Monist Perspective 29
Dualism 30
Substance Dualism 31
Property Dualism 32
Evaluating the Dualist Perspective 32
Functionalism: Are Minds Limited to Brains? 34
Evaluating the Functionalist Perspective 36
The Knowledge Acquisition Problem: How Do
We Acquire Knowledge? 37
Evaluating the Knowledge Acquisition Debate 39
The Mystery of Consciousness: What Is Consciousness
and How Does It Operate? 41
The What-It’s-Like Argument 42
Mind as an Emergent Property 44
Evaluating the Emergent View of Mind 46
Consciousness: One or Many? 46
Consciousness and Neuroscience 49
´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Philosophy, Neuroscience,
and Binocular Rivalry 51
Consciousness and Artificial Intelligence 53
Overall Evaluation of the Philosophical Approach 55
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 2 56

CHAPTER 3 • The Psychological Approach:

A Profusion of Theories 57
What Is Psychology? 57
Psychology and the Scientific Method 58
Intelligence Tests 61
Mental Atoms, Mental Molecules, and a Periodic Table of the Mind:
The Voluntarist Movement 62
Evaluating the Voluntarist Approach 64
Structuralism: What the Mind Is 65
Evaluating the Structuralist Approach 66
Functionalism: What the Mind Does 66
Evaluating the Functionalist Approach 68
The Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts:
Mental Physics and the Gestalt Movement 69
´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Gestalt Phenomenology,
Experimental Psychology, and Perceptual Grouping 71
Evaluating the Gestalt Approach 74
Mini Minds: Mechanism and Psychoanalytic Psychology 75
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Approach 77
 Mind as a Black Box: The Behaviorist Approach 78
Evaluating the Behaviorist Approach 80
Overall Evaluation of the Psychological Approach 81
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 3 81

CHAPTER 4 • The Cognitive Approach I:

Vision, Pattern Recognition, and Attention 83
Some History First: The Rise of Cognitive Psychology 83
The Cognitive Approach: Mind as an Information Processor 84
Modularity of Mind 85
Evaluating the Modular Approach 85
Theories of Vision and Pattern Recognition: How Do
We Recognize Objects? 86
Template Matching Theory 87
Evaluating Template Matching Theory 87
Feature Detection Theory 88
Evaluating Feature Detection Theory 90
Recognition by Components Theory 91
Evaluating Recognition by Components Theory 93
´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Computational Vision
and Pattern Recognition 94
Evaluating Marr’s Computational Approach to Vision 96
Feature Integration Theory 96
Evaluating Feature Integration Theory 100
Theories of Attention: How Do We Pay Attention? 100
Broadbent’s Filter Model 101
Evaluating the Filter Model 103
Treisman’s Attenuation Model 103
The Deutsch–Norman Memory Selection Model 103
The Multimode Model of Attention 104
Kahneman’s Capacity Model of Attention 105
Evaluating the Capacity Model of Attention 107
Evaluating the Model-Building Approach 107
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 4 108

CHAPTER 5 • The Cognitive Approach II:

Memory, Imagery, Concepts, and Problem Solving 111
Types of Memory: How Do We Remember? 111
Sensory Memory 112
Working Memory 114
Scanning Items in Working Memory 117
Long-Term Memory 118
Memory Models 121
 The Modal Model 121
Evaluating the Modal Model 122
The Working Memory Model 123
Evaluating the Working Memory Model 125
Visual Imagery: How Do We Imagine? 125
The Kosslyn and Schwartz Theory of Visual Imagery 126
Image Structures 126
Image Processes 127
Evaluating the Kosslyn and Schwartz Theory 129
Concepts: How Do We Represent Our Knowledge of Concepts? 132
Problem Solving: How Do We Solve Problems? 136
The General Problem Solver Model 139
Evaluating the General Problem Solver Model 140
´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Artificial Intelligence,
Problem Solving, and the SOAR Model 141
Evaluating the SOAR Model 143
Overall Evaluation of the Cognitive Approach 144
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 5 144

CHAPTER 6 • The Neuroscience Approach:

