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SI-342(ENTERPRISE SYSTEM)
.NET Framework in Enterprise Systems:
The .NET Framework is like a toolbox for building software applications. It provides a set of
tools and libraries that developers use to create various types of applications, from web
services to desktop programs.

In enterprise systems, which are large-scale software applications used by businesses or

organizations, the .NET Framework plays a crucial role. Here’s why it’s important:

1. Consistency and Compatibility: It ensures that different parts of a large system can
work together smoothly. Developers can write code in different programming languages
(like C#, VB.NET, etc.) that all run on the .NET Framework.
2. Security: The framework includes security features that help protect sensitive data and
prevent unauthorized access.
3. Performance: It optimizes how applications run, making them faster and more efficient,
which is critical for handling large amounts of data and many users simultaneously.
4. Integration: It allows enterprise systems to integrate with other software and systems,
like databases or external services, making it easier to manage and share information. 5.
Scalability: Enterprise systems often need to grow as businesses grow. The .NET
Framework supports scalability, meaning it can handle increased workloads and users
without major changes to the underlying codebase.

Working of .NET Framework:

1. Common Language Runtime (CLR):

o The CLR is the heart of the .NET Framework. It's like a virtual machine that
manages the execution of .NET programs. o When a .NET application is run, the
CLR compiles the intermediate language (IL) code into native code that the
computer's processor can understand. This process is called Just-In-Time (JIT)
compilation.
o The CLR also handles memory management, exception handling, and security
enforcement.
2. Base Class Library (BCL):
o The BCL provides a rich set of functionalities that developers can use to build
applications.
o It includes classes for common tasks like file I/O, networking, database access,
cryptography, and more. o This library saves developers from reinventing the
wheel and ensures consistency across different applications.
3. Language Independence:
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o One of the key strengths of the .NET Framework is its support for multiple
programming languages. o Developers can write code in languages such as
C#, Visual Basic .NET (VB.NET), F#, and more.
o These languages all compile into the same intermediate language (IL) that runs
on the CLR, allowing components written in different languages to work
together seamlessly.

Components of .NET Framework

There are following components of .NET Framework:

1. CLR (Common Language Runtime)

2. CTS (Common Type System)
3. BCL (Base Class Library)

4. CLS (Common Language Specification)

5. FCL (Framework Class Library)

6. .NET Assemblies

7. XML Web Services

8. Window Services

CLR (common language runtime)

It is an important part of a .NET framework that works like a virtual component of the
.NET Framework to execute the different languages program like c#, Visual Basic, etc. A
CLR also helps to convert a source code into the byte code, and this byte code is known
as CIL (Common Intermediate Language) or MSIL (Microsoft Intermediate Language).
After converting into a byte code, a CLR uses a JIT compiler at run time that helps to
convert a CIL or MSIL code into the machine or native code.

CTS (Common Type System)

It specifies a standard that represent what type of data and value can be defined and
managed in computer memory at runtime. A CTS ensures that programming data defined
in various languages should be interact with each other to share information. For example,
in C# we define data type as int, while in VB.NET we define integer as a data type.

BCL (Base Class Library)

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The base class library has a rich collection of libraries features and functions that help to
implement many programming languages in the .NET Framework, such as C #, F #, Visual
C ++, and more. Furthermore, BCL divides into two parts:

1. User defined class library o Assemblies - It is the collection of small parts of

deployment an application's part. It contains either the DLL (Dynamic Link Library)
or exe (Executable) file.
1. In LL, it uses code reusability, whereas in exe it contains only output
file/ or application.
2. DLL file can't be open, whereas exe file can be open.
3. DLL file can't be run individually, whereas in exe, it can run
individually.
4. In DLL file, there is no main method, whereas exe file has main
method.
2. Predefined class library o Namespace - It is the collection of predefined class and
method that present in .Net. In other languages such as, C we used header files, in
java we used package similarly we used "using system" in .NET, where using is a
keyword and system is a namespace.

CLS (Common language Specification)

It is a subset of common type system (CTS) that defines a set of rules and regulations
which should be followed by every language that comes under the .net framework. In
other words, a CLS language should be cross-language integration or interoperability. For
example, in C# and VB.NET language, the C# language terminate each statement with
semicolon, whereas in VB.NET it is not end with semicolon, and when these statements
execute in .NET Framework, it provides a common platform to interact and share
information with each other.

Microsoft .NET Assemblies

A .NET assembly is the main building block of the .NET Framework. It is a small unit of
code that contains a logical compiled code in the Common Language infrastructure (CLI),
which is used for deployment, security and versioning. It defines in two parts (process)
DLL and library (exe) assemblies. When the .NET program is compiled, it generates a
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metadata with Microsoft Intermediate Language, which is stored in a file called Assembly.
FCL (Framework Class Library)
It provides the various system functionality in the .NET Framework that includes classes,
interfaces and data types, etc. to create multiple functions and different types of
application such as desktop, web, mobile application, etc. In other words, it can be defined
as, it provides a base on which various applications, controls and components are built in
.NET Framework.

Key Components of FCL

1. Object type

2. Implementation of data structure

3. Base data types

4. Garbage collection

5. Security and database connectivity

6. Creating common platform for window and web-based application

Characteristics of .NET Framework

1. CLR (Common Language Runtime)

2. Namespace - Predefined class and function

3. Metadata and Assemblies
4. Application domains
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5. It helps to configure and deploy the .net application

6. It provides form and web-based services

7. NET and ASP.NET AJAX

8. LINQ

9. Security and Portability

10. Interoperability

11. It provides multiple environments for developing an application

.Net Framework Architecture

.Net Framework Architecture is a programming model for the .Net platform that provides an
execution environment and integration with various programming languages for simple
development and deployment of various Windows and desktop applications. It consists of class
libraries and reusable components.

The basic architecture of the .Net framework is as shown below.

.Net Framework Architecture

Diagram

.NET Components
The architecture of .Net framework is based on the following key components;

1. Common Language Runtime

The “Common Language Infrastructure” or CLI is a platform in .Net architecture on which the
.Net programs are executed.
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The CLI has the following key features:

Exception Handling – Exceptions are errors which occur when the application is executed.

Examples of exceptions are:

• If an application tries to open a file on the local machine, but the file is not present.
• If the application tries to fetch some records from a database, but the connection to the
database is not valid.

Garbage Collection – Garbage collection is the process of removing unwanted resources when
they are no longer required.

Examples of garbage collection are

• A File handle which is no longer required. If the application has finished all operations
on a file, then the file handle may no longer be required.
• The database connection is no longer required. If the application has finished all
operations on a database, then the database connection may no longer be required.

Working with Various programming languages –

As noted in an earlier section, a developer can develop an application in a variety of .Net

programming languages.

1. Language – The first level is the programming language itself, the most common ones
are VB.Net and C#.
2. Compiler – There is a compiler which will be separate for each programming language.
So underlying the VB.Net language, there will be a separate VB.Net compiler. Similarly,
for C#, you will have another compiler.
3. Common Language Interpreter – This is the final layer in .Net which would be used to
run a .net program developed in any programming language. So the subsequent
compiler will send the program to the CLI layer to run the .Net application.
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2.Class Library
The .NET Framework includes a set of standard class libraries. A class library is a collection of
methods and functions that can be used for the core purpose.

For example, there is a class library with methods to handle all file-level operations. So there is
a method which can be used to read the text from a file. Similarly, there is a method to write
text to a file.

Most of the methods are split into either the System.* or Microsoft.* namespaces. (The asterisk
* just means a reference to all of the methods that fall under the System or Microsoft
namespace)

A namespace is a logical separation of methods. We will learn these namespaces more in detail
in the subsequent chapters.

3. Languages
The types of applications that can be built in the .Net framework is classified broadly into the
following categories.

WinForms – This is used for developing Forms-based applications, which would run on an end
user machine. Notepad is an example of a client-based application.

ASP.Net – This is used for developing web-based applications, which are made to run on any
browser such as Internet Explorer, Chrome or Firefox.

• The Web application would be processed on a server, which would have Internet
Information Services Installed.
• Internet Information Services or IIS is a Microsoft component which is used to execute
an Asp.Net application.

• The result of the execution is then sent to the client machines, and the output is shown
in the browser.

ADO.Net – This technology is used to develop applications to interact with Databases such as
Oracle or Microsoft SQL Server.

Microsoft always ensures that .Net frameworks are in compliance with all the supported
Windows operating systems.
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.NET Common Language Runtime (CLR)

.NET CLR is a runtime environment that manages and executes the code written in any
.NET programming language. CLR is the virtual machine component of the .NET
framework. That language's compiler compiles the source code of applications developed
using .NET compliant languages into CLR's intermediate language called MSIL, i.e.,
Microsoft intermediate language code. This code is platform-independent. It is
comparable to byte code in java. Metadata is also generated during compilation and MSIL
code and stored in a file known as the Manifest file. This metadata is generally about
members and types required by CLR to execute MSIL code. A just-in-time compiler
component of CLR converts MSIL code into native code of the machine. This code is
platform-dependent. CLR manages memory, threads, exceptions, code execution, code
safety, verification, and compilation.

The following figure shows the conversion of source code into native code.

The above figure converts code into native code, which the CPU can execute.

The main components of CLR are:

o Common type system o

Common language
speciation o Garbage
Collector o Just in Time
Compiler

o Metadata and Assemblies

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1. Common type system:

CTS provides guidelines for declaring, using, and managing data types at runtime. It offers
cross-language communication. For example, VB.NET has an integer data type, and C#
has an int data type for managing integers. After compilation, Int32 is used by both data
types. So, CTS provides the data types using managed code. A common type system helps
in writing language-independent code.

It provides two categories of Types.

1. Value Type: A value type stores the data in memory allocated on the stack or
inline in a structure. This category of Type holds the data directory. If one
variable's value is copied to another, both the variables store data
independently. It can be of inbuilt-in types, user-defined, or enumerations
types. Built-in types are primitive data types like numeric, Boolean, char, and
date. Users in the source code create user-defined types. An enumeration refers
to a set of enumerated values
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represented by labels but stored as a numeric type.

2. Reference Type: A Reference type stores a reference to the value of a memory

address and is allocated on the heap. Heap memory is used for dynamic memory
allocation. Reference Type does not hold actual data directly but holds the address
of data. Whenever a reference type object is made, it copies the address and not
actual data. Therefore two variables will refer to the same data. If data of one
Reference Type object is changed, the same is reflected for the other object.
Reference types can be self-describing types, pointer types, or interference types.
The self-describing types may be string, array, and class types that store metadata
about themselves.

2. Common Language Specification (CLS):

Common Language Specification (CLS) contains a set of rules to be followed by all
NETsupported languages. The common rules make it easy to implement language
integration and help in cross-language inheritance and debugging. Each language
supported by NET Framework has its own syntax rules. But CLS ensures interoperability
among applications developed using NET languages.

3. Garbage Collection:
Garbage Collector is a component of CLR that works as an automatic memory manager.
It helps manage memory by automatically allocating memory according to the
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requirement. It allocates heap memory to objects. When objects are not in use, it reclaims
the memory allocated to them for future use. It also ensures the safety of objects by not
allowing one object to use the content of another object.

4. Just in Time (JIT) Compiler:

JIT Compiler is an important component of CLR. It converts the MSIL code into native code
(i.e., machine-specific code). The .NET program is compiled either explicitly or implicitly.
The developer or programmer calls a particular compiler to compile the program in the
explicit compilation. In implicit compilation, the program is compiled twice. The source
code is compiled into Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL) during the first compilation
process. The MSIL code is converted into native code in the second compilation process.
This process is called JIT compilation. There are three types of JIT compilers -Pre, Econo,
and Normal. Pre JIT Compiler compiles entire MSIL code into native code before
execution. Econo JIT Compiler compiles only those parts of MSIL code required during
execution and removes those parts that are not required anymore. Normal JIT Compiler
also compiles only those parts of MSIL code required during execution but places them
in cache for future use. It does not require recompilations of already used parts as they
have been placed in cache memory.

5. Metadata:
A Metadata is a binary information about the program, either stored in a CLR Portable
Executable file (PE) along with MSIL code or in the memory. During the execution of MSIL,
metadata is also loaded into memory for proper interpretation of classes and related.
Information used in code. So, metadata helps implement code in a language-neutral
manner or achieve language interoperability.

6. Assemblies:
An assembly is a fundamental unit of physical code grouping. It consists of the assembly
manifest, metadata, MSIL code, and a set of resources like image files. It is also considered
a basic deployment unit, version control, reuse, security permissions, etc.

.NET CLR Functions

Following are the functions of the CLR.

o It converts the program into native code.

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o Handles Exceptions
o Provides type-safety o Memory management

o Provides security o Improved performance o Language independent o

Platform independent o Garbage collection o Provides language features such

as inheritance, interfaces, and overloading for objectoriented programs.

The code that runs with CLR is called managed code, whereas the code outside the CLR is
called unmanaged code. The CLR also provides an Interoperability layer, which allows both
the managed and unmanaged codes to interoperate.

1. Managed code:
Any language that is written in the .NET framework is managed code. Managed code use
CLR, which looks after your applications by managing memory, handling security, allowing
cross-language debugging, etc. The process of managed code is shown in the figure:

2. Unmanaged code:
The code developed outside the .NET framework is known as unmanaged code.
Applications that do not run under the control of the CLR are said to be unmanaged.
Certain languages such as C++ can be used to write such applications, such as low-level
access functions of the operating system. Background compatibility with VB, ASP, and
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COM are examples of unmanaged code. This code is executed with the help of wrapper
classes. The unmanaged code process is shown below:

..NET CLR Structure

Following is the component structure of Common Language Runtime.
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Base Class Library Support

It is a class library that supports classes for the .NET application.

Thread Support

It manages the parallel execution of the multi-threaded application.

COM Marshaler

It provides communication between the COM objects and the application.

Security Engine

It enforces security restrictions.

Debug Engine

It allows you to debug different kinds of applications.

Type Checker

It checks the types used in the application and verifies that they match the standards
provided by the CLR.

Code Manager

It manages code at execution runtime.

Garbage Collector

It releases the unused memory and allocates it to a new application.

Exception Handler

It handles the exception at runtime to avoid application failure.

ClassLoader

It is used to load all classes at run time.

What is CTS (Common Type System)?

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1. Definition: CTS is a standard that specifies how types are declared, used, and managed in the
runtime environment of the .NET Framework.
2. Purpose:
o Interoperability: Ensures that types defined in different .NET languages can
interact seamlessly. For example, a class written in C# can inherit from a class
written in VB.NET without issues.
o Integration: Facilitates integration between different parts of the .NET
Framework, such as the CLR (Common Language Runtime) and the Base Class
Library (BCL).
o Language Neutrality: Supports multiple programming languages (C#, VB.NET, F#,
etc.) by providing a common set of rules and guidelines for type definitions.
3. Key Features:
o Data Types: Defines common data types such as integers, strings, arrays, and
user-defined types (classes, structures, interfaces).
o Type Safety: Ensures that types are used correctly and prevents common
programming errors related to type mismatches.
o Member Accessibility: Specifies rules for accessibility modifiers (public, private,
protected) and member visibility across different languages. o Method
Signatures: Defines rules for method parameters, return types, and exception
handling.
4. Components:

o Value Types vs. Reference Types: CTS distinguishes between value types (stored
directly in memory) and reference types (stored in the heap with a reference to
their location).
o Metadata: Each type defined in .NET includes metadata that describes its
structure and behavior. This metadata is used by the CLR for type checking,
memory management, and runtime behavior.
5. Example:

// Example of a class in C#
public class Person
{
public string Name { get; set; }
public int Age { get; set; }

public void Greet()

{
Console.WriteLine($"Hello, my name is {Name} and I am {Age} years old.");
}}

In this example:
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o Person is a class defined in C#.

o It has properties (Name and Age) and a method (Greet).
o The CTS ensures that this class can be used across different .NET languages with
consistent behavior and interoperability.

MSIL:
MSIL (Microsoft Intermediate Language), also known as IL (Intermediate Language), is a key
concept within the .NET Framework architecture. Here’s an explanation of what MSIL is and its
role in the .NET development process:

What is MSIL (Microsoft Intermediate Language)?

1. Definition:
o MSIL is a low-level, platform-independent intermediate language used by the
.NET Framework.
o When you write code in languages like C#, VB.NET, or F#, it is compiled into
MSIL.
2. Purpose:
o Intermediate Representation: MSIL serves as an intermediate representation of
your source code.
o Execution Environment: It is not directly executable by the CPU but is designed
to be executed by the Common Language Runtime (CLR).
o Portability: MSIL allows .NET applications to be platform-independent. It can run
on any system that has a compatible CLR implementation.
3. Characteristics:
o Human-Readable: While not intended for direct human modification, MSIL is
readable and understandable compared to machine code. o Verifiability: MSIL
code undergoes verification by the CLR before execution, ensuring type safety
and security. o Optimization: MSIL code can be optimized by the CLR during
JIT (Just-In-Time) compilation for improved runtime performance.
4. Example:

Consider a simple C# method like this:

public int Add(int a, int b)

{
return a + b;
}
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When compiled, this C# code is converted into MSIL, which might look something like
this:

.method public hidebysig instance int32 Add(int32 a, int32 b) cil managed

{
// Method implementation in MSIL
.maxstack 2
ldarg.1
ldarg.2 add
ret }

Here’s a brief explanation of the MSIL code:

o ldarg.1 and ldarg.2 load the arguments a and b onto the evaluation stack. o
add adds the top two values on the stack.
o ret returns the result from the method.

This MSIL code represents the intermediate form of the Add method and is what the
CLR executes during runtime.

5. Execution:
o When a .NET application is executed:

 The source code is compiled into MSIL.

 The CLR converts MSIL into native machine code (JIT compilation) specific
to the executing platform.
 The native code is executed by the CPU.

Introduction to C#:
What is C#?
C# is a programming language created by Microsoft. It's used to write software for computers,
websites, and mobile devices. C# is known for being easy to read and learn. It helps developers
build all sorts of programs, from simple tools to complex apps.

What Can You Do with C#?

• Desktop Apps: Make programs that run on Windows computers, like games or business
tools.
• Web Apps: Create websites and web services that can handle lots of users.
• Mobile Apps: Build apps for smartphones and tablets that work on different platforms.
• Games: Develop video games using popular game engines like Unity.
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• Cloud Services: Write software that runs on the internet, using services like Microsoft
Azure.

Example of C# Code:
Here’s a basic example of a C# program that prints a message:

using System;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
Console.WriteLine("Hello, World!");
}}

Why Use C#?

C# is popular because it’s flexible, reliable, and supported by Microsoft. It’s used
by developers worldwide to create software that’s efficient, secure, and works well
across different devices and platforms.
Java vs C#
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C# Features
C# is object oriented programming language. It provides a lot of features that are given
below.

1. Simple

2. Modern programming language

3. Object oriented

4. Type safe
5. Interoperability
6. Scalable and Updateable
7. Component oriented

8. Structured programming language

9. Rich Library
10. Fast speed
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1) Simple

C# is a simple language in the sense that it provides structured approach (to break the
problem into parts), rich set of library functions, data types etc.

2) Modern Programming Language

C# programming is based upon the current trend and it is very powerful and simple for
building scalable, interoperable and robust applications.

3) Object Oriented

C# is object oriented programming language. OOPs makes development and maintenance

easier where as in Procedure-oriented programming language it is not easy to manage if
code grows as project size grow.

4) Type Safe

C# type safe code can only access the memory location that it has permission to execute.
Therefore it improves a security of the program.

5) Interoperability

Interoperability process enables the C# programs to do almost anything that a native C++
application can do.

6) Scalable and Updateable

C# is automatic scalable and updateable programming language. For updating our

application we delete the old files and update them with new ones.

7) Component Oriented

C# is component oriented programming language. It is the predominant software

development methodology used to develop more robust and highly scalable applications.

8) Structured Programming Language

C# is a structured programming language in the sense that we can break the program
into parts using functions. So, it is easy to understand and modify.

9) Rich Library
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C# provides a lot of inbuilt functions that makes the development fast.

10) Fast Speed

The compilation and execution time of C# language is fast.

C# Example: Hello World

In C# programming language, a simple "hello world" program can be written by multiple
ways. Let's see the top 4 ways to create a simple C# example:

o Simple Example o
Using System o Using
public modifier o Using
namespace

C# Simple Example
1. class Program
2. {
3. static void Main(string[] args)
4. {
5. System.Console.WriteLine("Hello World!");
6. }
7. }

Output:
Hello World!

Description

class: is a keyword which is used to define class.

Program: is the class name. A class is a blueprint or template from which objects are
created. It can have data members and methods. Here, it has only Main method.

static: is a keyword which means object is not required to access static members. So it
saves memory.
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void: is the return type of the method. It does't return any value. In such case, return
statement is not required.

Main: is the method name. It is the entry point for any C# program. Whenever we run the
C# program, Main() method is invoked first before any other method. It represents start
up of the program.

string[] args: is used for command line arguments in C#. While running the C# program,
we can pass values. These values are known as arguments which we can use in the
program.

System.Console.WriteLine("Hello World!"): Here, System is the namespace. Console is

the class defined in System namespace. The WriteLine() is the static method of Console
class which is used to write the text on the console.

C# Example: Using System

If we write using System before the class, it means we don't need to specify System
namespace for accessing any class of this namespace. Here, we are using Console class
without specifying System.Console.

1. using System;
2. class Program
3. {
4. static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. Console.WriteLine("Hello World!");
7. }
8. }

Output:
Hello World!
C# Example: Using public modifier

We can also specify public modifier before class and Main() method. Now, it can be
accessed from outside the class also.

1. using System;
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2. public class Program

3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. Console.WriteLine("Hello World!");
7. }
8. }

Output:

Hello World!
C# Example: Using namespace

We can create classes inside the namespace. It is used to group related classes. It is used
to categorize classes so that it can be easy to maintain.

1. using System;
2. namespace ConsoleApplication1
3. {
4. public class Program
5. {
6. public static void Main(string[] args)
7. {
8. Console.WriteLine("Hello World!");
9. }
10. }
11. }

Output:
Hello World!
C# Variable

A variable is a name of memory location. It is used to store data. Its value can be changed
and it can be reused many times.
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It is a way to represent memory location through symbol so that it can be easily identified.

Let's see the syntax to declare a variable:

1. type variable_list;

The example of declaring variable is given below:

1. int i, j;
2. double d;
3. float f;
4. char ch;
Rules for defining variables

 A variable can have alphabets, digits and underscore.

 A variable name can start with alphabet and underscore only. It can't start with
digit.
 No white space is allowed within variable name.
 A variable name must not be any reserved word or keyword e.g. char, float etc.

C# Data Types
A data type specifies the type of data that a variable can store such as integer, floating,

Types Data Types

Value Data Type short, int, char, float, double etc

Reference Data Type String, Class, Object and Interface

Pointer Data Type Pointers

character etc.
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There are 3 types of data types in C# language.

Value Data Type

The value data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C# language supports
both signed and unsigned literals.

There are 2 types of value data type in C# language.

1) Predefined Data Types - such as Integer, Boolean, Float, etc.

2) User defined Data Types - such as Structure, Enumerations, etc.

Reference Data Type

The reference data types do not contain the actual data stored in a variable, but they
contain a reference to the variables.

If the data is changed by one of the variables, the other variable automatically reflects this
change in value.

There are 2 types of reference data type in C# language.

1) Predefined Types - such as Objects, String.

2) User defined Types - such as Classes, Interface.

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Pointer Data Type

The pointer in C# language is a variable, it is also known as locator or indicator that points
to an address of a value.

Declaring a pointer

The pointer in C# language can be declared using * (asterisk symbol).

1. int * a; //pointer to int

2. char * c; //pointer to char
C# operators
An operator is simply a symbol that is used to perform operations. There can be many
types of operations like arithmetic, logical, bitwise etc.

There are following types of operators to perform different types of operations in C#

language.

o Arithmetic Operators o
Relational Operators o
Logical Operators o
Bitwise Operators o
Assignment Operators o
Unary Operators o
Ternary Operators o Misc
Operators
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C# Keywords

A keyword is a reserved word. You cannot use it as a variable name, constant name etc.

In C# keywords cannot be used as identifiers. However, if we want to use the keywords as

identifiers, we may prefix the keyword with @ character.

C# Control Statement
C# if-else

In C# programming, the if statement is used to test the condition. There are various types
of if statements in C#.

o if statement o if-else
statement o nested if
statement o if-else-if
ladder

C# IF Statement

The C# if statement tests the condition. It is executed if condition is true.

Syntax:

1. if(condition){
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2. //code to be executed
3. }

C# If Example

1. using System;
2. public class IfExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. int num = 10;
7. if (num % 2 == 0)
8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("It is even number");
10. }
11.
12. }
13. }

Output:
It is even number
C# IF-else Statement

The C# if-else statement also tests the condition. It executes the if block if condition is true
otherwise else block is executed.
 Page 29

Syntax:

1. if(condition){
2. //code if condition is true
3. }else{
4. //code if condition is false
5. }

C# If-else Example

1. using System;
2. public class IfExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. int num = 11;
7. if (num % 2 == 0)
8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("It is even number");
10. }
11. else
 Page 30

12. {
13. Console.WriteLine("It is odd number");
14. }
15.
16. }
17. }

Output:

It is odd number
C# If-else Example: with input from user

In this example, we are getting input from the user using Console.ReadLine() method. It
returns string. For numeric value, you need to convert it into
int using Convert.ToInt32() method.

1. using System;
2. public class IfExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. Console.WriteLine("Enter a number:");
7. int num = Convert.ToInt32(Console.ReadLine());
8.
9. if (num % 2 == 0)
10. {
11. Console.WriteLine("It is even number");
12. }
13. else
14. {
15. Console.WriteLine("It is odd number");
16. }
17.
 Page 31

18. }
19. }
Output:

Enter a number:11
It is odd number

Output:

Enter a number:12
It is even number
C# IF-else-if ladder Statement

The C# if-else-if ladder statement executes one condition from multiple statements.

Syntax:

1. if(condition1){
2. //code to be executed if condition1 is true
3. }else if(condition2){
4. //code to be executed if condition2 is true
5. }
6. else if(condition3){
7. //code to be executed if condition3 is true
8. }
9. ...
10. else{
11. //code to be executed if all the conditions are false
12. }
 Page 32

C# If else-if Example

1. using System;
2. public class IfExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. Console.WriteLine("Enter a number to check grade:");
7. int num = Convert.ToInt32(Console.ReadLine());
8.
9. if (num <0 || num >100)
10. {
11. Console.WriteLine("wrong number");
12. }
13. else if(num >= 0 && num < 50){
14. Console.WriteLine("Fail");
15. }
16. else if (num >= 50 && num < 60)
17. {
18. Console.WriteLine("D Grade");
 Page 33

19. }
20. else if (num >= 60 && num < 70)
21. {
22. Console.WriteLine("C Grade");
23. }
24. else if (num >= 70 && num < 80)
25. {
26. Console.WriteLine("B Grade");
27. }
28. else if (num >= 80 && num < 90)
29. {
30. Console.WriteLine("A Grade");
31. }
32. else if (num >= 90 && num <= 100)
33. {
34. Console.WriteLine("A+ Grade");
35. }
36. }
37. }

Output:

Enter a number to check grade:66

C Grade

Output:

Enter a number to check grade:-2

wrong number
C# switch

The C# switch statement executes one statement from multiple conditions. It is like if-elseif
ladder statement in C#.

Syntax:
 Page 34

1. switch(expression){
2. case value1:
3. //code to be executed;
4. break;
5. case value2:
6. //code to be executed;
7. break;
8. ......
9.
10. default:
11. //code to be executed if all cases are not matched;
12. break;
13. }

C# Switch Example

1. using System;
2. public class SwitchExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. Console.WriteLine("Enter a number:");
7. int num = Convert.ToInt32(Console.ReadLine());
 Page 35

8.
9. switch (num)
10. {
11. case 10: Console.WriteLine("It is 10"); break;
12. case 20: Console.WriteLine("It is 20"); break;
13. case 30: Console.WriteLine("It is 30"); break;
14. default: Console.WriteLine("Not 10, 20 or 30"); break;
15. }
16. }
17. }

Output:

Enter a
number:
10 It is
10

Output:
Enter a number:
55
Not 10, 20 or 30
C# For Loop

The C# for loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number of
iteration is fixed, it is recommended to use for loop than while or do-while loops.

The C# for loop is same as C/C++. We can initialize variable, check condition and
increment/decrement value.

Syntax:

1. for(initialization; condition; incr/decr){

2. //code to be executed
3. }

Flowchart:
 Page 36

C# For Loop Example

1. using System;
2. public class ForExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. for(int i=1;i<=10;i++){
7. Console.WriteLine(i);
8. }
9. }
10. }

Output:
 Page 37

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
C# Nested For Loop

In C#, we can use for loop inside another for loop, it is known as nested for loop. The inner
loop is executed fully when outer loop is executed one time. So if outer loop and inner
loop are executed 3 times, inner loop will be executed 3 times for each outer loop i.e. total
9 times.

Let's see a simple example of nested for loop in C#.

1. using System;
2. public class ForExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. for(int i=1;i<=3;i++){
7. for(int j=1;j<=3;j++){
8. Console.WriteLine(i+" "+j);
9. }
10. }
11. }
12. }

Output:

1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
2 2
 Page 38

2 3
3 1
3 2
3 3
C# Infinite For Loop

If we use double semicolon in for loop, it will be executed infinite times. Let's see a simple
example of infinite for loop in C#.

1. using System;
2. public class ForExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. for (; ;)
7. {
8. Console.WriteLine("Infinitive For Loop");
9. }
10. }
11. }

Output:
Infinitive For Loop
Infinitive For Loop
Infinitive For Loop
Infinitive For Loop
Infinitive For Loop
C# While Loop

In C#, while loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number of
iteration is not fixed, it is recommended to use while loop than for loop.

Syntax:

1. while(condition){
2. //code to be executed
 Page 39

3. }

Flowchart:

C# While Loop Example

Let's see a simple example of while loop to print table of 1.

1. using System;
2. public class WhileExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. int i=1;
7. while(i<=10)
8. {
9. Console.WriteLine(i);
10. i++;
 Page 40

11. }
12. }
13. }

Output:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

C# Nested While Loop Example:

In C#, we can use while loop inside another while loop, it is known as nested while loop.
The nested while loop is executed fully when outer loop is executed once.

Let's see a simple example of nested while loop in C# programming language.

1. using System;
2. public class WhileExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. int i=1;
7. while(i<=3)
8. {
9. int j = 1;
10. while (j <= 3)
11. {
12. Console.WriteLine(i+" "+j);
13. j++;
 Page 41

14. }
15. i++;
16. }
17. }
18. }

Output:

1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
2 2
2 3
3 1
3 2
3 3

C# Infinitive While Loop Example:

We can also create infinite while loop by passing true as the test condition.

1. using System;
2. public class WhileExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. while(true)
7. {
8. Console.WriteLine("Infinitive While Loop");
9. }
10. }
11. }

Output:
 Page 42

Infinitive While Loop

Infinitive While Loop
Infinitive While Loop
Infinitive While Loop
Infinitive While Loop
C# Do-While Loop

The C# do-while loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number
of iteration is not fixed and you must have to execute the loop at least once, it is
recommended to use do-while loop.

The C# do-while loop is executed at least once because condition is checked after loop
body.

Syntax:

1. do{
2. //code to be executed
3. }while(condition);

C# do-while Loop Example

Let's see a simple example of C# do-while loop to print the table of 1.

1. using System;
2. public class DoWhileExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. int i = 1;
 Page 43

7.
8. do{
9. Console.WriteLine(i);
10. i++;
11. } while (i <= 10) ;
12.
13. }
14. }

Output:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
C# Nested do-while Loop

In C#, if you use do-while loop inside another do-while loop, it is known as nested dowhile
loop. The nested do-while loop is executed fully for each outer do-while loop.

Let's see a simple example of nested do-while loop in C#.

1. using System;
2. public class DoWhileExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. int i=1;
7.
8. do{
9. int j = 1;
 Page 44

10.
11. do{
12. Console.WriteLine(i+" "+j);
13. j++;
14. } while (j <= 3) ;
15. i++;
16. } while (i <= 3) ;
17. }
18. }

Output:

1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
2 2
2 3
3 1
3 2
3 3
C# Infinitive do-while Loop

In C#, if you pass true in the do-while loop, it will be infinitive do-while loop.

Syntax:

1. do{
2. //code to be executed
3. }while(true);

C# Infinitive do-while Loop Example

1. using System;
2. public class WhileExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
 Page 45

5. {
6.
7. do{
8. Console.WriteLine("Infinitive do-while Loop");
9. } while(true);
10. }
11. }

Output:

Infinitive do-while Loop

Infinitive do-while Loop
Infinitive do-while Loop
Infinitive do-while Loop
Infinitive do-while Loop

C# Break Statement
The C# break is used to break loop or switch statement. It breaks the current flow of the
program at the given condition. In case of inner loop, it breaks only inner loop.

Syntax:

1. jump-statement;
2. break;

Flowchart:
 Page 46

C# Break Statement Example

Let's see a simple example of C# break statement which is used inside the loop.

1. using System;
2. public class BreakExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
7. {
8. if (i == 5)
9. {
10. break;
11. }
12. Console.WriteLine(i);
13. }
14. }
15. }
Output:
1
2
3
4

C# Break Statement with Inner Loop

The C# break statement breaks inner loop only if you use break statement inside the inner
loop. Let's see the example code:

1. using System;
2. public class BreakExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
 Page 47

6. for(int i=1;i<=3;i++){
7. for(int j=1;j<=3;j++){
8. if(i==2&&j==2){
9. break;
10. }
11. Console.WriteLine(i+" "+j);
12. }
13. }
14. }
15. }

Output:

1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
3 1
3 2
3 3
C# Continue Statement
The C# continue statement is used to continue loop. It continues the current flow of the
program and skips the remaining code at specified condition. In case of inner loop, it
continues only inner loop.

Syntax:

1. jump-statement;
2. continue;

C# Continue Statement Example

1. using System;
2. public class ContinueExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
 Page 48

5. {
6. for(int i=1;i<=10;i++){
7. if(i==5){
8. continue;
9. }
10. Console.WriteLine(i);
11. }
12. }
13. }

Output:
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10

C# Continue Statement with Inner Loop

C# Continue Statement continues inner loop only if you use continue statement inside the
inner loop.

1. using System;
2. public class ContinueExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. for(int i=1;i<=3;i++){
7. for(int j=1;j<=3;j++){
8. if(i==2&&j==2){
9. continue;
10. }
11. Console.WriteLine(i+" "+j);
 Page 49

12. }
13. }
14. }
15. }

Output:
1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
2 3
3 1
3 2
3 3
C# Goto Statement

The C# goto statement is also known jump statement. It is used to transfer control to the
other part of the program. It unconditionally jumps to the specified label.

It can be used to transfer control from deeply nested loop or switch case label.

Currently, it is avoided to use goto statement in C# because it makes the program

complex.

C# Goto Statement Example

Let's see the simple example of goto statement in C#.

1. using System;
2. public class GotoExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. ineligible:
7. Console.WriteLine("You are not eligible to vote!");
8.
9. Console.WriteLine("Enter your age:\n");
 Page 50

10. int age = Convert.ToInt32(Console.ReadLine());

11. if (age < 18){
12. goto ineligible;
13. }
14. else
15. {
16. Console.WriteLine("You are eligible to vote!");
17. }
18. }
19. }

Output:

You are not eligible to vote!

Enter your age:
11
You are not eligible to vote!
Enter your age:
5
You are not eligible to vote!
Enter your age:
26
You are eligible to vote!
C# Comments
The C# comments are statements that are not executed by the compiler. The comments
in C# programming can be used to provide explanation of the code, variable, method or
class. By the help of comments, you can hide the program code also.

There are two types of comments in C#.

o Single Line comment o

Multi Line comment

C# Single Line Comment

The single line comment starts with // (double slash). Let's see an example of single line
comment in C#.
 Page 51

1. using System;
2. public class CommentExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. int x = 10;//Here, x is a variable
7. Console.WriteLine(x);
8. }
9. }

Output:

10

C# Multi Line Comment

The C# multi line comment is used to comment multiple lines of code. It is surrounded by
slash and asterisk (/* ..... */). Let's see an example of multi line comment in C#.

1. using System;
2. public class CommentExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. /* Let's declare and
7. print variable in C#. */
8. int x=20;
9. Console.WriteLine(x);
10. }
11. }

Output:
 Page 52

20

C# Function
C# Function

Function is a block of code that has a signature. Function is used to execute statements
specified in the code block. A function consists of the following components:

Function name: It is a unique name that is used to make Function call.

Return type: It is used to specify the data type of function return value.

Body: It is a block that contains executable statements.

Access specifier: It is used to specify function accessibility in the application.

Parameters: It is a list of arguments that we can pass to the function during call.

C# Function Syntax

1. <access-specifier><return-type>FunctionName(<parameters>)
2. {
3. // function body
4. // return statement
5. }

Access-specifier, parameters and return statement are optional.

Let's see an example in which we have created a function that returns a string value and
takes a string parameter.

C# Function: using no parameter and return type

A function that does not return any value specifies void type as a return type. In the
following example, a function is created without return type.

1. using System;
2. namespace FunctionExample
3. {
 Page 53

4. class Program
5. {
6. // User defined function without return type
7. public void Show() // No Parameter
8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("This is non parameterized function");
10. // No return statement
11. }
12. // Main function, execution entry point of the program
13. static void Main(string[] args)
14. {
15. Program program = new Program(); // Creating Object
16. program.Show(); // Calling Function
17. }
18. }
19. }

Output:

This is non parameterized function

C# Function: using parameter but no return type

1. using System;
2. namespace FunctionExample
3. {
4. class Program
5. {
6. // User defined function without return type
7. public void Show(string message)
8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + message);
10. // No return statement
 Page 54

11. }
12. // Main function, execution entry point of the program
13. static void Main(string[] args)
14. {
15. Program program = new Program(); // Creating Object
16. program.Show("Rahul Kumar"); // Calling Function
17. }
18. }
19. }

Output:

Hello Rahul Kumar

A function can have zero or any number of parameters to get data. In the following
example, a function is created without parameters. A function without parameter is also
known as non-parameterized function.

C# Function: using parameter and return type

1. using System;
2. namespace FunctionExample
3. {
4. class Program
5. {
6. // User defined function
7. public string Show(string message)
8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("Inside Show Function");
10. return message;
11. }
12. // Main function, execution entry point of the program
 Page 55

Program();

13. static void Main(string[] args)

14. {
15. Program program = new
16. string message = program.Show("Rahul Kumar");
17. Console.WriteLine("Hello "+message);
18. }
19. }
20. }

Output:

Inside Show Function

Hello Rahul Kumar

C# Call By Value
In C#, value-type parameters are that pass a copy of original value to the function rather
than reference. It does not modify the original value. A change made in passed value does
not alter the actual value. In the following example, we have pass value during function
call.

C# Call By Value Example

1. using System;
2. namespace CallByValue
3. {
4. class Program
5. {
6. // User defined function
7. public void Show(int val)
8. {
 Page 56

15. {
16. int val = 50;
17. Program program = new Program(); // Creating Object
18. Console.WriteLine("Value before
9. val *= val; // Manipulating value
10. Console.WriteLine("Value inside the show function "+val);
11. // No return statement
12. }
13. // Main function, execution entry point of the program
14. static void Main(string[] args)
calling the function "+val);
19. program.Show(val); // Calling Function by passing value
20. Console.WriteLine("Value after calling the function " + val);
21. }
22. }
23. }

Output:

Value before calling the function 50

Value inside the show function 2500
Value after calling the function 50

C# Call By Reference
C# provides a ref keyword to pass argument as reference-type. It passes reference of
arguments to the function rather than copy of original value. The changes in passed values
are permanent and modify the original variable value.

C# Call By Reference Example

1. using System;
2. namespace CallByReference
3. {
4. class Program
 Page 57

15. {
16. int val = 50;
17. Program program = new Program(); // Creating Object
18. Console.WriteLine("Value before
5. {
6. // User defined function
7. public void Show(ref int val)
8. {
9. val *= val; // Manipulating value
10. Console.WriteLine("Value inside the show function "+val);
11. // No return statement
12. }
13. // Main function, execution entry point of the program
14. static void Main(string[] args)
calling the function "+val);
19. program.Show(ref val); // Calling Function by passing reference
20. Console.WriteLine("Value after calling the function " + val);
21. }
22. }
23. }

Output:

Value before calling the function 50

Value inside the show function 2500
Value after calling the function 2500

C# Out Parameter
C# provides out keyword to pass arguments as out-type. It is like reference-type, except
that it does not require variable to initialize before passing. We must use out keyword to
pass argument as out-type. It is useful when we want a function to return multiple values.
 Page 58

15. {
16. int val = 50;
17. Program program = new Program(); // Creating Object
18. Console.WriteLine("Value before
C# Out Parameter Example 1

1. using System;
2. namespace OutParameter
3. {
4. class Program
5. {
6. // User defined function
7. public void Show(out int val) // Out parameter
8. {
9. int square = 5;
10. val = square;
11. val *= val; // Manipulating value
12. }
13. // Main function, execution entry point of the program
14. static void Main(string[] args)
passing out variable " + val);
19. program.Show(out val); // Passing out argument
20. Console.WriteLine("Value after recieving the out variable " + val);
21. }
22. }
23. }

Output:

Value before passing out variable 50

Value after receiving the out variable 25

The following example demonstrates that how a function can return multiple values.
 Page 59

15. {
16. int val = 50;
17. Program program = new Program(); // Creating Object
18. Console.WriteLine("Value before
C# Out Parameter Example 2

1. using System;
2. namespace OutParameter
3. {
4. class Program
5. {
6. // User defined function
7. public void Show(out int a, out int b) // Out parameter
8. {
9. int square = 5;
10. a = square;
11. b = square;
12. // Manipulating value
13. a *= a;
14. b *= b;
15. }
16. // Main function, execution entry point of the program
17. static void Main(string[] args)
 Page 60

{
int
Program Program(); // Creating Object
before
18.
19. val1 = 50, val2 = 100;
20. program = new
21. Console.WriteLine("Value passing \n val1 = " + val1+" \n val2 = "+val2);
22. program.Show(out val1, out val2); // Passing out argument
23. Console.WriteLine("Value after passing \n val1 = " + val1 + " \n val2 = " +
val2);
24. }
25. }
26. }

Output:
Value before passing
val1 = 50
val2 = 100
Value after passing
val1 = 25
val2 = 25

C# Arrays
C# Arrays

Like other programming languages, array in C# is a group of similar types of elements that
have contiguous memory location. In C#, array is an object of base type System.Array. In
C#, array index starts from 0. We can store only fixed set of elements in C# array.
 Page 61

Advantages of C# Array

o Code Optimization
(less code) o Random Access
o Easy to traverse data

o Easy to manipulate
data o Easy to sort data etc.

Disadvantages of C# Array

o Fixed size

C# Array Types

There are 3 types of arrays in C# programming:

1. Single Dimensional Array

2. Multidimensional Array
3. Jagged Array

C# Single Dimensional Array

To create single dimensional array, you need to use square brackets [] after the type.

1. int[] arr = new int[5];//creating array

You cannot place square brackets after the identifier.

1. int arr[] = new int[5];//compile time error

Let's see a simple example of C# array, where we are going to declare, initialize and
traverse array.

1. using System;
2. public class ArrayExample
3. {
 Page 62

4. public static void Main(string[] args)

5. {
6. int[] arr = new int[5];//creating array
7. arr[0] = 10;//initializing array
8. arr[2] = 20;
9. arr[4] = 30;
10.
11. //traversing array
12. for (int i = 0; i < arr.Length; i++)
13. {
14. Console.WriteLine(arr[i]);
15. }
16. }
17. }

Output:
10
0
20
0
30

C# Array Example: Declaration and Initialization at same time

There are 3 ways to initialize array at the time of declaration.

1. int[] arr = new int[5]{ 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 };

We can omit the size of array.

1. int[] arr = new int[]{ 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 };

We can omit the new operator also.

1. int[] arr = { 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 };

 Page 63

Let's see the example of array where we are declaring and initializing array at the same
time.

1. using System;
2. public class ArrayExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. int[] arr = { 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 };//Declaration and Initialization of array
7.
8. //traversing array
9. for (int i = 0; i < arr.Length; i++)
10. {
11. Console.WriteLine(arr[i]);
12. }
13. }
14. }

Output:
10
20
30
40
50

C# Array Example: Traversal using foreach loop

We can also traverse the array elements using foreach loop. It returns array element one
by one.

1. using System;
2. public class ArrayExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
 Page 64

6. int[] arr = { 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 };//creating and initializing array
7.
8. //traversing array
9. foreach (int i in arr)
10. {
11. Console.WriteLine(i);
12. }
13. }
14. }
Output:
10
20
30
40
50
C# Passing Array to Function

In C#, to reuse the array logic, we can create function. To pass array to function in C#, we
need to provide only array name.