Mind as Brain 147
The Neuroscience Perspective 147
Methodology in Neuroscience 148
Techniques for the Study of Brain Damage 148
Evaluating Techniques for the Study of Brain Damage 148
Brain Recording Methods 149
Positron Emission Tomography 150
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 150
Magnetoencephalography 151
Knife-Edge Scanning Microscope 152
Brain Stimulation Techniques 152
Electrode Stimulation 152
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 152
Optogenetics 153
The Small Picture: Neuron Anatomy and Physiology 153
The Big Picture: Brain Anatomy 156
Directions in the Nervous System 157
The Cortex 157
The Split Brain 159
The Neuroscience of Visual Object Recognition 160
Visual Agnosias 161
Apperceptive Agnosia 162
Associative Agnosia 163
Face Perception 165
 ´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Perceptual Binding
and Neural Synchrony 167
The Neuroscience of Attention 168
Neural Models of Attention 170
A Component Process Model 170
Distributed Network Models 172
Disorders of Attention 173
Hemispatial Neglect 173
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 174
The Neuroscience of Memory 175
Learning and Memory 175
The Hippocampal System 176
Neural Substrates of Working Memory 178
Evaluating the Neuroscience of Working Memory 180
Neural Substrates of Long-Term Memories 180
The Neuroscience of Executive Function and Problem Solving 181
Theories of Executive Function 183
Overall Evaluation of the Neuroscience Approach 186
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 6 186

CHAPTER 7 • The Network Approach: Mind as a Web 189

The Network Perspective 189
Artificial Neural Networks 190
Characteristics of Artificial Neural Networks 193
Early Conceptions of Neural Networks 194
Backpropagation 195
NETtalk: An Example of a Backpropagation
Artificial Neural Network 197
The Elman Net: An Example of a Simple Recurrent Network 199
Evaluating the Connectionist Approach 200
Advantages 200
Problems and Disadvantages 201
Semantic Networks: Meaning in the Web 203
Characteristics of Semantic Networks 203
A Hierarchical Semantic Network 205
Evaluating the Hierarchical Semantic Network Model 207
Evaluating Semantic Networks 208
Network Science 211
Centrality 212
Hierarchical Networks and the Brain 212
Small-World Networks: It’s a Small World After All 213
Ordered and Random Connections 215
Egalitarians and Aristocrats 217
 Neuroscience and Networks 217
Small-World Networks and Synchrony 219
Percolation 220
Percolation and Psychology 220
The Future of Network Science 222
Overall Evaluation of the Network Approach 222
´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Emotions and Networks 223
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 7 226

CHAPTER 8 • The Evolutionary Approach:

Change Over Time 229
The Evolutionary View 229
A Little Background: Natural Selection and Genetics 230
Comparative Cognition 232
Cognitive Adaptation in Animals 233
´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Evolutionary
Processes and Artificial Life 235
Comparative Neuroscience 237
Evaluating the Comparative Approach 240
Evolutionary Psychology 241
Evolved Psychological Mechanisms 242
Evolution and Cognitive Processes 244
Categorization 244
Memory 245
Logical Reasoning 247
Judgment Under Uncertainty 249
Language 252
Behavioral Economics: How We Think About Profit and Loss 253
Sex Differences in Cognition 255
Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology 258
Overall Evaluation of the Evolutionary Approach 261
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 8 261

CHAPTER 9 • The Linguistic Approach:

Language and Cognitive Science 263
The Linguistic Approach: The Importance of Language 263
The Nature of Language 264
Language Processing 265
Phonology 265
Morphology 268
Word Recognition 269
Syntax 270
Semantics 274
Pragmatics 276
 Language Acquisition 277
Domain-General and Domain-Specific Mechanisms
in Language Acquisition 279
Evaluating Language Acquisition 281
Language Deprivation 282
Evaluating Language Deprivation 284
´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Language, Philosophy,
and the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis 285
Evaluating the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis 286
Language Use in Nonhuman Animals 286
Evaluating Language Use in Nonhuman Animals 288
Neuroscience and Linguistics: The Wernicke–Geschwind Model 289
Evaluating the Wernicke–Geschwind Model 292
Artificial Intelligence and Linguistics: Natural Language Processing 293
Computer Language Programs and IBM’s Watson 293
Evaluation of Natural Language Processing 294
Overall Evaluation of the Linguistic Approach 294
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 9 295