1. functionname(arrayname);//passing array

C# Passing Array to Function Example: print array elements

Let's see an example of C# function which prints the array elements.

1. using System;
2. public class ArrayExample
3. {
4. static void printArray(int[] arr)
5. {
6. Console.WriteLine("Printing array elements:");
7. for (int i = 0; i < arr.Length; i++)
8. {
9. Console.WriteLine(arr[i]);
 Page 65

10. }
11. }
12. public static void Main(string[] args)
13. {
14. int[] arr1 = { 25, 10, 20, 15, 40, 50 };
15. int[] arr2 = { 12, 23, 44, 11, 54 };
16. printArray(arr1);//passing array to function
17. printArray(arr2);
18. }
19. }
Output:
Printing array elements:
25
10
20
15
40
50
Printing array elements:
12
23
44
11
54

C# Passing Array to Function Example: Print minimum number

Let's see an example of C# array which prints minimum number in an array using function.

1. using System;
2. public class ArrayExample
3. {
4. static void printMin(int[] arr)
5. {
6. int min = arr[0];
7. for (int i = 1; i < arr.Length; i++)
8. {
 Page 66

9. if (min > arr[i])

10. {
11. min = arr[i];
12. }
13. }
14. Console.WriteLine("Minimum element is: " + min);
15. }
16. public static void Main(string[] args)
17. {
18. int[] arr1 = { 25, 10, 20, 15, 40, 50 };
19. int[] arr2 = { 12, 23, 44, 11, 54 };
20.
21. printMin(arr1);//passing array to function
22. printMin(arr2);
23. }
24. }

Output:

Minimum element is: 10

Minimum element is: 11

C# Multidimensional Arrays
The multidimensional array is also known as rectangular arrays in C#. It can be two
dimensional or three dimensional. The data is stored in tabular form (row * column) which
is also known as matrix.

To create multidimensional array, we need to use comma inside the square brackets. For
example:

1. int[,] arr=new int[3,3];//declaration of 2D array

2. int[,,] arr=new int[3,3,3];//declaration of 3D array
 Page 67

C# Multidimensional Array Example

Let's see a simple example of multidimensional array in C# which declares, initializes and
traverse two dimensional array.

1. using System;
2. public class MultiArrayExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. int[,] arr=new int[3,3];//declaration of 2D array
7. arr[0,1]=10;//initialization
8. arr[1,2]=20;
9. arr[2,0]=30;
10.
11. //traversal
12. for(int i=0;i<3;i++){
13. for(int j=0;j<3;j++){
14. Console.Write(arr[i,j]+" ");
15. }
16. Console.WriteLine();//new line at each row
17. }
18. }
19. }

Output:

0 10 0
0 0 20
30 0 0

C# Multidimensional Array Example: Declaration and initialization at same time There

are 3 ways to initialize multidimensional array in C# while declaration.

 Page 68

1. int[,] arr = new int[3,3]= { { 1, 2, 3 }, { 4, 5, 6 }, { 7, 8, 9 } };

We can omit the array size.

1. int[,] arr = new int[,]{ { 1, 2, 3 }, { 4, 5, 6 }, { 7, 8, 9 } };

We can omit the new operator also.

1. int[,] arr = { { 1, 2, 3 }, { 4, 5, 6 }, { 7, 8, 9 } };

Let's see a simple example of multidimensional array which initializes array at the time of
declaration.

1. using System;
2. public class MultiArrayExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. int[,] arr = { { 1, 2, 3 }, { 4, 5, 6 }, { 7, 8, 9 } };//declaration and initialization
7.
8. //traversal
9. for(int i=0;i<3;i++){
10. for(int j=0;j<3;j++){
11. Console.Write(arr[i,j]+" ");
12. }
13. Console.WriteLine();//new line at each row
14. }
15. }
16. }

Output:
 Page 69

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

C# Object Class
C# Object and Class

Since C# is an object-oriented language, program is designed using objects and classes

in C#.

C# Object

In C#, Object is a real world entity, for example, chair, car, pen, mobile, laptop etc.

In other words, object is an entity that has state and behavior. Here, state means data and
behavior means functionality.

Object is a runtime entity, it is created at runtime.

Object is an instance of a class. All the members of the class can be accessed through
object.

Let's see an example to create object using new keyword.

1. Student s1 = new Student();//creating an object of Student

In this example, Student is the type and s1 is the reference variable that refers to the
instance of Student class. The new keyword allocates memory at runtime.

C# Class

In C#, class is a group of similar objects. It is a template from which objects are created. It
can have fields, methods, constructors etc.

Let's see an example of C# class that has two fields only.

1. public class Student

2. {
3. int id;//field or data member
4. String name;//field or data member
 Page 70

5. }
C# Object and Class Example

Let's see an example of class that has two fields: id and name. It creates instance of the
class, initializes the object and prints the object value.

1. using System;
2. public class Student
3. {
4. int id;//data member (also instance variable) 5. String name;//data member(also
instance variable)
6.
7. public static void Main(string[] args)
8. {
9. Student s1 = new Student();//creating an object of Student
10. s1.id = 101;
11. s1.name = "Sonoo Jaiswal";
12. Console.WriteLine(s1.id); 13. Console.WriteLine(s1.name);
14.
15. }
16. }

Output:

101
Sonoo Jaiswal
C# Class Example 2: Having Main() in another class

Let's see another example of class where we are having Main() method in another class.
In such case, class must be public.

1. using System;
2. public class Student
3. {
4. public int id;
 Page 71

5. public String name;

6. }
7. class TestStudent{
8. public static void Main(string[] args)
9. {
10. Student s1 = new Student();
11. s1.id = 101;
12. s1.name = "Sonoo Jaiswal";
13. Console.WriteLine(s1.id); 14. Console.WriteLine(s1.name);
15.
16. }
17. }

Output:
101
Sonoo Jaiswal

C# Class Example 3: Initialize and Display data through method

Let's see another example of C# class where we are initializing and displaying object
through method.

1. using System;
2. public class Student
3. {
4. public int id;
5. public String name;
6. public void insert(int i, String n)
7. {
8. id = i;
9. name = n;
10. }
11. public void display()
 Page 72

12. {
13. Console.WriteLine(id + " " + name);
14. }
15. }
16. class TestStudent{
17. public static void Main(string[] args)
18. {
19. Student s1 = new Student();
20. Student s2 = new Student();
21. s1.insert(101, "Ajeet");
22. s2.insert(102, "Tom");
23. s1.display();
24. s2.display();
25.
26. }
27. }

Output:

101 Ajeet
102 Tom

C# Class Example 4: Store and Display Employee Information

1. using System;
2. public class Employee
3. {
4. public int id;
5. public String name;
6. public float salary;
7. public void insert(int i, String n,float s)
8. {
9. id = i;
 Page 73

10. name = n;
11. salary = s;
12. }
13. public void display()
14. {
15. Console.WriteLine(id + " " + name+" "+salary);
16. }
17. }
18. class TestEmployee{
19. public static void Main(string[] args)
20. {
21. Employee e1 = new Employee();
22. Employee e2 = new Employee();
23. e1.insert(101, "Sonoo",890000f);
24. e2.insert(102, "Mahesh", 490000f);
25. e1.display();
26. e2.display();
27.
28. }
29. }

Output:
101 Sonoo 890000
102 Mahesh 490000
C# Constructor

In C#, constructor is a special method which is invoked automatically at the time of object
creation. It is used to initialize the data members of new object generally. The constructor
in C# has the same name as class or struct.

There can be two types of constructors in C#.

• Default constructor
• Parameterized constructor
 Page 74

C# Default Constructor

A constructor which has no argument is known as default constructor. It is invoked at the

time of creating object.

C# Default Constructor Example: Having Main() within class

1. using System;
2. public class Employee
3. {
4. public Employee()
5. {
6. Console.WriteLine("Default Constructor Invoked");
7. }
8. public static void Main(string[] args)
9. {
10. Employee e1 = new Employee();
11. Employee e2 = new Employee();
12. }
13. }

Output:
Default Constructor Invoked
Default Constructor Invoked

C# Default Constructor Example: Having Main() in another class

Let's see another example of default constructor where we are having Main() method in
another class.

1. using System;
2. public class Employee
3. {
4. public Employee()
5. {
 Page 75

6. Console.WriteLine("Default Constructor Invoked");

7. }
8. }
9. class TestEmployee{
10. public static void Main(string[] args)
11. {
12. Employee e1 = new Employee();
13. Employee e2 = new Employee();
14. }
15. }

Output:

Default Constructor Invoked

Default Constructor Invoked
C# Parameterized Constructor

A constructor which has parameters is called parameterized constructor. It is used to

provide different values to distinct objects.

1. using System;
2. public class Employee
3. {
4. public int id;
5. public String name;
6. public float salary;
7. public Employee(int i, String n,float s)
8. {
9. id = i;
10. name = n;
11. salary = s;
12. }
13. public void display()
14. {
 Page 76

15. Console.WriteLine(id + " " + name+" "+salary);

16. }
17. }
18. class TestEmployee{
19. public static void Main(string[] args)
20. {
21. Employee e1 = new Employee(101, "Sonoo", 890000f);
22. Employee e2 = new Employee(102, "Mahesh", 490000f);
23. e1.display();
24. e2.display();
25.
26. }
27. }

Output:
101 Sonoo 890000
102 Mahesh 490000
C# Destructor

A destructor works opposite to constructor, It destructs the objects of classes. It can be

defined only once in a class. Like constructors, it is invoked automatically.

Note: C# destructor cannot have parameters. Moreover, modifiers can't be applied on

destructors.

C# Constructor and Destructor Example

Let's see an example of constructor and destructor in C# which is called automatically.

1. using System;
2. public class Employee
3. {
4. public Employee()
5. {
6. Console.WriteLine("Constructor Invoked");
 Page 77

7. }
8. ~Employee()
9. {
10. Console.WriteLine("Destructor Invoked");
11. }
12. }
13. class TestEmployee{
14. public static void Main(string[] args)
15. {
16. Employee e1 = new Employee();
17. Employee e2 = new Employee();
18. }
19. }

Output:
Constructor Invoked
Constructor Invoked
Destructor Invoked
Destructor Invoked
C# this

In c# programming, this is a keyword that refers to the current instance of the class. There
can be 3 main usage of this keyword in C#.

o It can be used to refer current class instance variable. It is used if field

names (instance variables) and parameter names are same, that is why both
can be distinguish easily.
o It can be used to pass current object as a parameter to another method. o
It can be used to declare indexers.

C# this example

Let's see the example of this keyword in C# that refers to the fields of current class.

1. using System;
 Page 78

2. public class Employee

3. {
4. public int id;
5. public String name;
6. public float salary;
7. public Employee(int id, String name,float salary)
8. {
9. this.id = id;
10. this.name = name;
11. this.salary = salary;
12. }
13. public void display()
14. {
15. Console.WriteLine(id + " " + name+" "+salary);
16. }
17. }
18. class TestEmployee{
19. public static void Main(string[] args)
20. {
21. Employee e1 = new Employee(101, "Sonoo", 890000f);
22. Employee e2 = new Employee(102, "Mahesh", 490000f);
23. e1.display();
24. e2.display();
25.
26. }
27. }

Output:

101 Sonoo 890000

102 Mahesh 490000
 Page 79

C# static
In C#, static is a keyword or modifier that belongs to the type not instance. So instance is
not required to access the static members. In C#, static can be field, method, constructor,
class, properties, operator and event.
Note: Indexers and destructors cannot be static.
Advantage of C# static keyword
Memory efficient: Now we don't need to create instance for accessing the static
members, so it saves memory. Moreover, it belongs to the type, so it will not get memory
each time when instance is created.

C# Static Field

A field which is declared as static, is called static field. Unlike instance field which gets
memory each time whenever you create object, there is only one copy of static field
created in the memory. It is shared to all the objects.

It is used to refer the common property of all objects such as rateOfInterest in case of
Account, companyName in case of Employee etc.

C# static field example

Let's see the simple example of static field in C#.

1. using System;
2. public class Account
3. {
4. public int accno;
5. public String name;
6. public static float rateOfInterest=8.8f;
7. public Account(int accno, String name)
8. {
9. this.accno = accno;
10. this.name = name;
11. }
12.
13. public void display()
 Page 80

14. {
15. Console.WriteLine(accno + " " + name + " " + rateOfInterest);
16. }
17. }
18. class TestAccount{
19. public static void Main(string[] args)
20. {
21. Account a1 = new Account(101, "Sonoo");
22. Account a2 = new Account(102, "Mahesh");
23. a1.display();
24. a2.display();
25.
26. }
27. }

Output:
101 Sonoo 8.8
102 Mahesh 8.8

C# static field example 2: changing static field

If you change the value of static field, it will be applied to all the objects.

1. using System;
2. public class Account
3. {
4. public int accno;
5. public String name;
6. public static float rateOfInterest=8.8f;
7. public Account(int accno, String name)
8. {
9. this.accno = accno;
10. this.name = name;
11. }
 Page 81

12.
13. public void display()
14. {
15. Console.WriteLine(accno + " " + name + " " + rateOfInterest);
16. }
17. }
18. class TestAccount{
19. public static void Main(string[] args)
20. {
21. Account.rateOfInterest = 10.5f;//changing value
22. Account a1 = new Account(101, "Sonoo");
23. Account a2 = new Account(102, "Mahesh");
24. a1.display();
25. a2.display();
26.
27. }
28. }

Output:
101 Sonoo 10.5
102 Mahesh 10.5

C# static field example 3: Counting Objects

Let's see another example of static keyword in C# which counts the objects.

1. using System;
2. public class Account
3. {
4. public int accno;
5. public String name;
6. public static int count=0;
7. public Account(int accno, String name)
8. {
 Page 82

9. this.accno = accno;
10. this.name = name;
11. count++;
12. }
13.
14. public void display()
15. {
16. Console.WriteLine(accno + " " + name);
17. }
18. }
19. class TestAccount{
20. public static void Main(string[] args)
21. {
22. Account a1 = new Account(101, "Sonoo");
23. Account a2 = new Account(102, "Mahesh");
24. Account a3 = new Account(103, "Ajeet");
25. a1.display();
26. a2.display();
27. a3.display();
28. Console.WriteLine("Total Objects are: "+Account.count);
29. }
30. }

Output:
101 Sonoo
102 Mahesh
103 Ajeet
Total Objects are: 3
C# static class
The C# static class is like the normal class but it cannot be instantiated. It can have only
static members. The advantage of static class is that it provides you guarantee that
instance of static class cannot be created.
 Page 83

Points to remember for C# static class

o C# static class contains only static members. o C#

static class cannot be instantiated. o C# static class is
sealed. o C# static class cannot contain instance
constructors.

C# static class example

Let's see the example of static class that contains static field and static method.

1. using System;
2. public static class MyMath
3. {
4. public static float PI=3.14f;
5. public static int cube(int n){return n*n*n;}
6. }
7. class TestMyMath{
8. public static void Main(string[] args)
9. {
10. Console.WriteLine("Value of PI is: "+MyMath.PI);
11. Console.WriteLine("Cube of 3 is: " + MyMath.cube(3));
12. }
13. }

Output:
Value of PI is: 3.14
Cube of 3 is: 27
C# static constructor

C# static constructor is used to initialize static fields. It can also be used to perform any
action that is to be performed only once. It is invoked automatically before first instance
is created or any static member is referenced.
 Page 84

Points to remember for C# Static Constructor

o C# static constructor cannot have any modifier or parameter. o C#

static constructor is invoked implicitly. It can't be called explicitly.

C# Static Constructor example

Let's see the example of static constructor which initializes the static field rateOfInterest
in Account class.

1. using System;
2. public class Account
3. {
4. public int id;
5. public String name;
6. public static float rateOfInterest;
7. public Account(int id, String name)
8. {
9. this.id = id;
10. this.name = name;
11. }
12. static Account()
13. {
14. rateOfInterest = 9.5f;
15. }
16. public void display()
17. {
18. Console.WriteLine(id + " " + name+" "+rateOfInterest);
19. }
20. }
21. class TestEmployee{
22. public static void Main(string[] args)
23. {
 Page 85

24. Account a1 = new Account(101, "Sonoo");

25. Account a2 = new Account(102, "Mahesh");
26. a1.display();
27. a2.display();
28.
29. }
30. }

Output:
101 Sonoo 9.5
102 Mahesh 9.5
C# Structs
In C#, classes and structs are blueprints that are used to create instance of a class. Structs
are used for lightweight objects such as Color, Rectangle, Point etc.
Unlike class, structs in C# are value type than reference type. It is useful if you have data
that is not intended to be modified after creation of struct.

C# Struct Example

Let's see a simple example of struct Rectangle which has two data members width and
height.

1. using System;
2. public struct Rectangle
3. {
4. public int width, height;
5.
6. }
7. public class TestStructs
8. {
9. public static void Main()
10. {
11. Rectangle r = new Rectangle();
12. r.width = 4;
 Page 86

13. r.height = 5;
14. Console.WriteLine("Area of Rectangle is: " + (r.width * r.height));
15. }
16. }

Output:

Area of Rectangle is: 20

C# Struct Example: Using Constructor and Method

Let's see another example of struct where we are using constructor to initialize data and
method to calculate area of rectangle.

1. using System;
2. public struct Rectangle
3. {
4. public int width, height;
5.
6. public Rectangle(int w, int h)
7. {
8. width = w;
9. height = h;
10. }
11. public void areaOfRectangle() {
12. Console.WriteLine("Area of Rectangle is: "+(width*height)); }
13. }
14. public class TestStructs
15. {
16. public static void Main()
17. {
18. Rectangle r = new Rectangle(5, 6);
19. r.areaOfRectangle();
20. }
 Page 87

21. }

Output:
Area of Rectangle is: 30
C# Enum
Enum in C# is also known as enumeration. It is used to store a set of named constants
such as season, days, month, size etc. The enum constants are also known as enumerators.
Enum in C# can be declared within or outside class and structs.

Enum constants has default values which starts from 0 and incremented to one by one.
But we can change the default value.

Points to remember

o enum has fixed set of constants o

enum improves type safety o
enum can be traversed

C# Enum Example

Let's see a simple example of C# enum.

1. using System;
2. public class EnumExample
3. {
4. public enum Season { WINTER, SPRING, SUMMER, FALL }
5.
6. public static void Main()
7. {
8. int x = (int)Season.WINTER;
9. int y = (int)Season.SUMMER;
10. Console.WriteLine("WINTER = {0}", x);
11. Console.WriteLine("SUMMER = {0}", y);
12. }
 Page 88

13. }

Output:
WINTER = 0
SUMMER = 2

C# enum example changing start index

1. using System;
2. public class EnumExample
3. {
4. public enum Season { WINTER=10, SPRING, SUMMER, FALL }
5.
6. public static void Main()
7. {
8. int x = (int)Season.WINTER;
9. int y = (int)Season.SUMMER;
10. Console.WriteLine("WINTER = {0}", x);
11. Console.WriteLine("SUMMER = {0}", y);
12. }
13. }
Output:
WINTER = 10
SUMMER = 12

C# enum example for Days

1. using System;
2. public class EnumExample
3. {
4. public enum Days { Sun, Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat };
5.
6. public static void Main()
7. {
 Page 89

8. int x = (int)Days.Sun;
9. int y = (int)Days.Mon;
10. int z = (int)Days.Sat;
11. Console.WriteLine("Sun = {0}", x);
12. Console.WriteLine("Mon = {0}", y);
13. Console.WriteLine("Sat = {0}", z);
14. }
15. }

Output:
Sun = 0
Mon = 1
Sat = 6

C# enum example: traversing all values using getNames()

1. using System;
2. public class EnumExample
3. {
4. public enum Days { Sun, Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat };
5.
6. public static void Main()
7. {
8. foreach (string s in Enum.GetNames(typeof(Days)))
9. {
10. Console.WriteLine(s);
11. }
12. }
13. }

Output:
 Page 90

Sun
Mon
Tue
Wed
Thu
Fri
Sat

C# enum example: traversing all values using getValues()

1. using System;
2. public class EnumExample
3. {
4. public enum Days { Sun, Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat };
5.
6. public static void Main()
7. {
8. foreach (Days d in Enum.GetValues(typeof(Days)))
9. {
10. Console.WriteLine(d);
11. }
12. }
13. }

Output:

Sun
Mon
Tue
Wed
Thu
Fri
Sat

C# Inheritance
C# Inheritance
 Page 91

In C#, inheritance is a process in which one object acquires all the properties and behaviors
of its parent object automatically. In such way, you can reuse, extend or modify the
attributes and behaviors which is defined in other class.

In C#, the class which inherits the members of another class is called derived class and
the class whose members are inherited is called base class. The derived class is the
specialized class for the base class.

Advantage of C# Inheritance

Code reusability: Now you can reuse the members of your parent class. So, there is no
need to define the member again. So less code is required in the class.

C# Single Level Inheritance Example: Inheriting Fields

When one class inherits another class, it is known as single level inheritance. Let's see the
example of single level inheritance which inherits the fields only.

1. using System;
2. public class Employee
3. {
4. public float salary = 40000;
5. }
6. public class Programmer: Employee
7. {
8. public float bonus = 10000;
9. }
10. class TestInheritance{
11. public static void Main(string[] args)
12. {
13. Programmer p1 = new Programmer();
14.
15. Console.WriteLine("Salary: " + p1.salary); 16.
Console.WriteLine("Bonus: " + p1.bonus);
17.
 Page 92

18. }
19. }

Output:

Salary: 40000
Bonus: 10000

In the above example, Employee is the base class and Programmer is the derived class.

C# Single Level Inheritance Example: Inheriting Methods

Let's see another example of inheritance in C# which inherits methods only.

1. using System;
2. public class Animal
3. {
4. public void eat() { Console.WriteLine("Eating..."); }
5. }
6. public class Dog: Animal
7. {
8. public void bark() { Console.WriteLine("Barking..."); } 9. }
10. class TestInheritance2{
11. public static void Main(string[] args)
12. {
13. Dog d1 = new Dog();
14. d1.eat();
15. d1.bark();
16. }
17. }

Output:

Eating...
Barking...
C# Multi Level Inheritance Example
 Page 93

When one class inherits another class which is further inherited by another class, it is
known as multi level inheritance in C#. Inheritance is transitive so the last derived class
acquires all the members of all its base classes.

Let's see the example of multi level inheritance in C#.

1. using System;
2. public class Animal
3. {
4. public void eat() { Console.WriteLine("Eating..."); }
5. }
6. public class Dog: Animal
7. {
8. public void bark() { Console.WriteLine("Barking..."); } 9. }
10. public class BabyDog : Dog
11. {
12. public void weep() { Console.WriteLine("Weeping..."); }
13. }
14. class TestInheritance2{
15. public static void Main(string[] args)
16. {
17. BabyDog d1 = new BabyDog();
18. d1.eat();
19. d1.bark();
20. d1.weep();
21. }
22. }

Output:

Eating...
Barking...
Weeping...
 Page 94

C# Aggregation (HAS-A Relationship)

In C#, aggregation is a process in which one class defines another class as any entity
reference. It is another way to reuse the class. It is a form of association that represents
HAS-A relationship.

C# Aggregation Example

Let's see an example of aggregation where Employee class has the reference of Address
class as data member. In such way, it can reuse the members of Address class.

1. using System;
2. public class Address
3. {
4. public string addressLine, city, state;
5. public Address(string addressLine, string city, string state) 6. {
7. this.addressLine = addressLine;
8. this.city = city;
9. this.state = state;
10. }
11. }
12. public class Employee
13. {
14. public int id;
15. public string name;
16. public Address address;//Employee HAS-A Address
17. public Employee(int id, string name, Address address)
18. {
19. this.id = id;
20. this.name = name;
21. this.address = address;
22. }
23. public void display()
 Page 95

24. {
25. Console.WriteLine(id + " " + name + " " +
26. address.addressLine + " " + address.city + " " + address.state);
27. }
28. }
29. public class TestAggregation
30. {
31. public static void Main(string[] args)
32. {
33. Address a1=new Address("G-13, Sec-3","Noida","UP");
34. Employee e1 = new Employee(1,"Sonoo",a1);
35. e1.display();
36. }
37. }

Output:

1 Sonoo G-13 Sec-3 Noida UP

C# Polymorphism
C# Member Overloading
If we create two or more members having same name but different in number or type of
parameter, it is known as member overloading. In C#, we can overload:

o methods, o

constructors, and o
indexed properties

It is because these members have parameters only.

C# Method Overloading

Having two or more methods with same name but different in parameters, is known as
method overloading in C#.
 Page 96

The advantage of method overloading is that it increases the readability of the program
because you don't need to use different names for same action.

You can perform method overloading in C# by two ways:

1. By changing number of arguments

2. By changing data type of the arguments

C# Method Overloading Example: By changing no. of arguments

Let's see the simple example of method overloading where we are changing number of
arguments of add() method.

1. using System;
2. public class Cal{
3. public static int add(int a,int b){
4. return a + b;
5. }
6. public static int add(int a, int b, int c)
7. {
8. return a + b + c;
9. }
10. }
11. public class TestMemberOverloading
12. {
13. public static void Main()
14. {
15. Console.WriteLine(Cal.add(12, 23));
16. Console.WriteLine(Cal.add(12, 23, 25));
17. }
18. }

Output:
 Page 97

35
60

C# Member Overloading Example: By changing data type of arguments

Let's see the another example of method overloading where we are changing data type
of arguments.

1. using System;
2. public class Cal{
3. public static int add(int a, int b){
4. return a + b;
5. }
6. public static float add(float a, float b)
7. {
8. return a + b;
9. }
10. }
11. public class TestMemberOverloading
12. {
13. public static void Main()
14. {
15. Console.WriteLine(Cal.add(12, 23));
16. Console.WriteLine(Cal.add(12.4f,21.3f));
17. }
18. }

Output:
35
33.7
C# Method Overriding
 Page 98

If derived class defines same method as defined in its base class, it is known as method
overriding in C#. It is used to achieve runtime polymorphism. It enables you to provide
specific implementation of the method which is already provided by its base class.

To perform method overriding in C#, you need to use virtual keyword with base class
method and override keyword with derived class method.

C# Method Overriding Example

Let's see a simple example of method overriding in C#. In this example, we are overriding
the eat() method by the help of override keyword.

1. using System;
2. public class Animal{
3. public virtual void eat(){
4. Console.WriteLine("Eating...");
5. }
6. }
7. public class Dog: Animal
8. {
9. public override void eat()
10. {
11. Console.WriteLine("Eating bread...");
12. }
13. }
14. public class TestOverriding
15. {
16. public static void Main()
17. {
18. Dog d = new Dog();
19. d.eat();
20. }
21. }
 Page 99

Output:
Eating bread...
C# Polymorphism
The term "Polymorphism" is the combination of "poly" + "morphs" which means many
forms. It is a greek word. In object-oriented programming, we use 3 main concepts:
inheritance, encapsulation and polymorphism.

There are two types of polymorphism in C#: compile time polymorphism and runtime
polymorphism. Compile time polymorphism is achieved by method overloading and
operator overloading in C#. It is also known as static binding or early binding. Runtime
polymorphism in achieved by method overriding which is also known as dynamic binding
or late binding.

C# Runtime Polymorphism Example

Let's see a simple example of runtime polymorphism in C#.

1. using System;
2. public class Animal{
3. public virtual void eat(){
4. Console.WriteLine("eating...");
5. }
6. }
7. public class Dog: Animal
8. {
9. public override void eat()
10. {
11. Console.WriteLine("eating bread...");
12. }
13.
14. }
15. public class TestPolymorphism
16. {
17. public static void Main()
 Page 100

18. {
19. Animal a= new Dog();
20. a.eat();
21. }
22. }

Output:

eating bread...

C# Runtime Polymorphism Example 2

Let's see a another example of runtime polymorphism in C# where we are having two
derived classes.

1. using System;
2. public class Shape{
3. public virtual void draw(){
4. Console.WriteLine("drawing...");
5. }
6. }
7. public class Rectangle: Shape
8. {
9. public override void draw()
10. {
11. Console.WriteLine("drawing rectangle...");
12. }
13.
14. }
15. public class Circle : Shape
16. {
17. public override void draw()
18. {
19. Console.WriteLine("drawing circle...");
 Page 101

20. }
21.
22. }
23. public class TestPolymorphism
24. {
25. public static void Main()
26. {
27. Shape s;
28. s = new Shape();
29. s.draw();
30. s = new Rectangle();
31. s.draw();
32. s = new Circle();
33. s.draw();
34.
35. }
36. }
Output:
drawing...
drawing rectangle...
drawing circle...
Runtime Polymorphism with Data Members

Runtime Polymorphism can't be achieved by data members in C#. Let's see an example
where we are accessing the field by reference variable which refers to the instance of
derived class.

1. using System;
2. public class Animal{
3. public string color = "white";
4.
5. }
6. public class Dog: Animal
 Page 102

7. {
8. public string color = "black";
9. }
10. public class TestSealed
11. {
12. public static void Main()
13. {
14. Animal d = new Dog(); 15. Console.WriteLine(d.color);
16.
17. }
18. }

Output:

white

C# Abstraction
C# Abstract
Abstract classes are the way to achieve abstraction in C#. Abstraction in C# is the process
to hide the internal details and showing functionality only. Abstraction can be achieved
by two ways:

1. Abstract class
2. Interface

Abstract class and interface both can have abstract methods which are necessary for
abstraction.

Abstract Method

A method which is declared abstract and has no body is called abstract method. It can be
declared inside the abstract class only. Its implementation must be provided by derived
classes. For example:

1. public abstract void draw();

 Page 103

An abstract method in C# is internally a virtual method so it can be overridden by the

derived class.

You can't use static and virtual modifiers in abstract method declaration.

C# Abstract class

In C#, abstract class is a class which is declared abstract. It can have abstract and
nonabstract methods. It cannot be instantiated. Its implementation must be provided by
derived classes. Here, derived class is forced to provide the implementation of all the
abstract methods.

Let's see an example of abstract class in C# which has one abstract method draw(). Its
implementation is provided by derived classes: Rectangle and Circle. Both classes have
different implementation.

1. using System;
2. public abstract class Shape
3. {
4. public abstract void draw();
5. }
6. public class Rectangle : Shape
7. {
8. public override void draw()
9. {
10. Console.WriteLine("drawing rectangle...");
11. }
12. }
13. public class Circle : Shape
14. {
15. public override void draw()
16. {
17. Console.WriteLine("drawing circle...");
18. }
19. }
 Page 104

20. public class TestAbstract

21. {
22. public static void Main()
23. {
24. Shape s;
25. s = new Rectangle();
26. s.draw();
27. s = new Circle();
28. s.draw();
29. }
30. }

Output:

drawing ractangle... drawing

circle...
 Page 105

C# Interface
Interface in C# is a blueprint of a class. It is like abstract class because all the methods
which are declared inside the interface are abstract methods. It cannot have method body
and cannot be instantiated.

It is used to achieve multiple inheritance which can't be achieved by class. It is used to

achieve fully abstraction because it cannot have method body.

Its implementation must be provided by class or struct. The class or struct which
implements the interface, must provide the implementation of all the methods declared
inside the interface.

C# interface example

Let's see the example of interface in C# which has draw() method. Its implementation is
provided by two classes: Rectangle and Circle.

ADVERTISEMENT

1. using System;
2. public interface Drawable
3. {
4. void draw();
5. }
6. public class Rectangle : Drawable
7. {
8. public void draw()
9. {
10. Console.WriteLine("drawing rectangle...");
11. }
12. }
13. public class Circle : Drawable
14. {
15. public void draw()
16. {
 Page 106

17. Console.WriteLine("drawing circle...");

18. }
19. }
20. public class TestInterface
21. {
22. public static void Main()
23. {
24. Drawable d;
25. d = new Rectangle();
26. d.draw();
27. d = new Circle();
28. d.draw();
29. }
30. }

Output:
drawing ractangle...
drawing circle...
Note: Interface methods are public and abstract by default. You cannot explicitly
use public and abstract keywords for an interface method.
1. using System;
2. public interface Drawable
3. {
4. public abstract void draw();//Compile Time Error
5. }

C# Namespace
C# Namespaces
Namespaces in C# are used to organize too many classes so that it can be easy to handle
the application.

In a simple C# program, we use System.Console where System is the namespace and

Console is the class. To access the class of a namespace, we need to use
 Page 107

namespacename.classname. We can use using keyword so that we don't have to use

complete name all the time.

In C#, global namespace is the root namespace. The global::System will always refer to the
namespace "System" of .Net Framework.

C# namespace example

Let's see a simple example of namespace which contains one class "Program".

1. using System;
2. namespace ConsoleApplication1
3. {
4. class Program
5. {
6. static void Main(string[] args)
7. {
8. Console.WriteLine("Hello Namespace!");
9. }
10. }
11. }

Output:
Hello Namespace!

C# namespace example: by fully qualified name

Let's see another example of namespace in C# where one namespace program accesses
another namespace program.

1. using System;
2. namespace First {
3. public class Hello
4. {
5. public void sayHello() { Console.WriteLine("Hello First Namespace"); }
6. }
 Page 108

7. }
8. namespace Second
9. {
10. public class Hello
11. {
12. public void sayHello() { Console.WriteLine("Hello Second Namespace"); }
13. }
14. }
15. public class TestNamespace
16. {
17. public static void Main()
18. {
19. First.Hello h1 = new First.Hello();
20. Second.Hello h2 = new Second.Hello();
21. h1.sayHello();
22. h2.sayHello();
23.
24. }
25. }

Output:
Hello First Namespace
Hello Second Namespace

C# namespace example: by using ke yword

Let's see another example of namespace where we are using "using" keyword so that we
don't have to use complete name for accessing a namespace program.

1. using System;
2. using First;
3. using Second;
4. namespace First {
5. public class Hello
 Page 109

6. {
7. public void sayHello() { Console.WriteLine("Hello Namespace"); }
8. }
9. }
10. namespace Second
11. {
12. public class Welcome
13. {
14. public void sayWelcome() { Console.WriteLine("Welcome Namespace"); }
15. }
16. }
17. public class TestNamespace
18. {
19. public static void Main()
20. {
21. Hello h1 = new Hello();
22. Welcome w1 = new Welcome();
23. h1.sayHello();
24. w1.sayWelcome();
25. }
26. }

Output:

Hello Namespace Welcome

Namespace

C# Access Modifiers / Specifiers

C# Access modifiers or specifiers are the keywords that are used to specify accessibility or
scope of variables and functions in the C# application.

C# provides five types of access specifiers.

1. Public
 Page 110

Access Specifier Description

Public It specifies that access is not restricted.

Protected It specifies that access is limited to the containing class or in derived class.

Internal It specifies that access is limited to the current assembly.

protected internal It specifies that access is limited to the current assembly or types derived
from

Private It specifies that access is limited to the containing type.

2. Protected

3. Internal

4. Protected internal
5. Private

We can choose any of these to protect our data. Public is not restricted and Private is most
restricted. The following table describes about the accessibility of each.

Now, let's create examples to check accessibility of each access specifier.

1) C# Public Access Specifier

It makes data accessible publicly. It does not restrict data to the declared block.

Example

1. using System;
2. namespace AccessSpecifiers
3. {
 Page 111

4. class PublicTest
5. {
6. public string name = "Shantosh Kumar";
7. public void Msg(string msg)
8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + msg);
10. }
11. }
12. class Program
13. {
14. static void Main(string[] args)
15. {
16. PublicTest publicTest = new PublicTest();
17. // Accessing public variable
18. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + publicTest.name);
19. // Accessing public function
20. publicTest.Msg("Peter Decosta");
21. }
22. }
23. }

Output:

Hello Shantosh Kumar

Hello Peter Decosta
2) C# Protected Access Specifier

It is accessible within the class and has limited scope. It is also accessible within sub class
or child class, in case of inheritance.

Example

1. using System;
2. namespace AccessSpecifiers
3. {
 Page 112

4. class ProtectedTest
5. {
6. protected string name = "Shashikant";
7. protected void Msg(string msg)
8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + msg);
10. }
11. }
12. class Program
13. {
14. static void Main(string[] args)
15. {
16. ProtectedTest protectedTest = new ProtectedTest();
17. // Accessing protected variable
18. Console.WriteLine("Hello "+ protectedTest.name);
19. // Accessing protected function
20. protectedTest.Msg("Swami Ayyer");
21. }
22. }
23. }

Output:

Compile time error

'ProtectedTest.name' is inaccessible due to its protection level. Example2

Here, we are accessing protected members within child class by inheritance.

1. using System;
2. namespace AccessSpecifiers
3. {
4. class ProtectedTest
5. {
6. protected string name = "Shashikant";
 Page 113

7. protected void Msg(string msg)

8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + msg);
10. }
11. }
12. class Program : ProtectedTest
13. {
14. static void Main(string[] args)
15. {
16. Program program = new Program();
17. // Accessing protected variable
18. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + program.name);
19. // Accessing protected function
20. program.Msg("Swami Ayyer");
21. }
22. }
23. }

Output:

Hello Shashikant
Hello Swami Ayyer
3) C# Internal Access Specifier

The internal keyword is used to specify the internal access specifier for the variables and
functions. This specifier is accessible only within files in the same assembly.

Example

1. using System;
2. namespace AccessSpecifiers
3. {
4. class InternalTest
5. {
6. internal string name = "Shantosh Kumar";
 Page 114

7. internal void Msg(string msg)

8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + msg);
10. }
11. }
12. class Program
13. {
14. static void Main(string[] args)
15. {
16. InternalTest internalTest = new InternalTest();
17. // Accessing internal variable
18. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + internalTest.name);
19. // Accessing internal function
20. internalTest.Msg("Peter Decosta");
21. }
22. }
23. }

Output:

Hello Shantosh Kumar

Hello Peter Decosta
4) C# Protected Internal Access Specifier

Variable or function declared protected internal can be accessed in the assembly in which
it is declared. It can also be accessed within a derived class in another assembly.

Example

1. using System;
2. namespace AccessSpecifiers
3. {
4. class InternalTest
5. {
6. protected internal string name = "Shantosh Kumar";
 Page 115

7. protected internal void Msg(string msg)

8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + msg);
10. }
11. }
12. class Program
13. {
14. static void Main(string[] args)
15. {
16. InternalTest internalTest = new InternalTest();
17. // Accessing protected internal variable
18. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + internalTest.name);
19. // Accessing protected internal function
20. internalTest.Msg("Peter Decosta");
21. }
22. }
23. }

Output:
Hello Shantosh Kumar
Hello Peter Decosta
5) C# Private Access Specifier

Private Access Specifier is used to specify private accessibility to the variable or function.
It is most restrictive and accessible only within the body of class in which it is declared.

Example

1. using System;
2. namespace AccessSpecifiers
3. {
4. class PrivateTest
5. {
6. private string name = "Shantosh Kumar";
 Page 116

7. private void Msg(string msg)

8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + msg);
10. }
11. }
12. class Program
13. {
14. static void Main(string[] args)
15. {
16. PrivateTest privateTest = new PrivateTest();
17. // Accessing private variable
18. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + privateTest.name);
19. // Accessing private function
20. privateTest.Msg("Peter Decosta");
21. }
22. }
23. }
Output:

Compile time error

'PrivateTest.name' is inaccessible due to its protection level.

C# Private Specifier Example 2

1. using System;
2. namespace AccessSpecifiers
3. {
4. class Program
5. {
6. private string name = "Shantosh Kumar";
7. private void Msg(string msg)
8. {
9. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + msg);
 Page 117

10. }
11. static void Main(string[] args)
12. {
13. Program program = new Program();
14. // Accessing private variable
15. Console.WriteLine("Hello " + program.name);
16. // Accessing private function
17. program.Msg("Peter Decosta");
18. }
19. }
20. }

Output:
Hello Shantosh Kumar
Hello Peter Decosta
C# Encapsulation

Encapsulation is the concept of wrapping data into a single unit. It collects data members
and member functions into a single unit called class. The purpose of encapsulation is to
prevent alteration of data from outside. This data can only be accessed by getter functions
of the class.

A fully encapsulated class has getter and setter functions that are used to read and write
data. This class does not allow data access directly.

Here, we are creating an example in which we have a class that encapsulates properties
and provides getter and setter functions.

Example

1. namespace AccessSpecifiers
2. {
3. class Student
4. {
5. // Creating setter and getter for each property
6. public string ID { get; set; }
 Page 118

7. public string Name { get; set; }

8. public string Email { get; set; }
9. }
10. }
1. using System;
2. namespace AccessSpecifiers
3. {
4. class Program
5. {
6. static void Main(string[] args)
7. {
8. Student student = new Student();
9. // Setting values to the properties
10. student.ID = "101";
11. student.Name = "Mohan Ram";
12. student.Email = "[email protected]";
13. // getting values
14. Console.WriteLine("ID = "+student.ID);
15. Console.WriteLine("Name = "+student.Name);
16. Console.WriteLine("Email = "+student.Email);
17. }
18. }
19. }

Output:

ID = 101
Name = Mohan Ram
Email = [email protected]

C# Strings
In C#, string is an object of System.String class that represent sequence of characters.
We can perform many operations on strings such as concatenation, comparision, getting
substring, search, trim, replacement etc.
 Page 119

String vs String

In C#, string is keyword which is an alias for System.String class. That is why string and
String are equivalent. We are free to use any naming convention.

1. string s1 = "hello";//creating string using string keyword

2. String s2 = "welcome";//creating string using String class C#
String Example
1. using System;
2. public class StringExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. string s1 = "hello";
7.
8. char[] ch = { 'c', 's', 'h', 'a', 'r', 'p' };
9. string s2 = new string(ch);
10.
11. Console.WriteLine(s1);
12. Console.WriteLine(s2);
13. }
14. }

Output:
hello
csharp
C# Exception Handling
Exception Handling in C# is a process to handle runtime errors. We perform exception
handling so that normal flow of the application can be maintained even after runtime
errors.

In C#, exception is an event or object which is thrown at runtime. All exceptions the
derived from System.Exception class. It is a runtime error which can be handled. If we don't
handle the exception, it prints exception message and terminates the program.
 Page 120

Advantage

It maintains the normal flow of the application. In such case, rest of the code is executed
event after exception.

C# Exception Handling Keywords

In C#, we use 4 keywords to perform exception handling:

o try o catch o

finally, and o
throw

C# try/catch

In C# programming, exception handling is performed by try/catch statement. The try

block in C# is used to place the code that may throw exception. The catch block is used
to handled the exception. The catch block must be preceded by try block.

C# example without try/catch

1. using System;
2. public class ExExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. int a = 10;
7. int b = 0;
8. int x = a/b;
9. Console.WriteLine("Rest of the code");
10. }
11. }

Output:

Unhandled Exception: System.DivideByZeroException: Attempted to divide

by zero.
 Page 121

C# try/catch example

1. using System;
2. public class ExExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. try
7. {
8. int a = 10;
9. int b = 0;
10. int x = a / b;
11. }
12. catch (Exception e) { Console.WriteLine(e); }
13.
14. Console.WriteLine("Rest of the code");
15. }
16. }

Output:

System.DivideByZeroException: Attempted to divide by zero.

Rest of the code
C# finally

C# finally block is used to execute important code which is to be executed whether

exception is handled or not. It must be preceded by catch or try block.

C# finally example if exception is handled

1. using System;
2. public class ExExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
 Page 122

6. try
7. {
8. int a = 10;
9. int b = 0;
10. int x = a / b;
11. }
12. catch (Exception e) { Console.WriteLine(e); }
13. finally { Console.WriteLine("Finally block is executed"); }
14. Console.WriteLine("Rest of the code");
15. }
16. }

Output:

System.DivideByZeroException: Attempted to divide by zero.