CHAPTER 10 • The Emotional Approach: Mind as Emotion 297

Emotion and Cognitive Science 297
What Is Emotion? 297
Theories of Emotion 298
Basic Emotions 299
Emotions, Evolution, and Psychological Disorders 300
Disgust 302
Fear 302
Anger 302
Sadness 303
Happiness 303
Emotions and Neuroscience 304
The Chemical and Electrical Basis of Emotional Computation 305
Hot and Cold: Emotion–Cognition Interactions 306
Emotion and Perception/Attention 307
Emotion and Memory 308
Emotion, Mood, and Memory 309
Emotion and Decision Making 310
Emotions and Reasoning by Analogy 311
Emotions and Artificial Intelligence: Affective Computing 312
´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Emotion, Robotics,
and the Kismet Project 314
Overall Evaluation of the Emotional Approach 317
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 10 317
CHAPTER 11 • The Social Approach: Mind as Society 319
Social Cognition 319
Social Cognitive Neuroscience 321
Topics in Social Cognitive Neuroscience 322
Evolution 322
Attention 323
Mirror Neurons 325
Social Cognition as the Brain’s Default State 327
Is Social Cognitive Neuroscience Special? 328
Advantages of the Social Cognitive Neuroscience Approach 329
Theory of Mind 329
ToM and Neuroscience 330
Autism 332
Autism and ToM 333
Other Social Cognitive Disorders 334
Attitudes 334
Cognitive Dissonance 336
Attitudes and Cognitive Processes 337
Perception 337
Attention 338
Interpretation 338
Learning 338
Memory 338
Attitudes and Neuroscience 339
Impressions 340
The Dual-Process Model of Impression Formation 340
Attribution 341
Attribution Biases 342
Attribution and Cognitive Processes 342
Attribution and Neuroscience 343
´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Game Theory
and the Prisoner’s Dilemma 345
Stereotypes 347
Stereotypes and Cognitive Processes 347
Ingroups and Outgroups 348
Automatic Stereotyping 348
Stereotyping and Neuroscience 349
Prejudice 350
The Stereotype Content Model of Prejudice 350
Overall Evaluation of the Social Approach 351
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 11 352
CHAPTER 12 • The Artificial Intelligence Approach I:
The Computer as a Cognitive Entity 355
Cognitive Science and Artificial Intelligence 355
Defining AI 358
Practical AI 360
Introduction 361
AI Implementation (“Hardware”) 363
Information and Intelligent Agents 366
Logic, Classical and Fuzzy 367
Reasoning Modalities 367
The Legacies of Turing and Zadeh 368
Turing’s State Variable Approach 368
Fuzzy Problem Solving 371
Intelligent Agents That Think, Learn, and Make Decisions 372
Fundamental Concepts of the IA 373
Basic Models 375
Machine Learning and the Data Sciences 377
The Trial-and-Error Learning Method 377
A Simple Algorithmic Method (Regression Line Algorithm) 378
Data Clustering 378
Reconsideration of Data Sources 380
Deep Learning (DL) 382
DL Software 383
Learning Experiences 384
Artificial General Intelligence 386
AGI Problems 388
Reverse Engineering the Brain 389
Methodologies 390
The “Organic Brain” and Wetware 392
Assessment of AI and AGI 395
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 12 400

CHAPTER 13 • The Artificial Intelligence Approach II:

Embedded Intelligence and Robotics 401
Mechanical Beginnings 403
Embodied Cognitive Science 403
The Design of Intelligent Robots as “Biologically Inspired” 403
The Importance of Biology 404
Robotic Embodied Intelligence 405
Defining and Describing a Robot 405
 The Intelligent Agent Paradigm 407
Properties of an Autonomous Entity 408
Environments of Intelligent Agents 409
A Simple yet “Sophisticated” Robot 410
Evolutionary Embodiments: The Merger of Human
Cognitive Behavior, Biology, and Intelligent Agents 411
Challenges to DL and Its Algorithms 412
Emerging Tools 413
Evolutionary Learning Algorithms and Intelligent Agents 414
Evolutionary Computation 415
The Evolutionary Mutation Process 416
Robotic EA Examples 418
Robotic Embodiments 419
Robotic Realizations 421
Cooperating Intelligent Agents and Swarming 427
Swarming Robotics 427
Particle Robots: An Emerging Technology 428
Embedded Intelligence as an Emotion Machine 430
Machine–Human Interactions 431
Brain Waves 432
The Plasticity of the Human Brain 433
Machines Can Teach Humans 433
Overall Evaluation of Embedded Intelligence 434
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 13 436