Finally block is executed
Rest of the code

C# finally example if exception is not handled

1. using System;
2. public class ExExample
3. {
4. public static void Main(string[] args)
5. {
6. try
7. {
8. int a = 10;
9. int b = 0;
10. int x = a / b;
11. }
12. catch (NullReferenceException e) { Console.WriteLine(e); }
13. finally { Console.WriteLine("Finally block is executed"); }
14. Console.WriteLine("Rest of the code");
 Page 123

15. }
16. }

Output:

Unhandled Exception: System.DivideBy

C# | Boxing and Unboxing
Boxing in C#:
• The process of converting a Value Type variable (char, int etc.) to a Reference Type
variable (object) is called Boxing.
• Boxing is an implicit conversion process in which object type (super type) is used.
• Value Type variables are always stored in Stack memory, while Reference Type variables are
stored in Heap memory.
• Example : int num = 23; // 23 will assigned to num
Object Obj = num; // Boxing
• Description : First, we declare a Value Type variable num of the type int and initialise it with
value 23. Now, we create a Reference Type variable obj of the type Object and assign num
to it. This assignment implicitly results in the Value Type variable num to be copied and
stored in Reference Type variable obj as shown in below figure :

Boxing

• Let’s understand Boxing with a C# programming code :

Csharp
 Page 124

// C# implementation to demonstrate

// the Boxing

using System;

class GFG //

Main Method

static public void Main()

// assigned int value

// 2020 to num

int num = 2020;

// boxing object

obj = num;

// value of num to be change

num = 100;

System.Console.WriteLine

("Value - type value of num is : {0}", num);

 Page 125

System.Console.WriteLine

("Object - type value of obj is : {0}", obj);

Output:
Value - type value of num is : 100
Object - type value of obj is : 2020

Unboxing In C#
• The process of converting a Reference Type variable into a Value Type variable is known as
Unboxing.
It is an explicit conversion process.
Example :
int num = 23; // value type is int and assigned value 23
Object Obj = num; // Boxing
int i = (int)Obj; // Unboxing

• Description : We declare a Value Type variable num, which is of the type int and assign it
with integer value 23. Now, we create a Reference Type variable obj of the type Object, in
which we box the variable num. Now, we create a Value Type integer i to unbox the value
from obj. This is done using the casting method, in which we explicitly specify that obj must
be cast as an int value. Thus, the Reference Type variable residing in the heap memory is
copied to stack as shown in below figure :
 Page 126

Unboxing
• Let’s understand Unboxing with a C# programming code :

Csharp
 Page 127

// C# implementation to demonstrate

// the Unboxing

using System; class

GFG {

// Main Method

static public void Main()

// assigned int value

// 23 to num int

num = 23;

// boxing object

obj = num;

// unboxing

int i = (int)obj;

// Display result
 Page 128

Console.WriteLine("Value of ob object is : " + obj);

Console.WriteLine("Value of i is : " + i);

Output:
Value of ob object is : 23
Value of i is : 23

In cases such as unboxing of a null object or casting the object as an incompatible data type,
the program throws exceptions.

3-tier architecture in c#
This article briefly discusses the three-tier application in c#. A three-tier architecture divides the
project into three layers: the user interfaces layer, the business layer, and the data (database)
layer, and separates the UI, logic, and data into three layers.

If a user wants to change her UI from Windows to Phone, she can change the UI layer, and the
other layers will not be affected by this change. Otherwise, everything remains the same.

Why do we use 3 tier application on any project?

We use a three-tier structure to control large projects. For instance, let us say you wrote 2000
entity codes and coded all the code in a single layer. Say you want to interchange between home
 Page 129

windows software and cellular or web applications, and you must rewrite the code for all 2000
entities.

You must trade the database connection for all 2000 entities if you change the database provider.
Increase. So, writing a lot of code wastes money and time. Additionally, writing numerous codes
in layers makes it difficult for new humans to apprehend them.

Therefore, a project should use a three-tier architecture to provide maintenance, flexibility,

update, and clean and understandable code without affecting other parts.

So, we use 3-tier architecture because of these points -

1. Accelerated development: Different teams can improve each layer simultaneously,

optimizing product time-to-market and allowing developers to use the latest tools and
the best languages for each layer.
2. Improved scalability: Each tier can always be scaled independently by deploying
applications in different tiers.
3. Improved Reliability: With different tiers, you can also run other parts of your
application on different servers and use cached results to enhance reliability and
availability.

4. Enhanced Security: Leverages a well-designed application layer as an internal firewall

that helps prevent SQL injection and other malicious exploits.

What is the difference between layer and tier?

Layers:

1. Definition: Layers refer to the logical separation of components within the same
application or system.
2. Purpose: Layers are used to organize and structure different functionalities of an
application, such as presentation (UI), business logic, and data access.
3. Example: In a typical 3-layer architecture (presentation layer, business logic layer, data
access layer), each layer serves a distinct purpose and communicates with adjacent
layers to fulfill application tasks.
4. Interaction: Layers interact directly with adjacent layers within the same application or
system.

Tiers:
 Page 130

1. Definition: Tiers refer to the physical separation of components into distinct parts that
may be deployed on separate machines or servers.
2. Purpose: Tiers are used for scalability, distribution of workload, and sometimes to
enforce security boundaries.
3. Example: In a 3-tier architecture, you might have the presentation tier (client-side
interface), the application tier (server-side logic), and the data tier (database or external
data source).
4. Interaction: Tiers interact over a network or some form of communication protocol
(e.g., HTTP, TCP/IP), which allows them to communicate across different physical
locations or machines.

Another difference arises from the responsibility of the lowest-level component of each architecture.

The data access layer does not provide data, so most of the time, the data resides in the
application layer (some designs are separated into one layer).

In this view, one level can contain multiple levels. For example, a mobile phone camera
application is n-tier. It is also called a single-tier application because all the processes run on the
phone.

Presentation Layer: The user interacts with the app to capture images.

Data Access Level: Apps access device memory to store processed information.

What are the three parts of the three-tier architecture?

The three-tier architecture includes three tiers, these are -

1.Presentation Tier:

 This is where the user interacts with the application.

 In C#, it typically involves creating the user interface (UI) using technologies like
Windows Forms, WPF (Windows Presentation Foundation), or ASP.NET for web
applications.
 The main goal here is to present data to the user and capture user inputs (like button
clicks, text inputs, etc.).

3. Business Tier:

 This layer contains the logic that drives the application and processes data
based on the user input from the presentation layer.
 Page 131

 In C#, this layer consists of classes and methods that implement business
rules, calculations, and validations.
 It acts as a bridge between the presentation layer and the data access layer,
ensuring that data is processed correctly according to the business
requirements.

4. Data Tier:

 This layer is responsible for interacting with the data storage systems such as
databases or external services.
 In C#, it often involves using technologies like ADO.NET, Entity Framework, or
other ORM (Object-Relational Mapping) frameworks.
 Its main tasks include querying data, inserting or updating data, and handling
transactions with the underlying data storage.

Application of 3 tiers using C#:

This is the heart of the 3-tier architecture and the most complex and difficult implementation
layer. So, you need an excellent design to manage and organize your code. Therefore, we used a
3-tier architecture for this tier.

This level does not interact with the user. Interact with other layers/applications. In other words,
the presentation layer (application layer) is not the user interface.

What are the advantages and drawbacks of 3-tier architecture?

Advantages:

1. Data Provider queries can be easily updated, making applying OOP concepts to your
projects easy.
2. Updating to the new graphical environment is now easier and faster.

Drawbacks:

1. Complex and time-consuming to build.

2. This is more complicated than a simple client-server architecture.
3. Users should be familiar with object-oriented concepts.

Example:
 Page 132

1. Presentation Layer (User Interface):

• Role: Imagine you have a restaurant with a menu displayed on a digital tablet at each
table.
• Functionality: Customers use the tablet to browse the menu, select dishes, and place
their orders.
• Technology: The tablet interface (like a touch screen) is designed using user-friendly
buttons and displays to make ordering easy for customers.

2. Business Logic Layer:

• Role: In the kitchen, the chef receives orders and prepares dishes according to the
restaurant's recipes and standards.
• Implementation: This layer ensures that orders are processed correctly, ingredients are
available, and cooking times are managed efficiently.
• Example: If a customer orders a steak, the business logic layer ensures the steak is
cooked to the desired doneness and served with appropriate sides.

3. Data Access Layer:

• Role: Behind the scenes, the restaurant's inventory system tracks ingredient levels and
manages stock.
• Implementation: This layer communicates with the inventory database to check
ingredient availability when an order is placed.
• Example: When an order is received for a dish, the data access layer deducts the
necessary ingredients from the inventory database to ensure accurate stock levels.

ADO.NET Introduction
What is ADO.NET?

ADO.NET (ActiveX Data Objects for .NET) is a technology in the .NET framework that allows
developers to interact with data sources such as databases and XML files. It provides a set of
classes and libraries for data access, manipulation, and management in applications built using
.NET languages like C# and VB.NET.

ADO.NET is powerful for managing data in .NET applications, providing essential tools and
flexibility for interacting with various data sources efficiently.

.NET Framework Data Providers

These are the components that are designed for data manipulation and fast access to data. It
provides various objects such as Connection, Command, DataReader and DataAdapter that are
 Page 133

used to perform database operations. We will have a detailed discussion about Data Providers
in new topic.

The DataSet

It is used to access data independently from any data resource. DataSet contains a collection of
one or more DataTable objects of data. The following diagram shows the relationship between
.NET Framework data provider and DataSet.

Fig: ADO.NET Architecture

Let's break down the architecture and components of ADO.NET in easy wording:

1. Data Providers:

• Definition: Data providers in ADO.NET are components that interact with different types
of data sources, such as databases (SQL Server, Oracle), XML files, and more.
• Example: For SQL Server, you use the System.Data.SqlClient namespace; for Oracle, it's
System.Data.OracleClient.

2. Connection:

• Definition: The connection establishes a connection to the data source, enabling

communication between the application and the database.
 Page 134

• Functionality: It includes details like server address, database name, and authentication
credentials.
• Example: SqlConnection for SQL Server, OracleConnection for Oracle databases.

3. Command:

• Definition: Commands (like SqlCommand or OracleCommand) are used to execute SQL

queries, stored procedures, or commands against the database.
• Functionality: They can retrieve data (SELECT), modify data (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE),
or execute stored procedures.
• Example: SqlCommand for SQL Server to execute SQL queries.

4. DataReader:

• Definition: The DataReader provides a fast, forward-only, read-only stream of data

retrieved from the database.
• Functionality: It's used for retrieving large volumes of data efficiently, row by row.
• Example: SqlDataReader for SQL Server.

5. DataAdapter:

• Definition: The DataAdapter acts as a bridge between a dataset (in-memory

representation of data) and the data source.
• Functionality: It fills a dataset with data from the database using commands
(SelectCommand, InsertCommand, UpdateCommand, DeleteCommand) and updates
changes made to the dataset back to the database. Example: SqlDataAdapter for
SQL Server.

6. DataSet:

• Definition: A DataSet is an in-memory representation of data retrieved from the data

source.
• Functionality: It can hold multiple DataTables (representing tabular data) and their
relationships.
• Example: DataSet containing multiple DataTable objects.

Workflow:

• Establish Connection: Open a connection to the database using a connection string.

• Execute Commands: Create and execute commands to retrieve or manipulate data.
• Retrieve Data: Use DataReader to fetch data row by row for read-only operations.
• Manipulate Data (optional): Modify data using DataSet, DataTables, and DataRows.
 Page 135

• Update Database: Use DataAdapter to update changes made to the DataSet back to the
database.
• Close Connection: Close the connection to release resources.
Example Scenario: Imagine building a simple C# application to manage employee information:

• Connection: Establish a connection to a SQL Server database where employee details

are stored.
• Command: Execute SQL queries to retrieve employee information or update employee
records.
• DataReader: Use a DataReader to display employee details one at a time as users
browse through employee profiles.
• DataAdapter and DataSet: Use a DataAdapter to fill a DataSet with employee data.
Modify the DataSet locally (like updating an employee's contact information) and use
the DataAdapter to update these changes back to the database.

ADO.NET Framework Data Providers

Data provider is used to connect to the database, execute commands and retrieve the record. It
is lightweight component with better performance. It also allows us to place the data into DataSet
to use it further in our application. .NET Framework Data Providers Objects

1. Connection Object:

• Role: Establishes a connection to a database or data source.

• Example: SqlConnection for SQL Server, OracleConnection for Oracle databases.

2. Command Object:

• Role: Executes SQL queries or stored procedures against the data source.
• Example: SqlCommand for SQL Server, OracleCommand for Oracle databases.

3. DataReader Object:

• Role: Retrieves data from the database in a read-only, forward-only manner.

• Example: SqlDataReader for SQL Server, OracleDataReader for Oracle databases.

4. DataAdapter and DataSet Objects:

• Role: Manages the retrieval and manipulation of data between the application and the
database.
• Example: SqlDataAdapter for SQL Server, DataSet for storing data in-memory.
 Page 136

ADO.NET SQL Server Connection

To connect with SQL Server, we must have it installed in our system. We are using Microsoft SQL Server
Management Tool to connect with the SQL Server. We can use this tool to handle database. Now, follow
the following steps to connect with SQL Server.

1. Open Microsoft SQL Server Management Tool

It will prompt for database connection. Provide the server name and authentication.

After successful connection, it displays the following window.

 Page 137

2. Creating Database

Now, create database by selecting database option then right click on it. It pops up an option
menu and provides couple of options.

Click on the New Database then it will ask for the database name. Here, we have created
a Student database.
 Page 138

Click on the Ok button then it will create a database that we can see in the left window of the
below screenshot.

3. Establish connection and create a table

After creating database, now, let's create a table by using the following C# code. In this source
code, we are using created student database to connect.

In visual studio 2017, we created a .NET console application project that contains the following C#
code.

// Program.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Data.SqlClient;
3. namespace AdoNetConsoleApplication
4. {
5. class Program
6. {
 Page 139

7. static void Main(string[] args)

8. {
9. new Program().CreateTable();
10. }
11. public void CreateTable()
12. {
13. SqlConnection con = null;
14. try
15. {
16. // Creating Connection
17. con = new SqlConnection("data source=.; database=student; integrated security=SSPI");
18. // writing sql query
19. SqlCommand cm = new SqlCommand("create table student(id int not null,
20. name varchar(100), email varchar(50), join_date date)", con);
21. // Opening Connection
22. con.Open();
23. // Executing the SQL query
24. cm.ExecuteNonQuery();
25. // Displaying a message
26. Console.WriteLine("Table created Successfully");
27. }
28. catch (Exception e)
29. {
30. Console.WriteLine("OOPs, something went wrong."+e);
31. }
32. // Closing the connection
33. finally
34. {
35. con.Close();
36. }
37. }
38. }
39. }

Execute this code using Ctrl+F5. After executing, it displays a message to the console as below.
 Page 140

We can see the created table in Microsoft SQL Server Management Studio also. It shows the
created table as shown below.

See, we have a table here. Initially, this table is empty so we need to insert data into it.

4. Insert Data into the Table

// Program.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Data.SqlClient;
3. namespace AdoNetConsoleApplication
4. {
5. class Program
6. {
7. static void Main(string[] args)
8. {
9. new Program().CreateTable();
 Page 141

10. }
11. public void CreateTable()
12. {
13. SqlConnection con = null;
14. try
15. {
16. // Creating Connection
17. con = new SqlConnection("data source=.; database=student; integrated security=SSPI");
18. // writing sql query
19. SqlCommand cm = new SqlCommand("insert into student
20. (id, name, email, join_date)values('101','Ronald Trump','[email protected]','1/12/2017')", co
n);
21. // Opening Connection
22. con.Open();
23. // Executing the SQL query
24. cm.ExecuteNonQuery();
25. // Displaying a message
26. Console.WriteLine("Record Inserted Successfully");
27. }
28. catch (Exception e)
29. {
30. Console.WriteLine("OOPs, something went wrong."+e);
31. }
32. // Closing the connection
33. finally
34. {
35. con.Close();
36. }
37. }
38. }
39. }

Execute this code by using Ctrl+F5 and it will display the following output.
 Page 142

5. Retrieve Record

Here, we will retrieve the inserted data. Look at the following C# code.

// Program.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Data.SqlClient;
3. namespace AdoNetConsoleApplication
4. {
5. class Program
6. {
7. static void Main(string[] args)
8. {
9. new Program().CreateTable();
10. }
11. public void CreateTable()
12. {
13. SqlConnection con = null;
14. try
15. {
16. // Creating Connection
17. con = new SqlConnection("data source=.; database=student; integrated security=SSPI");
18. // writing sql query
19. SqlCommand cm = new SqlCommand("Select * from student", con);
20. // Opening Connection
21. con.Open();
22. // Executing the SQL query
23. SqlDataReader sdr = cm.ExecuteReader();
24. // Iterating Data
 Page 143

25. while (sdr.Read())

26. {
27. Console.WriteLine(sdr["id"] + " " + sdr["name"]+" "+sdr["email"]); // Displaying Record
28. }
29. }
30. catch (Exception e)
31. {
32. Console.WriteLine("OOPs, something went wrong.\n"+e);
33. }
34. // Closing the connection
35. finally
36. {
37. con.Close();
38. }
39. }
40. }
41. }

Execute this code by Ctrl+F5 and it will produce the following result. This displays two records,
one we inserted manually.

Output:

6. Deleting Record

This time student table contains two records. The following C# code delete one row from the table.

// Program.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Data.SqlClient;
3. namespace AdoNetConsoleApplication
 Page 144

4. {
5. class Program
6. {
7. static void Main(string[] args)
8. {
9. new Program().CreateTable();
10. }
11. public void CreateTable()
12. {
13. SqlConnection con = null;
14. try
15. {
16. // Creating Connection
17. con = new SqlConnection("data source=.; database=student; integrated security=SSPI");
18. // writing sql query
19. SqlCommand cm = new SqlCommand("delete from student where id = '101'", con);
20. // Opening Connection
21. con.Open();
22. // Executing the SQL query
23. cm.ExecuteNonQuery();
24. Console.WriteLine("Record Deleted Successfully");
25. }
26. catch (Exception e)
27. {
28. Console.WriteLine("OOPs, something went wrong.\n"+e);
29. }
30. // Closing the connection
31. finally
32. {
33. con.Close();
34. }
35. }
36. }
37. }
 Page 145

Output:

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It displays the following output.

We can verify it by retrieving data back by using SqlDataReader.

.NET Framework Data Provider for Oracle

It is used to connect with Oracle database through Oracle client. The data provider supports
Oracle client software version 8.1.7 or a later version. This data provider supports both local and
distributed transactions.

Oracle Data Provider classes are located into System.Data.OracleClient namespace. We must
use both System.Data.OracleClient and System.data to connect our application with the Oracle
database.

1. using System.Data;
2. using System.Data.OracleClient;

Which .NET Framework Data Provider is better

Choosing the "better" .NET Framework Data Provider depends on your specific requirements
and the data source you are interacting with. Here's a comparison of common .NET Framework
Data Providers to help you decide:

1. SqlConnection (for SQL Server):

• Best For: Interacting specifically with Microsoft SQL Server databases.

• Advantages: Optimized for SQL Server, provides direct integration and efficient data
access.
• Usage: Ideal when your application primarily interacts with SQL Server databases and
requires high performance and reliability.

2. OracleClient (for Oracle databases):

 Page 146

• Best For: Interacting with Oracle databases.

• Advantages: Provides direct support for Oracle databases, efficient data access
capabilities.
• Usage: Suitable when your application needs to connect to and work extensively with
Oracle databases, maintaining compatibility and performance.

3. OleDb (for OLE DB data sources):

• Best For: Interacting with a variety of data sources that support OLE DB.
• Advantages: Supports multiple data sources beyond just databases (e.g., Excel files,
Access databases), providing versatility.
• Usage: Useful when your application needs to interact with diverse data sources that
are accessible via OLE DB, though it may not be as optimized as provider-specific
options.

4. Odbc (for ODBC data sources):

• Best For: Interacting with databases and other data sources that support ODBC.
• Advantages: Offers broad compatibility with various data sources through ODBC drivers.
• Usage: Helpful when working with legacy systems or databases that only support ODBC
connections, but may not offer the same level of performance as provider-specific
options.

Choosing the Best Data Provider:

• Performance: Consider the performance requirements specific to your application and

data source. Provider-specific options like SqlConnection for SQL Server or OracleClient
for Oracle databases are often optimized for best performance.
• Compatibility: Ensure compatibility with your target data source. Each provider has
specific capabilities and optimizations tailored to certain databases or data sources.

ADO.NET SQL Server Connection

It is used to establish an open connection to the SQL Server database. It is a sealed class so that cannot
be inherited. SqlConnection class uses SqlDataAdapter and SqlCommand classes together to increase
performance when connecting to a Microsoft SQL Server database.

Connection does not close explicitly even it goes out of scope. Therefore, you must explicitly close the
connection by calling Close() method.
 Page 147

SqlConnection Signature
1. public sealed class SqlConnection : System.Data.Common.DbConnection, ICloneable, IDisposable
SqlConnection Constructors

Constructors Description

SqlConnection() It is used to initializes a new instance of the SqlConnection class.

SqlConnection(String)0 It is used to initialize a new instance of the SqlConnection class and takes
connection string as an argument.

SqlConnection(String, It is used to initialize a new instance of the SqlConnection class that takes two
SqlCredential) parameters. First is connection string and second is sql credentials.

SqlConnection Methods

Method Description

BeginTransaction() It is used to start a database transaction.

ChangeDatabase(String) It is used to change the current database for an open SqlConnection.

ChangePassword(String, It changes the SQL Server password for the user indicated in the connection
String) string.

Close() It is used to close the connection to the database.

CreateCommand() It enlists in the specified transaction as a distributed transaction.

GetSchema() It returns schema information for the data source of this SqlConnection.

Open() It is used to open a database connection.

ResetStatistics() It resets all values if statistics gathering is enabled.

 Page 148

SqlConnection Example
Now, let's create an example that establishes a connection to the SQL Server. We have created
a Student database and will use it to connect. Look at the following C# code.

1. using (SqlConnection connection = new SqlConnection(connectionString))

2. {
3. connection.Open();
4. }

Using block is used to close the connection automatically. We don't need to call close () method
explicitly, using block do this for ours implicitly when the code exits the block.

// Program.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Data.SqlClient;
3. namespace AdoNetConsoleApplication
4. {
5. class Program
6. {
7. static void Main(string[] args)
8. {
9. new Program().Connecting();
10. }
11. public void Connecting()
12. {
13. using (
14. // Creating Connection
15. SqlConnection con = new SqlConnection("data source=.; database=student; integrated security=SS
PI")
16. )
17. {
18. con.Open();
19. Console.WriteLine("Connection Established Successfully");
 Page 149

20. }
21. }
22. }
23. }

Output:

What, if we don't use using block.

If we don't use using block to create connection, we have to close connection explicitly. In the following
example, we are using try-block instead of using block.

// Program.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Data.SqlClient;
3. namespace AdoNetConsoleApplication
4. {
5. class Program
6. {
7. static void Main(string[] args)
8. {
9. new Program().Connecting();
10. }
11. public void Connecting()
12. {
13. SqlConnection con = null;
14. try
15. {
16. // Creating Connection
17. con = new SqlConnection("data source=.; database=student; integrated security=SSPI");
 Page 150

18. con.Open();
19. Console.WriteLine("Connection Established Successfully");
20. }
21. catch (Exception e)
22. {
23. Console.WriteLine("OOPs, something went wrong.\n"+e);
24. }
25. finally
26. { // Closing the connection
27. con.Close();
28. }
29. }
30. }
31. }

Output:

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ADO.NET SqlCommand Class

The SqlCommand class in ADO.NET is used to execute SQL queries or stored procedures against
a SQL Server database. It allows your C# (or other .NET language) application to interact with
the database by sending commands and retrieving results.

Example: Using SqlCommand to Execute a Query

Let's walk through a simple example to illustrate how to use SqlCommand:

1. Setting up the SqlConnection:

First, you need to set up the SqlConnection object to connect to your SQL Server
database. Here’s a basic example:
 Page 151

using System;
using System.Data.SqlClient;

class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
string connectionString = "Server=myServerAddress;Database=myDataBase;User
Id=myUsername;Password=myPassword;";
SqlConnection connection = new SqlConnection(connectionString);

try
{
connection.Open();
Console.WriteLine("Connection to database successful!");

// Your SqlCommand operations go here

}
catch (Exception ex)
{
Console.WriteLine("Error: " + ex.Message);
}
finally
{
connection.Close();
}
}
}

Replace myServerAddress, myDataBase, myUsername, and myPassword with your

actual database server details.

2. Executing a SELECT query using SqlCommand:

Now, let's use SqlCommand to execute a simple SELECT query and retrieve data from a
Users table:

try
{
string query = "SELECT * FROM Users";
SqlCommand command = new SqlCommand(query, connection);
 Page 152

SqlDataReader reader = command.ExecuteReader();

while (reader.Read())
{
Console.WriteLine($"User ID: {reader["UserID"]}, Name: {reader["Name"]}, Email:
{reader["Email"]}");
}

reader.Close();
}
catch (Exception ex)
{
Console.WriteLine("Error executing query: " + ex.Message);
}

o SqlCommand is created with the SQL query (SELECT * FROM Users) and the
SqlConnection.
o ExecuteReader() executes the query and returns a SqlDataReader object.
o SqlDataReader allows you to iterate over the results row by row (while
(reader.Read())), accessing each column by its name (reader["ColumnName"]).
3. Executing other types of queries:

SqlCommand can be used for other types of SQL commands as well, such as INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE, or executing stored procedures. Here's an example of executing an
INSERT query:

try
{
string insertQuery = "INSERT INTO Users (Name, Email) VALUES ('John Doe',
'[email protected]')";
SqlCommand insertCommand = new SqlCommand(insertQuery, connection);

int rowsAffected = insertCommand.ExecuteNonQuery();

Console.WriteLine($"Rows affected: {rowsAffected}");
}
catch (Exception ex)
{
Console.WriteLine("Error executing insert query: " + ex.Message);
}
 Page 153

o ExecuteNonQuery() is used for commands that don't return data (like INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE). It returns the number of rows affected.

ADO.NET SqlDataReader Class

The SqlDataReader class in ADO.NET allows your C# (or other .NET language) application to
efficiently retrieve data from a SQL Server database after executing a SQL query using
SqlCommand. It provides a forward-only stream of rows from the database and is especially
useful when dealing with large result sets.

How SqlDataReader Works

1. Executing a Query with SqlCommand:

First, you use SqlCommand to execute a SQL query against your database. Here’s a quick
recap from the previous example:

string connectionString = "Server=myServerAddress;Database=myDataBase;User

Id=myUsername;Password=myPassword;";
SqlConnection connection = new SqlConnection(connectionString);

try
{
connection.Open();
string query = "SELECT * FROM Users";
SqlCommand command = new SqlCommand(query, connection);

SqlDataReader reader = command.ExecuteReader();

// Use SqlDataReader to retrieve data

while (reader.Read())
{
// Access columns by their names or indexes
Console.WriteLine($"User ID: {reader["UserID"]}, Name: {reader["Name"]}, Email:
{reader["Email"]}");
}

reader.Close();
}
catch (Exception ex)
{
Console.WriteLine("Error: " + ex.Message);
 Page 154

} finally
{
connection.Close();
}

2. Iterating Through Results:

o ExecuteReader(): This method of SqlCommand returns a SqlDataReader object.
o Reading Data: Use the Read() method of SqlDataReader to advance to the next
row in the result set. It returns true if there are more rows to read; otherwise,
false when all rows have been read.
3. Accessing Data:
o Accessing Columns: Use SqlDataReader to access column values either by their
column name (reader["ColumnName"]) or by their ordinal position
(reader[index]).
o Data Types: SqlDataReader automatically converts database column types to
appropriate .NET data types (int, string, DateTime, etc.).
4. Closing the Reader:
o Closing: Always call Close() on the SqlDataReader object once you've finished
reading data to release resources and close the underlying connection.

Example Scenario

Imagine you have a Users table in your database with columns UserID, Name, and Email. Using
SqlDataReader, you can fetch all users and display their details in the console or perform
further processing in your application.

ADO.NET DataSet
What is a DataSet?

1. Storage for Data:

o A DataSet is like a container that holds data retrieved from a database. It keeps
this data in memory, making it easy for your program to work with.
2. Disconnected from Database:
o Unlike directly reading data with something like SqlDataReader, which needs a
live connection to the database, DataSet fetches data once and then
disconnects. This means you can work with the data offline without being
connected to the database all the time.
3. Structure:
o Inside a DataSet, you can have multiple tables (DataTable objects), each
resembling a table from your database. Each table has rows and columns, just
like in a database.
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4. Operations:
o Fetching Data: Use SqlDataAdapter to fill a DataSet with data from a database
table using SQL queries or stored procedures. o Manipulating Data: Once data is
in a DataSet, you can modify, add, or delete rows and columns as needed. o
Updating Database: When you're ready, changes made in the DataSet can be
sent back to the database using SqlDataAdapter.

Example Usage:

Let's illustrate with a simple scenario:

// Imagine you have a database with a table 'Users' having columns 'UserID', 'Name', 'Email'

// Setting up connection and DataSet

string connectionString = "Server=myServerAddress;Database=myDataBase;User
Id=myUsername;Password=myPassword;";
SqlConnection connection = new SqlConnection(connectionString);
DataSet dataSet = new DataSet();

try
{
// Open connection
connection.Open();

// SQL query to fetch data

string query = "SELECT * FROM Users";

// Create SqlDataAdapter to fill DataSet with data

SqlDataAdapter adapter = new SqlDataAdapter(query, connection);
adapter.Fill(dataSet, "Users"); // 'Users' is the name given to the DataTable in the DataSet

// Work with data in the DataSet

DataTable usersTable = dataSet.Tables["Users"];
foreach (DataRow row in usersTable.Rows)
{
Console.WriteLine($"User ID: {row["UserID"]}, Name: {row["Name"]}, Email:
{row["Email"]}");
}

// Example of adding a new row

DataRow newRow = usersTable.NewRow();
newRow["Name"] = "New User";
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newRow["Email"] = "[email protected]";
usersTable.Rows.Add(newRow);

// Update changes back to the database

SqlCommandBuilder commandBuilder = new SqlCommandBuilder(adapter);
adapter.Update(dataSet, "Users");

Console.WriteLine("Changes updated to the database.");

}
catch (Exception ex)
{
Console.WriteLine("Error: " + ex.Message);
} finally
{
// Close connection
connection.Close();
}

ADO.NET DataAdapter
What is a DataAdapter?

1. Data Bridge:
o Think of DataAdapter as a translator or messenger between your program and
the database.
o It manages communication for retrieving data (filling DataSet or DataTable) and
sending updates (updating the database).
2. Key Functions:
o Fetching Data: It uses SQL commands or stored procedures to fetch data from
the database and stores it in a DataSet or DataTable. o Updating Data: It helps in
applying changes made in the DataSet or DataTable back to the database. This
includes inserting, updating, or deleting rows.
3. Components:
o SelectCommand: Specifies the SQL query or stored procedure to fetch data from
the database.
o InsertCommand, UpdateCommand, DeleteCommand: Specify the SQL
commands or stored procedures to apply changes (insert, update, delete) from
DataSet back to the database.

Example Usage:

Here’s how you typically use DataAdapter to fetch data into a DataSet and update it back to the
database:
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// Setting up connection and DataAdapter

string connectionString = "Server=myServerAddress;Database=myDataBase;User
Id=myUsername;Password=myPassword;";
SqlConnection connection = new SqlConnection(connectionString);
DataSet dataSet = new DataSet();

try
{
// Open connection
connection.Open();

// Define SQL query to fetch data

string query = "SELECT * FROM Users";

// Create DataAdapter with SelectCommand

SqlDataAdapter adapter = new SqlDataAdapter(query, connection);

// Fill DataSet with data from database

adapter.Fill(dataSet, "Users"); // 'Users' is the name given to the DataTable in the DataSet

// Work with data in the DataSet

DataTable usersTable = dataSet.Tables["Users"];
foreach (DataRow row in usersTable.Rows)
{
Console.WriteLine($"User ID: {row["UserID"]}, Name: {row["Name"]}, Email:
{row["Email"]}");
}

// Example of adding a new row

DataRow newRow = usersTable.NewRow();
newRow["Name"] = "New User";
newRow["Email"] = "[email protected]";
usersTable.Rows.Add(newRow);

// Update changes back to the database

SqlCommandBuilder commandBuilder = new SqlCommandBuilder(adapter);
adapter.Update(dataSet, "Users");

Console.WriteLine("Changes updated to the database.");

}
catch (Exception ex)
{
 Page 158

Console.WriteLine("Error: " + ex.Message);

} finally
{
// Close connection
connection.Close();
}

ADO.NET Architecture: CONNECTED VS DISCONNECTED

Connected Architecture:
Explanation: In connected architecture, your application stays directly connected to the
database while it's interacting with data. This means:

• Continuous Connection: Your program opens a connection (SqlConnection) to the

database and keeps it open as long as it needs to fetch or update data.
• Real-Time Interaction: When you use SqlConnection and SqlCommand, you're directly
communicating with the database. For example, using SqlDataReader allows you to read
data row by row from the database.
• Immediate Updates: Any changes you make, like inserting new data or updating existing
records, are immediately reflected in the database. This architecture is ideal for
applications that need real-time access to data and immediate synchronization with the
database.

Example: Imagine a dashboard application that needs to display live stock prices from a
database. It uses a connected approach to continuously fetch and display the latest data in
realtime.

Disconnected Architecture:
Explanation: In disconnected architecture, your application fetches data from the database, but
then works with it locally without keeping a continuous connection open:

• Data Stored Locally: Instead of keeping a connection open, data is retrieved into a
DataSet or DataTable using DataAdapter.
• Offline Manipulation: Once data is in memory (DataSet), your application can work with
it offline. This means you can add, edit, or delete rows locally without affecting the
actual database immediately.
• Delayed Synchronization: Changes made to the DataSet are synchronized back to the
database only when you explicitly call DataAdapter.Update(). This architecture is useful
when you need to work with data offline or in batches, optimizing performance and
reducing load on the database server.
 Page 159

Example: Consider a mobile app for a delivery service. It downloads a list of orders into a
DataSet when online, allowing delivery drivers to view and update order statuses offline. When
they reconnect, the app syncs the local changes back to the central database.

Choosing Between Architectures:

• Connected: Use when real-time interaction with data and immediate updates to the
database are necessary, like in financial trading systems or live monitoring applications.
• Disconnected: Choose when working offline, batch processing, or reducing database
load are priorities, such as in mobile apps, reporting systems, or applications with
intermittent network connectivity.

SQL Injection
SQL injection is a code injection technique that might destroy your database.
SQL injection is one of the most common web hacking techniques.

SQL injection is the placement of malicious code in SQL statements, via web page input.

SQL in Web Pages

SQL injection usually occurs when you ask a user for input, like their username/userid, and
instead of a name/id, the user gives you an SQL statement that you will unknowingly run on
your database.

Look at the following example which creates a SELECT statement by adding a variable
(txtUserId) to a select string. The variable is fetched from user input (getRequestString):

ExampleGet your own SQL Server

txtUserId = getRequestString("UserId"); txtSQL = "SELECT *
FROM Users WHERE UserId = " + txtUserId;

SQL Injection Based on 1=1 is Always True

Look at the example above again. The original purpose of the code was to create an SQL
statement to select a user, with a given user id.

If there is nothing to prevent a user from entering "wrong" input, the user can enter some
"smart" input like this:
 Page 160

105 OR 1=1
UserId:

Then, the SQL statement will look like this:

SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105 OR 1=1;

The SQL above is valid and will return ALL rows from the "Users" table, since OR 1=1 is always
TRUE.

The SQL statement above is much the same as this:

SELECT UserId, Name, Password FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105 or 1=1;

A hacker might get access to all the user names and passwords in a database, by simply
inserting 105 OR 1=1 into the input field.

SQL Injection Based on ""="" is Always True Here

is an example of a user login on a web site:

Username:
John Doe

Password:
myPass

Example

uName = getRequestString("username");
uPass = getRequestString("userpassword");

sql = 'SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="' + uName + '" AND Pass ="' + uPass + '"'
Result
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="John Doe" AND Pass ="myPass"

A hacker might get access to user names and passwords in a database by simply inserting " OR
""=" into the user name or password text box:
 Page 161

User Name:

Password:

The code at the server will create a valid SQL statement like this:
Result
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="" or ""="" AND Pass ="" or ""=""

The SQL above is valid and will return all rows from the "Users" table, since OR ""="" is always
TRUE.

SQL Injection Based on Batched SQL Statements

Most databases support batched SQL statement.

A batch of SQL statements is a group of two or more SQL statements, separated by semicolons.

The SQL statement below will return all rows from the "Users" table, then delete the
"Suppliers" table.

Example
SELECT * FROM Users; DROP TABLE Suppliers Look

at the following example:

Example

txtUserId = getRequestString("UserId"); txtSQL = "SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = " +

txtUserId; And the following input:

105; DROP
User id: TA

The valid SQL statement would look like this:

Result
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105; DROP TABLE Suppliers;
 Page 162

Use SQL Parameters for Protection

To protect a web site from SQL injection, you can use SQL parameters.

SQL parameters are values that are added to an SQL query at execution time, in a controlled
manner.
ASP.NET Razor Example
txtUserId = getRequestString("UserId");
txtSQL = "SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = @0"; db.Execute(txtSQL,txtUserId);
Note that parameters are represented in the SQL statement by a @ marker.

The SQL engine checks each parameter to ensure that it is correct for its column and are
treated literally, and not as part of the SQL to be executed.

Another Example
txtNam =
getRequestString("CustomerName"); txtAdd =
getRequestString("Address"); txtCit =
getRequestString("City");
txtSQL = "INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,Address,City) Values(@0,@1,@2)";
db.Execute(txtSQL,txtNam,txtAdd,txtCit);

Examples

The following examples shows how to build parameterized queries in some common web
languages.

SELECT STATEMENT IN ASP.NET:

txtUserId = getRequestString("UserId");
sql = "SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerId = @0"; command
= new SqlCommand(sql);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@0",txtUserId);
command.ExecuteReader();

INSERT INTO STATEMENT IN ASP.NET:

 Page 163

txtNam =
getRequestString("CustomerName"); txtAdd =
getRequestString("Address"); txtCit =
getRequestString("City");
txtSQL = "INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,Address,City)
Values(@0,@1,@2)"; command = new SqlCommand(txtSQL);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@0",txtNam);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@1",txtAdd);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@2",txtCit); command.ExecuteNonQuery();

INSERT INTO STATEMENT IN PHP:

$stmt = $dbh->prepare("INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,Address,City)
VALUES (:nam, :add, :cit)");
$stmt->bindParam(':nam', $txtNam);
$stmt->bindParam(':add', $txtAdd);
$stmt->bindParam(':cit', $txtCit); $stmt->execute();

Parametrized queries in SQL:

What are Parameterized Queries?

1. Definition:
o Parameterized queries are SQL queries that use placeholders (parameters) for
input values, rather than directly inserting user-supplied data into the query
string.
2. Why Use Them?:
o They help prevent SQL injection attacks by separating SQL code from data inputs.
o Instead of concatenating strings (which can be manipulated by attackers),
parameters ensure that input values are treated as data, not executable code.
3. How They Work:
o In a parameterized query, placeholders (often denoted by question marks ? or
named parameters like @ParameterName) are used in the SQL statement where
values will be inserted.
o The actual values are provided separately when executing the query.
4. Example:
o Suppose you have a login query that checks if a username and password match
in a database:

SELECT * FROM Users WHERE username = @Username AND password =

@Password

 @Username and @Password are parameters here.

 Page 164

 When executing the query, you provide actual values for @Username
and @Password instead of embedding them directly into the SQL string.
5. Benefits:
o Security: Protects against SQL injection attacks by ensuring input values are
treated as data, not executable SQL code.
o Performance: Improves query performance because the database can optimize
execution plans for parameterized queries. o Maintainability: Easier to read
and maintain code since SQL logic and data values are clearly separated.

Implementation in SQL Server (Example):

Here’s how you might implement a parameterized query in SQL Server using SqlCommand in
C#:

string connectionString = "Server=myServerAddress;Database=myDataBase;User

Id=myUsername;Password=myPassword;";
string query = "SELECT * FROM Users WHERE username = @Username AND password =
@Password";

using (SqlConnection connection = new SqlConnection(connectionString))

{
SqlCommand command = new SqlCommand(query, connection);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@Username", usernameTextBox.Text);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@Password", passwordTextBox.Text);

connection.Open();

// Execute the query and process the results

SqlDataReader reader = command.ExecuteReader();
// Process the results as needed

connection.Close();
}

• SqlCommand is used with parameters @Username and @Password.

• Parameters.AddWithValue sets values for @Username and @Password from user
input
(e.g., text boxes).

By using parameterized queries, developers can create more secure and efficient applications
that protect against SQL injection vulnerabilities while maintaining clear and manageable SQL
code.
 Page 165

Sql Command Builder Class in disconnect method:

Definition

It's a tool provided by .NET for automating the generation of SQL commands that reflect
changes made to a DataSet or DataTable, ensuring data integrity between your application and
the database.

Step-by-Step Procedure

1. Fetch Data: Start by retrieving data from the database into a DataTable using a
SqlDataAdapter. This data can be manipulated locally without being continuously
connected to the database.

SqlDataAdapter dataAdapter = new SqlDataAdapter("SELECT * FROM YourTable",

connectionString);
DataTable dataTable = new DataTable();
dataAdapter.Fill(dataTable);

2. Modify Data Locally: Make changes to the data in the DataTable within your
application. These changes could involve updating existing records, adding new ones, or
deleting existing records.

// Example: Changing a value

foreach (DataRow row in dataTable.Rows)
{
row["ColumnName"] = "NewValue";
}

3. Create SqlCommandBuilder: Instantiate a SqlCommandBuilder using the

SqlDataAdapter. This step prepares the SqlDataAdapter to automatically generate SQL
commands based on changes detected in the DataTable.

SqlCommandBuilder commandBuilder = new SqlCommandBuilder(dataAdapter);

4. Update Database: Use the Update method of SqlDataAdapter to apply the changes from
the DataTable back to the database. The SqlCommandBuilder helps by generating the
necessary SQL commands (UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE) based on the changes made in the
DataTable.

dataAdapter.Update(dataTable);
 Page 166

5. Dispose Resources: Properly dispose of resources such as DataTable and

SqlDataAdapter to release database connections and free up memory.

dataTable.Dispose(); dataAdapter.Dispose();

Example
Suppose you have a Windows Forms application that displays employee information from a
database. You want to allow users to modify this information locally within the application and
then synchronize these changes back to the database using SqlCommandBuilder.
Step-by-Step Example

1. Setup

Assume you have a Windows Forms application with a DataGridView

(dataGridViewEmployees) bound to a DataTable (dataTableEmployees).

// Assume these are class-level variables private

DataTable dataTableEmployees; private SqlDataAdapter
dataAdapter; private SqlCommandBuilder
commandBuilder; private string connectionString =
"YourConnectionString";

2. Load Data

When the form loads, fetch data from the database into a DataTable and bind it to the
DataGridView.

private void Form1_Load(object sender, EventArgs e)

{
// Create a data adapter and fill the DataTable
dataAdapter = new SqlDataAdapter("SELECT * FROM Employees", connectionString);
dataTableEmployees = new DataTable();
dataAdapter.Fill(dataTableEmployees);

// Bind DataTable to DataGridView

dataGridViewEmployees.DataSource = dataTableEmployees;
}

3. Modify Data Locally

Allow users to modify data in the DataGridView. For simplicity, assume users can edit
cells directly in the DataGridView.
 Page 167

// No specific code needed here as users can directly edit DataGridView

4. Update Database

When the user wants to save changes back to the database (e.g., on a button click
event), use SqlCommandBuilder to automatically generate and execute SQL commands.

private void btnSaveChanges_Click(object sender, EventArgs e)

{
try
{
// Automatically generate INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE commands
commandBuilder = new SqlCommandBuilder(dataAdapter);

// Update database with changes from DataTable

dataAdapter.Update(dataTableEmployees);

MessageBox.Show("Changes saved successfully.");

}
catch (Exception ex)
{
MessageBox.Show("Error saving changes: " + ex.Message);
}
}

5. Dispose Resources

Properly dispose of resources to release database connections and clean up.

private void Form1_FormClosing(object sender, FormClosingEventArgs e)

{
// Dispose resources
dataTableEmployees.Dispose();
dataAdapter.Dispose();
}

Summary

In this example:

• We initially fetch data into a DataTable using a SqlDataAdapter.

• Users can modify data in a DataGridView.
 Page 168

• When the "Save Changes" button is clicked, SqlCommandBuilder helps generate SQL
commands (UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE) based on changes in the DataTable, which are
then used by SqlDataAdapter to update the database.
• Finally, resources are properly disposed to maintain efficient memory usage and
database connection management.

Delegates in C#:
Definition:

 A delegate in C# is a type that represents references to methods with a specific

signature (return type and parameters).
 It essentially acts as a method pointer or a contract for methods that can be invoked
through it.

Delegate Declaration:

• You define a delegate using the delegate keyword, specifying the method signature it
can reference. Example:

public delegate void MyDelegate(int x, int y);

o This delegate can reference methods that take two int parameters and return
void.

Usage Scenarios:

• Event Handling: Delegates are commonly used to implement event handling. They allow
methods to subscribe (register) and unsubscribe (deregister) from events dynamically.
• Callback Mechanisms: Used in scenarios where you want a method to call back another
method with results or status updates.
• Functional Programming: Facilitates functional programming techniques by treating
methods as first-class citizens.

Example Scenario:

• Suppose you have a scenario where you want to calculate and display the sum of two
numbers using different methods based on user input.