CHAPTER 14 • The Embodied Ecological Approach:

A Dynamic Future for Cognitive Science? 437
Embodied and Extended Cognition 437
Perceptual Symbol Systems and Motor Affordances 438
Perceptual Simulations 442
Evaluating Embodied Cognition 445
Dynamical Systems Theory 446
Nonlinearity 446
Predictability 447
State Space and Trajectories 448
Attractors 450
Dynamical Representation 451
´ INTERDISCIPLINARY CROSSROADS: Multiple Approaches to
Levels of Explanation in Cognitive Science 452
Dynamical Versus Classical Cognitive Science 454
The Continuity of Mind 454
Modularity Versus Distribularity 455
Component-Dominant Versus Interaction-Dominant Dynamics 455
 Internalism Versus Externalism 456
Amodal Versus Modal Representations 457
Feed-Forward Versus Recurrent Pathways 457
Evaluating the Dynamical Perspective 458
Ecological and Extended Cognition 459
Ecological Perception 459
Sensorimotor Interaction 462
Extended Cognition 464
Evaluating Ecological and Extended Cognition 466
Integrating Cognitive Science 467
Integration Across Disciplines 467
Integration Across Levels of Description 468
Integration Across Methodologies 469
Integration Across Cultural Differences 469
The Benefits of Cognitive Science 471
The Future 472
Summing Up: A Review of Chapter 14 472

Glossary 475
References 495
Index 529
PREFACE

O ne of the most challenging mysteries remaining to science is the human mind.

The brain, which serves as the core engine of the mind, is the most complex object
in the universe. It is made up of billions of cells sending signals back and forth to each
other over trillions of connections. How can we make sense of all this? Recent years have
seen great strides in our understanding, and this has been due in part to developments
in technology. In this book, we provide an up-to-date introduction to the study of the
mind, examining it from an interdisciplinary perspective. We attempt to understand the
mind from the perspective of different fields. Among these are philosophy, psychology,
neuroscience, networks, evolution, emotional and social cognition, linguistics, artificial
intelligence, robotics, and the new framework of embodied cognition. Beyond this, we
make attempts to bridge some of these fields, showing what research at the intersection
of these disciplines is like. Each chapter in this text is devoted to a particular disciplinary
approach and examines the methodologies, theories, and empirical findings unique to
each. Come with us as we explore the next great frontier—our inner world.

WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION

For this fourth edition, new content has been added throughout. In Chapter 1 (Intro-
duction), the treatment of formal logic and production systems has been more richly
elaborated with concrete examples. Also, a summary of the new Embodied Ecological
Approach in Chapter 14 has been included. In Chapter 2 (The Philosophical Approach),
a more in-depth exploration of syllogistic reasoning has been added, along with a
more detailed discussion of reductionism and how it contrasts with emergence. Also,
the discussion of Searle’s Chinese room thought experiment has been expanded. In
Chapter 3 (The Psychological Approach), a discussion of intelligence tests has been
added. In Chapter 4 (The Cognitive Approach I), the description of Anne Treisman’s
feature integration theory of visual attention was expanded, along with some discus-
sion of Desimone and Duncan’s biased competition account. In Chapter 5 (The Cogni-
tive Approach II), a section on conceptual representation has been added. In Chapter 6
(The Neuroscience Approach), the descriptions of various brain-recording methods
have been expanded, and discussions of the somatosensory homunculus and of sparse
distributed coding were added. In Chapter 7 (The Network Approach), treatments of
Elman’s simple recurrent network and McClelland and Rogers’s connectionist model
of category knowledge have been added, along with an expanded discussion of pattern
completion. In Chapter 8 (The Evolutionary Approach), a discussion of foraging skills in
animals has been included, and the treatment of gender differences in spatial abilities has

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