// Define a delegate
public delegate int CalculationDelegate(int a, int b);

// Methods to be assigned to the delegate

 Page 169

public class Calculator

{
public int Add(int a, int b)
{
return a + b;
}

public int Multiply(int a, int b)

{
return a * b;
}
}

class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
Calculator calculator = new Calculator();

// Assign methods to the delegate

CalculationDelegate operationDelegate = calculator.Add;
int result = PerformCalculation(5, 3, operationDelegate);
Console.WriteLine($"Result of addition: {result}");

operationDelegate = calculator.Multiply; result =

PerformCalculation(5, 3, operationDelegate);
Console.WriteLine($"Result of multiplication: {result}");
}

// Method that takes a delegate as parameter and invokes it

static int PerformCalculation(int x, int y, CalculationDelegate calculation)
{
return calculation(x, y);
}}

Multicast Delegates
1. Definition:
o A multicast delegate in C# is a type of delegate that can hold references to
multiple methods.
o It allows you to call multiple methods through a single delegate invocation.
 Page 170

2. Usage:
o Multicast delegates are particularly useful in scenarios where you want to notify
or trigger multiple methods in response to an event or action. o They
streamline event handling by allowing multiple subscribers to register and
receive notifications from a single event.
3. Syntax:
o To declare a multicast delegate, you use the same syntax as a regular delegate
but can add multiple methods to it using the += operator. o Example:

public delegate void MyDelegate();

// Instantiate the delegate

MyDelegate multicastDelegate = Method1;
multicastDelegate += Method2;
multicastDelegate += Method3;

// Invoke the delegate multicastDelegate();

4. Execution Order:
o When you invoke a multicast delegate (multicastDelegate() in the example), it
sequentially invokes each method that it holds references to.
o The methods are called in the order they were added (Method1, Method2,
Method3 in this case).
5. Example Scenario:
o Consider an application where you want to notify multiple subsystems when a
certain event occurs, such as saving data or updating a user interface.
o Each subsystem registers its method with a multicast delegate, and invoking the
delegate triggers all registered methods.

Benefits of Multicast Delegates

• Flexibility: Enables decoupling of event sources from event handlers, allowing for
modular and flexible architecture.
• Simplicity: Provides a straightforward way to manage multiple method calls through a
single delegate instance.
• Event-driven Design: Essential for implementing robust event-driven programming
patterns, like observer or publisher-subscriber models.

Introduction to Windows .forms:

What is Windows Forms?
 Page 171

1. GUI Framework:
o Windows Forms (WinForms) is a framework for developing Windows-based
applications with a graphical user interface (GUI).
o It provides a collection of pre-built controls like buttons, textboxes, labels, and
more, which you can drag and drop onto forms to design the user interface.
2. Event-driven Programming:
o WinForms uses event-driven programming model where actions like button
clicks or form loading trigger events, and you write code (event handlers) to
respond to these events.
o This model allows developers to create responsive applications that react to user
input and system events.
3. Integrated with .NET:
o WinForms is integrated with the .NET framework, leveraging features like
language interoperability (C#, VB.NET, etc.), memory management (via garbage
collection), and a rich class library for common tasks.
o It simplifies development by providing a consistent programming model across
different .NET languages.
4. Design and Development:
o Applications are typically designed using Visual Studio, a popular integrated
development environment (IDE) for .NET development. o You design forms
visually by dragging controls from the toolbox onto a design surface (form), then
customize their properties and write code to handle events.

Example Scenario:

Imagine you want to create a simple calculator application using Windows Forms:

• Design Phase:
o Open Visual Studio and create a new Windows Forms Application project. o
Design the calculator's user interface by dragging buttons (for digits
and operations), textbox (for display), and labels onto the form.
• Coding Phase:
o Write code to handle button click events. For example, clicking the 1
button should append 1 to the textbox.
o Implement logic to perform calculations based on user input when clicking
the = button.
• Execution Phase:
o Build and run the application to interact with the calculator GUI. o Test
functionalities such as addition, subtraction, and clearing the display.

Benefits of Windows Forms:

 Page 172

• Rapid Development: Quickly build GUI applications using drag-and-drop controls and
event-driven programming.
• Familiarity: Windows Forms applications have a native look and feel on Windows,
making them intuitive for users.
• Integration: Seamlessly integrates with other .NET technologies and frameworks, such
as ASP.NET for web applications or WPF for more advanced UI designs.

What is JavaScript:
JavaScript is a programming language used to make websites interactive. It lets developers add
features like animations, forms that respond to user input, and updates that happen without
reloading the entire webpage. It runs in your web browser and helps create dynamic and
engaging experiences for users.

Features of JavaScript
There are following features of JavaScript:

1. All popular web browsers support JavaScript as they provide built-in execution
environments.

2. JavaScript follows the syntax and structure of the C programming language. Thus, it is a
structured programming language.

3. JavaScript is a weakly typed language, where certain types are implicitly cast (depending
on the operation).
4. JavaScript is an object-oriented programming language that uses prototypes rather than
using classes for inheritance.
5. It is a light-weighted and interpreted language.
6. It is a case-sensitive language.
7. JavaScript is supportable in several operating systems including, Windows, macOS, etc.
8. It provides good control to the users over the web browsers.

Application of JavaScript
JavaScript is used to create interactive websites. It is mainly used for:

o Client-side validation, o Dynamic drop-down menus, o Displaying date and time,

 Page 173

o Displaying pop-up windows and dialog boxes (like an alert dialog box, confirm dialog box
and prompt dialog box),
o Displaying clocks etc.

JavaScript Example
1. <script>
2. document.write("Hello JavaScript by JavaScript");
3. </script>

JavaScript Example
1. JavaScript Example
2. Within body tag
3. Within head tag

Javascript example is easy to code. JavaScript provides 3 places to put the JavaScript code: within
body tag, within head tag and external JavaScript file.

Let’s create the first JavaScript example.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. document.write("JavaScript is a simple language for javatpoint learners"); 3.
</script>

The script tag specifies that we are using JavaScript.

The text/javascript is the content type that provides information to the browser about the data.

The document.write() function is used to display dynamic content through JavaScript. We will
learn about document object in detail later.

3 Places to put JavaScript code

1. Between the body tag of html
2. Between the head tag of html
3. In .js file (external javaScript)
 Page 174

1) JavaScript Example : code between the body tag

In the above example, we have displayed the dynamic content using JavaScript. Let’s see the
simple example of JavaScript that displays alert dialog box.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. alert("Hello Javatpoint");
3. </script>

2) JavaScript Example : code between the head tag

Let’s see the same example of displaying alert dialog box of JavaScript that is contained inside the
head tag.

In this example, we are creating a function msg(). To create function in JavaScript, you need to
write function with function_name as given below.

To call function, you need to work on event. Here we are using onclick event to call msg() function.

1. <html>
2. <head>
3. <script type="text/javascript">
4. function msg(){
5. alert("Hello Javatpoint");
6. }
7. </script>
8. </head>
9. <body>
10. <p>Welcome to JavaScript</p>
11. <form>
12. <input type="button" value="click" onclick="msg()"/>
13. </form>
14. </body>
15. </html>
 Page 175

External JavaScript file

We can create external JavaScript file and embed it in many html page.

It provides code re usability because single JavaScript file can be used in several html pages.

An external JavaScript file must be saved by .js extension. It is recommended to embed all
JavaScript files into a single file. It increases the speed of the webpage.

Let's create an external JavaScript file that prints Hello Javatpoint in a alert dialog box.

1. function msg(){
2. alert("Hello Javatpoint");
3. }

Let's include the JavaScript file into html page. It calls the JavaScript function on button click.

index.html

1. <html>
2. <head>
3. <script type="text/javascript" src="message.js"></script>
4. </head>
5. <body>
6. <p>Welcome to JavaScript</p>
7. <form>
8. <input type="button" value="click" onclick="msg()"/>
9. </form>
10. </body>
11. </html>
Advantages of External JavaScript

There will be following benefits if a user creates an external javascript:

1. It helps in the reusability of code in more than one HTML file.

2. It allows easy code readability.
 Page 176

3. It is time-efficient as web browsers cache the external js files, which further reduces the
page loading time.

4. It enables both web designers and coders to work with html and js files parallelly and
separately, i.e., without facing any code conflictions.
5. The length of the code reduces as only we need to specify the location of the js file.

Disadvantages of External JavaScript

There are the following disadvantages of external files:

1. The stealer may download the coder's code using the url of the js file.
2. If two js files are dependent on one another, then a failure in one file may affect the
execution of the other dependent file.

3. The web browser needs to make an additional http request to get the js code.
4. A tiny to a large change in the js code may cause unexpected results in all its dependent
files.

5. We need to check each file that depends on the commonly created external javascript
file.
6. If it is a few lines of code, then better to implement the internal javascript code.

JavaScript Basics
JavaScript Comment
The JavaScript comments are meaningful way to deliver message. It is used to add information
about the code, warnings or suggestions so that end user can easily interpret the code.

The JavaScript comment is ignored by the JavaScript engine i.e. embedded in the browser.

Advantages of JavaScript comments

There are mainly two advantages of JavaScript comments.

1. To make code easy to understand It can be used to elaborate the code so that end user
can easily understand the code.
 Page 177

2. To avoid the unnecessary code It can also be used to avoid the code being executed.
Sometimes, we add the code to perform some action. But after sometime, there may be
need to disable the code. In such case, it is better to use comments.

Types of JavaScript Comments

There are two types of comments in JavaScript.

1. Single-line Comment
2. Multi-line Comment

JavaScript Single line Comment

It is represented by double forward slashes (//). It can be used before and after the statement.

Let’s see the example of single-line comment i.e. added before the statement.

1. <script>
2. // It is single line comment
3. document.write("hello javascript");
4. </script>

Let’s see the example of single-line comment i.e. added after the statement.

1. <script>
2. var a=10;
3. var b=20;
4. var c=a+b;//It adds values of a and b variable
5. document.write(c);//prints sum of 10 and 20
6. </script>

JavaScript Multi line Comment

It can be used to add single as well as multi line comments. So, it is more convenient.

It is represented by forward slash with asterisk then asterisk with forward slash. For example:
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1. /* your code here */

It can be used before, after and middle of the statement.

1. <script>
2. /* It is multi line comment.
3. It will not be displayed */
4. document.write("example of javascript multiline comment");
5. </script>

JavaScript Variable
A JavaScript variable is simply a name of storage location. There are two types of variables in
JavaScript : local variable and global variable.

There are some rules while declaring a JavaScript variable (also known as identifiers).

1. Name must start with a letter (a to z or A to Z), underscore( _ ), or dollar( $ ) sign.

2. After first letter we can use digits (0 to 9), for example value1.
3. JavaScript variables are case sensitive, for example x and X are different variables.

Correct JavaScript variables

1. var x = 10;
2. var _value="sonoo";

Incorrect JavaScript variables

1. var 123=30;
2. var *aa=320;

Example of JavaScript variable

Let’s see a simple example of JavaScript variable.

1. <script>
2. var x = 10;
3. var y = 20;
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4. var z=x+y;
5. document.write(z);
6. </script>
Output of the above example
30

JavaScript local variable

A JavaScript local variable is declared inside block or function. It is accessible within the function
or block only. For example:

1. <script>
2. function abc(){
3. var x=10;//local variable
4. }
5. </script>
Or,

1. <script>
2. If(10<13){
3. var y=20;//JavaScript local variable
4. }
5. </script>

JavaScript global variable

A JavaScript global variable is accessible from any function. A variable i.e. declared outside the
function or declared with window object is known as global variable. For example:

1. <script>
2. var data=200;//gloabal variable
3. function a(){
4. document.writeln(data);
5. }
6. function b(){
 Page 180

7. document.writeln(data);
8. }
9. a();//calling JavaScript function
10. b();
11. </script>

JavaScript Global Variable

A JavaScript global variable is declared outside the function or declared with window object. It
can be accessed from any function.

Let’s see the simple example of global variable in JavaScript.

1. <script>
2. var value=50;//global variable
3. function a(){
4. alert(value);
5. }
6. function b(){
7. alert(value);
8. }
9. </script>
Declaring JavaScript global variable within function

To declare JavaScript global variables inside function, you need to use window object. For
example:

1. window.value=90;

Now it can be declared inside any function and can be accessed from any function. For example:

1. function m(){
2. window.value=100;//declaring global variable by window object 3.
}
4. function n(){
5. alert(window.value);//accessing global variable from other function 6.
}
 Page 181

Internals of global variable in JavaScript

When you declare a variable outside the function, it is added in the window object internally. You
can access it through window object also. For example:

1. var value=50;
2. function a(){
3. alert(window.value);//accessing global variable
4. }

Javascript Data Types

JavaScript provides different data types to hold different types of values. There are two types of
data types in JavaScript.

1. Primitive data type

2. Non-primitive (reference) data type
JavaScript is a dynamic type language, means you don't need to specify type of the variable
because it is dynamically used by JavaScript engine. You need to use var here to specify the data
type. It can hold any type of values such as numbers, strings etc. For example:

1. var a=40;//holding number

2. var b="Rahul";//holding string
JavaScript primitive data types

Data Type Description

Object represents instance through which we can access members

Array represents group of similar values

RegExp represents regular expression

There are five types of primitive data types in JavaScript. They are as follows:
 Page 182

JavaScript non-primitive data types

The non-primitive data types are as follows:

JavaScript Operators
JavaScript operators are symbols that are used to perform operations on operands. For example:

var sum=10+20;

Data Type Description

String represents sequence of characters e.g. "hello"

Number represents numeric values e.g. 100

Boolean represents boolean value either false or true

Undefined represents undefined value

Null represents null i.e. no value at all

Here, + is the arithmetic operator and = is the assignment operator.

There are following types of operators in JavaScript.

1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Comparison (Relational) Operators
3. Bitwise Operators
4. Logical Operators
5. Assignment Operators
6. Special Operators
 Page 183

JavaScript If-else
The JavaScript if-else statement is used to execute the code whether condition is true or false.
There are three forms of if statement in JavaScript.

1. If Statement
2. If else statement
3. if else if statement

JavaScript If statement

It evaluates the content only if expression is true. The signature of JavaScript if statement is given
below.

1. if(expression){
2. //content to be evaluated
3. }

Let’s see the simple example of if statement in javascript.

1. <script>
2. var a=20;
3. if(a>10){
4. document.write("value of a is greater than 10");
5. }
6. </script>
Output of the above example
value of a is greater than 10

JavaScript If...else Statement

It evaluates the content whether condition is true of false. The syntax of JavaScript if-else
statement is given below.

1. if(expression){
2. //content to be evaluated if condition is true
 Page 184

3. }
4. else{
5. //content to be evaluated if condition is false
6. }

Let’s see the example of if-else statement in JavaScript to find out the even or odd number.

1. <script>
2. var a=20;
3. if(a%2==0){
4. document.write("a is even number");
5. }
6. else{
7. document.write("a is odd number");
8. }
9. </script>
Output of the above example
a is even number

JavaScript If...else if statement

It evaluates the content only if expression is true from several expressions. The signature of
JavaScript if else if statement is given below.

1. if(expression1){
2. //content to be evaluated if expression1 is true
3. }
4. else if(expression2){
5. //content to be evaluated if expression2 is true
6. }
7. else if(expression3){
8. //content to be evaluated if expression3 is true
9. }
10. else{
 Page 185

11. //content to be evaluated if no expression is true

12. }

Let’s see the simple example of if else if statement in javascript.

1. <script>
2. var a=20;
3. if(a==10){
4. document.write("a is equal to 10");
5. }
6. else if(a==15){
7. document.write("a is equal to 15");
8. }
9. else if(a==20){
10. document.write("a is equal to 20");
11. }
12. else{
13. document.write("a is not equal to 10, 15 or 20");
14. }
15. </script>

JavaScript Switch
The JavaScript switch statement is used to execute one code from multiple expressions. It is just like
else if statement that we have learned in previous page. But it is convenient than if..else..if because
it can be used with numbers, characters etc.
The signature of JavaScript switch statement is given below.

1. switch(expression){
2. case value1:
3. code to be executed;
4. break;
5. case value2:
6. code to be executed;
7. break;
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8. ......
9.
10. default:
11. code to be executed if above values are not matched;
12. }

Let’s see the simple example of switch statement in javascript.

1. <script>
2. var grade='B';
3. var result;
4. switch(grade){
5. case 'A':
6. result="A Grade";
7. break;
8. case 'B':
9. result="B Grade";
10. break;
11. case 'C':
12. result="C Grade";
13. break;
14. default:
15. result="No Grade";
16. }
17. document.write(result);
18. </script>
Output of the above example
B Grade

JavaScript Loops
The JavaScript loops are used to iterate the piece of code using for, while, do while or for-in loops.
It makes the code compact. It is mostly used in array.

There are four types of loops in JavaScript.

 Page 187

1. for loop
2. while loop
3. do-while loop
4. for-in loop

1) JavaScript For loop

The JavaScript for loop iterates the elements for the fixed number of times. It should be used if
number of iteration is known. The syntax of for loop is given below.

1. for (initialization; condition; increment)

2. {
3. code to be executed
4. }

Let’s see the simple example of for loop in javascript.

1. <script>
2. for (i=1; i<=5; i++)
3. {
4. document.write(i + "<br/>")
5. }
6. </script>

Output:

1
2

3
4
5

2) JavaScript while loop

The JavaScript while loop iterates the elements for the infinite number of times. It should be used
if number of iteration is not known. The syntax of while loop is given below.
 Page 188

1. while (condition)
2. {
3. code to be executed
4. }

Let’s see the simple example of while loop in javascript.

1. <script>
2. var i=11;
3. while (i<=15)
4. {
5. document.write(i + "<br/>");
6. i++;
7. }
8. </script>
Output:

11
12
13
14
15

3) JavaScript do while loop

The JavaScript do while loop iterates the elements for the infinite number of times like while loop.
But, code is executed at least once whether condition is true or false. The syntax of do while loop
is given below.

1. do{
2. code to be executed
3. }while (condition);

Let’s see the simple example of do while loop in javascript.

1. <script>
2. var i=21;
3. do{
 Page 189

4. document.write(i + "<br/>");
5. i++;
6. }while (i<=25);
7. </script>
Output:

21
22
23
24
25

JavaScript Functions

JavaScript functions are used to perform operations. We can call JavaScript function many times
to reuse the code.

Advantage of JavaScript function

There are mainly two advantages of JavaScript functions.

1. Code reusability: We can call a function several times so it save coding.

2. Less coding: It makes our program compact. We don’t need to write many lines of code
each time to perform a common task.

JavaScript Function Syntax

The syntax of declaring function is given below.

1. function functionName([arg1, arg2, ...argN]){

2. //code to be executed
3. }

JavaScript Functions can have 0 or more arguments.

JavaScript Function Example

Let’s see the simple example of function in JavaScript that does not has arguments.
 Page 190

1. <script>
2. function msg(){
3. alert("hello! this is message");
4. }
5. </script>
6. <input type="button" onclick="msg()" value="call function"/>
JavaScript Function Arguments

We can call function by passing arguments. Let’s see the example of function that has one
argument.

1. <script>
2. function getcube(number){
3. alert(number*number*number);
4. }
5. </script>
6. <form>
7. <input type="button" value="click" onclick="getcube(4)"/>
8. </form>
Function with Return Value

We can call function that returns a value and use it in our program. Let’s see the example of
function that returns value.

1. <script>
2. function getInfo(){
3. return "hello javatpoint! How r u?";
4. }
5. </script>
6. <script>
7. document.write(getInfo());
8. </script>
Output of the above example
hello javatpoint! How r u?
 Page 191

JavaScript Function Object

In JavaScript, the purpose of Function constructor is to create a new Function object. It executes
the code globally. However, if we call the constructor directly, a function is created dynamically
but in an unsecured way.

Syntax
1. new Function ([arg1[, arg2[, ....argn]],] functionBody) Parameter

arg1, arg2, .... , argn - It represents the argument used by function.

functionBody - It represents the function definition.

JavaScript Function Methods

Let's see function methods with description.

JavaScript Function Object Examples

Example 1

Let's see an example to display the sum of given numbers.

1. <script>
2. var add=new Function("num1","num2","return num1+num2");
Method Description

apply() It is used to call a function contains this value and a single array of arguments.

bind() It is used to create a new function.

call() It is used to call a function contains this value and an argument list.

toString() It returns the result in a form of a string.

3. document.writeln(add(2,5));
 Page 192

4. </script>

Output:
7
JavaScript Objects
JavaScript Objects
A javaScript object is an entity having state and behavior (properties and method). For example:
car, pen, bike, chair, glass, keyboard, monitor etc.

JavaScript is an object-based language. Everything is an object in JavaScript.

JavaScript is template based not class based. Here, we don't create class to get the object. But,
we direct create objects.

Creating Objects in JavaScript

There are 3 ways to create objects.

1. By object literal
2. By creating instance of Object directly (using new keyword)
3. By using an object constructor (using new keyword)

1) JavaScript Object by object literal

The syntax of creating object using object literal is given below:

1. object={property1:value1,property2:value2.....propertyN:valueN}
As you can see, property and value is separated by : (colon).

Let’s see the simple example of creating object in JavaScript.

1. <script>
2. emp={id:102,name:"Shyam Kumar",salary:40000}
3. document.write(emp.id+" "+emp.name+" "+emp.salary);
4. </script>
Output of the above example
 Page 193

102 Shyam Kumar 40000

2) By creating instance of Object

The syntax of creating object directly is given below:

1. var objectname=new Object();

Here, new keyword is used to create object.

Let’s see the example of creating object directly.

1. <script>
2. var emp=new Object();
3. emp.id=101;
4. emp.name="Ravi Malik";
5. emp.salary=50000;
6. document.write(emp.id+" "+emp.name+" "+emp.salary);
7. </script>
Output of the above example
101 Ravi 50000

3) By using an Object constructor

Here, you need to create function with arguments. Each argument value can be assigned in the
current object by using this keyword.

The this keyword refers to the current object.

The example of creating object by object constructor is given below.

1. <script>
2. function emp(id,name,salary){
3. this.id=id;
4. this.name=name;
5. this.salary=salary;
 Page 194

6. }
7. e=new emp(103,"Vimal Jaiswal",30000);
8.
9. document.write(e.id+" "+e.name+" "+e.salary);
10. </script>
Output of the above example
103 Vimal Jaiswal 30000

Defining method in JavaScript Object

We can define method in JavaScript object. But before defining method, we need to add property
in the function with same name as method.

The example of defining method in object is given below.

1. <script>
2. function emp(id,name,salary){
3. this.id=id;
4. this.name=name; 5. this.salary=salary;
6.
7. this.changeSalary=changeSalary;
8. function changeSalary(otherSalary){
9. this.salary=otherSalary;
10. }
11. }
12. e=new emp(103,"Sonoo Jaiswal",30000);
13. document.write(e.id+" "+e.name+" "+e.salary);
14. e.changeSalary(45000);
15. document.write("<br>"+e.id+" "+e.name+" "+e.salary);
16. </script>
Output of
103 Sonoo Jaiswal 30000 the above
103 Sonoo Jaiswal 45000 example

JavaScript Object Methods

 Page 195

The various methods of Object are as follows:

S.No Methods Description

1 Object.assign() This method is used to copy enumerable and own properties from a
Source object to a target object

2 Object.create() This method is used to create a new object with the specified prototype
object and properties.

3 Object.defineProperty() This method is used to describe some behavioral attributes of the

property.

4 Object.defineProperties( This method is used to create or configure multiple object properties.

)

5 Object.entries() This method returns an array with arrays of the key, value pairs.

6 Object.freeze() This method prevents existing properties from being removed.

 Page 196

7 Object.getOwnProperty This method returns a property descriptor for the specified property
Descriptor()
of the specified object.

8 Object.getOwnProperty This method returns all own property descriptors of a given object.
Descriptors()

JavaScript Array
JavaScript array is an object that represents a collection of similar type of elements.

There are 3 ways to construct array in JavaScript

1. By array literal
2. By creating instance of Array directly (using new keyword)
3. By using an Array constructor (using new keyword)

1) JavaScript array literal

The syntax of creating array using array literal is given below:

1. var arrayname=[value1,value2.....valueN];

As you can see, values are contained inside [ ] and separated by , (comma).

Let's see the simple example of creating and using array in JavaScript.

1. <script>
2. var emp=["Sonoo","Vimal","Ratan"];
3. for (i=0;i<emp.length;i++){
4. document.write(emp[i] + "<br/>");
5. }
6. </script>

The .length property returns the length of an array.

Output of the above example

 Page 197

9 Object.getOwnProperty This method returns an array of all properties (enumerable or not)

Names() found.

10 Object.getOwnPropertyS This method returns an array of all own symbol key properties.
ymbols()

11 Object.getPrototypeOf() This method returns the prototype of the specified object.

12 Object.is() This method determines whether two values are the same value.

13 Object.isExtensible() This method determines if an object is extensible

14 Object.isFrozen() This method determines if an object was frozen.

15 Object.isSealed() This method determines if an object is sealed.

16 Object.keys() This method returns an array of a given object's own property names.

17 Object.preventExtension This method is used to prevent any extensions of an object.

s()

18 Object.seal() This method prevents new properties from being added and marks
all existing properties as non-configurable.

19 Object.setPrototypeOf() This method sets the prototype of a specified object to another object.

20 Object.values() This method returns an array of values.

 Page 198

Sonoo
Vimal
Ratan
2) JavaScript Array directly (new keyword)

The syntax of creating array directly is given below:

1. var arrayname=new Array();

Here, new keyword is used to create instance of array.

Let's see the example of creating array directly.

1. <script>
2. var i;
3. var emp = new Array();
4. emp[0] = "Arun";
5. emp[1] = "Varun";
6. emp[2] = "John";
7.
8. for (i=0;i<emp.length;i++){
9. document.write(emp[i] + "<br>");
10. }
11. </script>
Output of the above example

Arun
Varun
John
3) JavaScript array constructor (new keyword)

Here, you need to create instance of array by passing arguments in constructor so that we don't
have to provide value explicitly.

The example of creating object by array constructor is given below.

1. <script>
2. var emp=new Array("Jai","Vijay","Smith");
 Page 199

3. for (i=0;i<emp.length;i++){
4. document.write(emp[i] + "<br>");
5. }
6. </script>

Output of the above example

Jai
Vijay
Smith

JavaScript Array Methods

Let's see the list of JavaScript array methods with their description.
 Page 200

Methods
forEach() ItDescription
invokes the provided function once for each element of an array.

includes() It checks whether the given array contains the specified element.
concat() It returns a new array object that contains two or more merged arrays.

indexOf()
copywithin() It
It searches
copies thethe specified
part element
of the given in with
array the given array
its own and returns
elements the
and returns
inde
the modified array.
of the first match.

isArray()
entries() It
It tests if the
creates passed value
an iterator objectiaand
an array.
a loop that iterates over each
key/value

join()
every() It
It joins the elements
determines ofall
whether anthe
array as a string.
elements of an array are satisfying the
provided function conditions.
keys() It creates an iterator object that contains only the keys of the array,
the
flat() It creates a new array carrying sub-array elements concatenated
loops through these keys.
recursively till the specified depth.
lastIndexOf() It searches the specified element in the given array and returns the
inde
flatMap() It maps all array elements via mapping function, then flattens the
of the last match.
result
into a new array.
map() It calls the specified function for every array element and returns the ne

fill() array
It fills elements into an array with static values.

of()
from() It
It creates
creates aa new
new array from a variable
array carrying number
the exact ofanother
copy of arguments, holding
array
an
element.
type of argument.
filter() It returns the new array containing the elements that pass the
provided
pop() It removes and returns the last element of an array.
function conditions.

push() It adds one or more elements to the end of an array.

 Page 201

find() It returns the value of the first element in the given array that satisfies
the specified condition.

findIndex() It returns the index value of the first element in the given array that
sati
the specified condition.

reverse() It reverses the elements of given array.

reduce(function, initial) It executes a provided function for each value from left to right and
redu
the array to a single value.

JavaScript String
The JavaScript string is an object that represents a sequence of characters.

There are 2 ways to create string in JavaScript

1. By string literal
2. By string object (using new keyword)

1) By string literal

The string literal is created using double quotes. The syntax of creating string using string literal
is given below:

1. var stringname="string value";

Let's see the simple example of creating string literal.

1. <script>
2. var str="This is string literal";
3. document.write(str);
 Page 202

reduceRight() It executes a provided function for each value from right to left and
redu
the array to a single value.

some() It determines if any element of the array passes the test of the
implemented function.

shift() It removes and returns the first element of an array.

slice() It returns a new array containing the copy of the part of the given
array.

sort() It returns the element of the given array in a sorted order.

splice() It add/remove elements to/from the given array.

toLocaleString() It returns a string containing all the elements of a specified array.

toString() It converts the elements of a specified array into string form, without
affecting the original array.

unshift() It adds one or more elements in the beginning of the given array.

values()
It creates a new iterator object carrying values for each index in
the array.

4. </script>

Output:

This is string literal

 Page 203

2) By string object (using new keyword)

The syntax of creating string object using new keyword is given below:

1. var stringname=new String("string literal");

Here, new keyword is used to create instance of string.

Let's see the example of creating string in JavaScript by new keyword.

1. <script>
2. var stringname=new String("hello javascript string");
3. document.write(stringname);
4. </script>

Output:

hello javascript string

JavaScript String Methods

Let's see the list of JavaScript string methods with examples.

 Page 204

Methods Description

charAt() It provides the char value present at the specified index.

charCodeAt() It provides the Unicode value of a character present at the specified index.

concat() It provides a combination of two or more strings.

indexOf() It provides the position of a char value present in the given string.

lastIndexOf() It provides the position of a char value present in the given string by
searchin
character from the last position.

search() It searches a specified regular expression in a given string and returns its
pos
if a match occurs.

match() It searches a specified regular expression in a given string and returns that
re
expression if a match occurs.

replace() It replaces a given string with the specified replacement.

substr() It is used to fetch the part of the given string on the basis of the specified
starting position and length.

substring() It is used to fetch the part of the given string on the basis of the specified
index.

1) JavaScript String charAt(index) Method

 Page 205

slice() It is used to fetch the part of the given string. It allows us to assign
positive as well negative index.

toLowerCase() It converts the given string into lowercase letter.

toLocaleLowerCase() It converts the given string into lowercase letter on the basis of host
current locale.

toUpperCase() It converts the given string into uppercase letter.

toLocaleUpperCase() It converts the given string into uppercase letter on the basis of host
current locale.

toString() It provides a string representing the particular object.

valueOf() It provides the primitive value of string object.

split() It splits a string into substring array, then returns that newly created array.

trim() It trims the white space from the left and right side of the string.

The JavaScript String charAt() method returns the character at the given index.

1. <script>
2. var str="javascript";
3. document.write(str.charAt(2));
4. </script>

Output:
 Page 206

v
2) JavaScript String concat(str) Method

The JavaScript String concat(str) method concatenates or joins two strings. 1.

<script>

2. var s1="javascript ";

3. var s2="concat example";
4. var s3=s1.concat(s2);
5. document.write(s3);
6. </script>

Output:
javascript concat example
3) JavaScript String indexOf(str) Method

The JavaScript String indexOf(str) method returns the index position of the given string.

1. <script>
2. var s1="javascript from javatpoint indexof";
3. var n=s1.indexOf("from");
4. document.write(n);
5. </script>

Output:
11
JavaScript Date Object
The JavaScript date object can be used to get year, month and day. You can display a timer on
the webpage by the help of JavaScript date object.

You can use different Date constructors to create date object. It provides methods to get and set
day, month, year, hour, minute and seconds.
 Page 207

Constructor

You can use 4 variant of Date constructor to create date object.

1. Date()
2. Date(milliseconds)
3. Date(dateString)
4. Date(year, month, day, hours, minutes, seconds, milliseconds)

JavaScript Date Methods

Let's see the list of JavaScript date methods with their description.
 Page 208

specified date on the basis of universal time.

getUTCDay() It returns the integer value between 0 and 6 that represents the day of the
w
Methods on
Description
the basis of universal time.

getUTCFullYears() It returns the integer value that represents the year on the basis of
universa
getDate() It returns the integer value between 1 and 31 that represents the day for
th
time.
specified date on the basis of local time.
getUTCHours() It returns the integer value between 0 and 23 that represents the hours on
getDay() tIt returns the integer value between 0 and 6 that represents the day of the
wbasis of universal time.
on the basis of local time.
getUTCMinutes() It returns the integer value between 0 and 59 that represents the minutes
getFullYears() It
onreturns theofinteger
the basis value
universal that represents the year on the basis of local tim
time.

getHours()
getUTCMonth() It
It returns
returns the
the integer
integer value between 00 and
value between and 11
23 that
that represents
represents the
the month
hours on
ton
basis of local
the basis time. time.
of universal

getMilliseconds()
getUTCSeconds() It
It returns
returns the
the integer
integer value
value between
between 0
0 and
and 999 thatrepresents
60 that representsthe
theseconds
milliseco
on the basis of universal time.
on the basis of local time.

getMinutes()
setDate() It
It returns
sets thethe
dayinteger value
value for the between
specified0date
andon
59 the
thatbasis
represents
of localthe minutes
time.
o
basis of local time.
setDay() It sets the particular day of the week on the basis of local time.
getMonth() It returns the integer value between 0 and 11 that represents the month on
basis of local time.
setFullYears() It sets the year value for the specified date on the basis of local time.
 Page 209

getSeconds()
setMonth() returns
It sets thethe integer
month value
value between
for the 0 and
specified 60 on
date that represents
the the seconds
basis of local time.
o
basis of local time.
setSeconds() It sets the second value for the specified date on the basis of local time.
getUTCDate() It returns the integer value between 1 and 31 that represents the day for
th
setUTCDate() It sets the day value for the specified date on the basis of universal time.
setHours() It sets the hour value for the specified date on the basis of local time.

setUTCDay() It sets the particular day of the week on the basis of universal time.
setMilliseconds() It sets the millisecond value for the specified date on the basis of local
time.
setUTCFullYears() It sets the year value for the specified date on the basis of universal time.
setMinutes() It sets the minute value for the specified date on the basis of local time.

setUTCHours() It sets the hour value for the specified date on the basis of universal time.

setUTCMilliseconds() It sets the millisecond value for the specified date on the basis of universal
t

setUTCMinutes() It sets the minute value for the specified date on the basis of universal
time.

setUTCMonth() It sets the month value for the specified date on the basis of universal
time.

setUTCSeconds() It sets the second value for the specified date on the basis of universal
time.

toDateString() It returns the date portion of a Date object.

toISOString() It returns the date in the form ISO format string.

toJSON() It returns a string representing the Date object. It also serializes the Date
Object during JSON serialization.
 Page 210

toString() It returns the date in the form of string.

toTimeString() It returns the time portion of a Date object.

toUTCString() It converts the specified date in the form of string using UTC time zone.

valueOf() It returns the primitive value of a Date object.

JavaScript Date Example

Let's see the simple example to print date object. It prints date and time both.

1. Current Date and Time: <span id="txt"></span>

2. <script>
3. var today=new Date();
4. document.getElementById('txt').innerHTML=today;
5. </script>

Output:

Current Date and Time: Mon Jul 15 2024 19:26:45 GMT+0500 (Pakistan Standard Time)

Let's see another code to print date/month/year.

1. <script>
2. var date=new Date();
3. var day=date.getDate();
4. var month=date.getMonth()+1;
5. var year=date.getFullYear();
6. document.write("<br>Date is: "+day+"/"+month+"/"+year);
7. </script>
 Page 211

Output:

Date is: 15/7/2024

JavaScript Current Time Example

Let's see the simple example to print current time of system.

1. Current Time: <span id="txt"></span>

2. <script>
3. var today=new Date();
4. var h=today.getHours();
5. var m=today.getMinutes();
6. var s=today.getSeconds();
7. document.getElementById('txt').innerHTML=h+":"+m+":"+s;
8. </script>

Output:

Current Time: 19:26:45

JavaScript Digital Clock Example

Let's see the simple example to display digital clock using JavaScript date object.

There are two ways to set interval in JavaScript: by setTimeout() or setInterval() method.

1. Current Time: <span id="txt"></span>

2. <script>
3. window.onload=function(){getTime();}
4. function getTime(){
5. var today=new Date();
6. var h=today.getHours();
7. var m=today.getMinutes();
8. var s=today.getSeconds();
 Page 212

9. // add a zero in front of numbers<10

10. m=checkTime(m);
11. s=checkTime(s);
12. document.getElementById('txt').innerHTML=h+":"+m+":"+s; 13.
setTimeout(function(){getTime()},1000);
14. }
15. //setInterval("getTime()",1000);//another way
16. function checkTime(i){
17. if (i<10){
18. i="0" + i;
19. }
20. return i;
21. }
22. </script>

Output:
Current Time:
JavaScript Math

The JavaScript math object provides several constants and methods to perform mathematical
operation. Unlike date object, it doesn't have constructors.

JavaScript Math Methods

Let's see the list of JavaScript Math methods with description.

 Page 213

Math.sqrt(n)

The JavaScript math.sqrt(n) method returns the square root of the given number.

1. Square Root of 17 is: <span id="p1"></span>

2. <script>
3. document.getElementById('p1').innerHTML=Math.sqrt(17);
4. </script>

Output:
Square Root of 17 is: 4.123105625617661

Math.random()

The JavaScript math.random() method returns the random number between 0 to 1.

Methods Description

abs() It returns the absolute value of the given number.

acos() It returns the arccosine of the given number in radians.

asin() It returns the arcsine of the given number in radians.

atan() It returns the arc-tangent of the given number in radians.

cbrt() It returns the cube root of the given number.

ceil() It returns a smallest integer value, greater than or equal to the given number.

cos() It returns the cosine of the given number.

1. Random Number is: <span id="p2"></span>

 Page 214

cosh()
floor() the hyperbolic
It returns largest integer cosine of thethan
value, lower givenornumber.
equal to the given number.

exp()
hypot() the exponential
It returns square form
root of sum ofof
thethe given number.
squares of given numbers.

log() It returns natural logarithm of a number.

max() It returns maximum value of the given numbers.

min() It returns minimum value of the given numbers.

pow() It returns value of base to the power of exponent.

random() It returns random number between 0 (inclusive) and 1 (exclusive).

round() It returns closest integer value of the given number.

sign() It returns the sign of the given number

sin() It returns the sine of the given number.

sinh() It returns the hyperbolic sine of the given number.

sqrt() It returns the square root of the given number

tan() It returns the tangent of the given number.

tanh() It returns the hyperbolic tangent of the given number.

 Page 215

trunc() It returns an integer part of the given number.

2. <script>
3. document.getElementById('p2').innerHTML=Math.random();
4. </script>

Output:
Random Number is: 0.48099396004801487

Math.pow(m,n)

The JavaScript math.pow(m,n) method returns the m to the power of n that is m n.

1. 3 to the power of 4 is: <span id="p3"></span>

2. <script>
3. document.getElementById('p3').innerHTML=Math.pow(3,4);
4. </script>

Output:

3 to the power of 4 is: 81

ADVERTISEMENT

Math.floor(n)

The JavaScript math.floor(n) method returns the lowest integer for the given number. For
example 3 for 3.7, 5 for 5.9 etc.

1. Floor of 4.6 is: <span id="p4"></span>

2. <script>
3. document.getElementById('p4').innerHTML=Math.floor(4.6);
4. </script>

Output:
Floor of 4.6 is: 4

Math.ceil(n)
 Page 216

The JavaScript math.ceil(n) method returns the largest integer for the given number. For example
4 for 3.7, 6 for 5.9 etc.

1. Ceil of 4.6 is: <span id="p5"></span>

2. <script>
3. document.getElementById('p5').innerHTML=Math.ceil(4.6);
4. </script>

Output:
Ceil of 4.6 is: 5

Math.round(n)

The JavaScript math.round(n) method returns the rounded integer nearest for the given number.
If fractional part is equal or greater than 0.5, it goes to upper value 1 otherwise lower value 0.
For example 4 for 3.7, 3 for 3.3, 6 for 5.9 etc.

1. Round of 4.3 is: <span id="p6"></span><br>

2. Round of 4.7 is: <span id="p7"></span>
3. <script>
4. document.getElementById('p6').innerHTML=Math.round(4.3);
5. document.getElementById('p7').innerHTML=Math.round(4.7);
6. </script>

Output:
Round of 4.3 is: 4
Round of 4.7 is: 5
Math.abs(n)

The JavaScript math.abs(n) method returns the absolute value for the given number. For example
4 for -4, 6.6 for -6.6 etc.

1. Absolute value of -4 is: <span id="p8"></span>

2. <script>
3. document.getElementById('p8').innerHTML=Math.abs(-4);
4. </script>

Output:
 Page 217

Absolute value of -4 is: 4

JavaScript Number Object

The JavaScript number object enables you to represent a numeric value. It may be integer or
floating-point. JavaScript number object follows IEEE standard to represent the floating-point
numbers.

By the help of Number() constructor, you can create number object in JavaScript. For example:

1. var n=new Number(value);

If value can't be converted to number, it returns NaN(Not a Number) that can be checked by
isNaN() method.

You can direct assign a number to a variable also. For example:

1. var x=102;//integer value

2. var y=102.7;//floating point value
3. var z=13e4;//exponent value, output: 130000
4. var n=new Number(16);//integer value by number object

Output:
102 102.7 130000 16
JavaScript Number Constants

Let's see the list of JavaScript number constants with description.

JavaScript Number Methods

Let's see the list of JavaScript number methods with their description.
 Page 218

Constant Description

MIN_VALUE returns the largest minimum value.

MAX_VALUE returns the largest maximum value.

POSITIVE_INFINITY returns positive infinity, overflow value.

NEGATIVE_INFINITY returns negative infinity, overflow value.

NaN represents "Not a Number" value.

JavaScript Boolean
Methods Description

isFinite() It determines whether the given value is a finite number.

isInteger() It determines whether the given value is an integer.

parseFloat() It converts the given string into a floating point number.

parseInt() It converts the given string into an integer number.

toExponential() It returns the string that represents exponential notation of the given number.

JavaScript Boolean is an object that represents value in two states: true or false. You can create
the JavaScript Boolean object by Boolean() constructor as given below.
 Page 219

toFixed() It returns the string that represents a number with exact digits after a decimal
point.

toPrecision() It returns the string representing a number of specified precision.

toString() It returns the given number in the form of string.

1. Boolean b=new Boolean(value);

The default value of JavaScript Boolean object is false.

JavaScript Boolean Example

1. <script>
2. document.write(10<20);//true
3. document.write(10<5);//false
4. </script>

JavaScript BOM
Browser Object Model
The Browser Object Model (BOM) is used to interact with the browser.

The default object of browser is window means you can call all the functions of window by
specifying window or directly. For example:

1. window.alert("hello javatpoint"); is

same as:

1. alert("hello javatpoint");

You can use a lot of properties (other objects) defined underneath the window object like
document, history, screen, navigator, location, innerHeight, innerWidth,
 Page 220

Note: The document object represents an html document. It forms DOM (Document Object
Model).

Window Object
The window object represents a window in browser. An object of window is created
automatically by the browser.

Window is the object of browser, it is not the object of javascript. The javascript objects are
string, array, date etc.
Note: if html document contains frame or iframe, browser creates additional window objects
for each frame.
Methods of window object

The important methods of window object are as follows:

Method Description

alert() displays the alert box containing message with ok button.

confirm() displays the confirm dialog box containing message with ok and cancel button.

prompt() displays a dialog box to get input from the user.

open() opens the new window.

Example of alert() in javascript

 Page 221

close() closes the current window.

setTimeout() performs action after specified time like calling function, evaluating expressions etc.

It displays alert dialog box. It has message and ok button.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function msg(){
3. alert("Hello Alert Box");
4. }
5. </script>
6. <input type="button" value="click" onclick="msg()"/>
Output of the above example

Example of confirm() in javascript

It displays the confirm dialog box. It has message with ok and cancel buttons.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function msg(){
3. var v= confirm("Are u sure?");
4. if(v==true){
5. alert("ok");
6. }
7. else{
8. alert("cancel");
9. }
10.
11. }
 Page 222

12. </script>
13.
14. <input type="button" value="delete record" onclick="msg()"/>

Output of the above example

Example of prompt() in javascript

It displays prompt dialog box for input. It has message and textfield.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function msg(){
3. var v= prompt("Who are you?");
4. alert("I am "+v);
5.
6. }
7. </script>
8.
9. <input type="button" value="click" onclick="msg()"/>

Output of the above example

Example of open() in javascript

 Page 223

It displays the content in a new window.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function msg(){
3. open("http://www.javatpoint.com");
4. }
5. </script>
6. <input type="button" value="javatpoint" onclick="msg()"/>

Output of the above example

Example of setTimeout() in javascript

It performs its task after the given milliseconds.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function msg(){
3. setTimeout(
4. function(){
5. alert("Welcome to Javatpoint after 2 seconds")
6. },2000);
7.
8. }
9. </script>
10.
11. <input type="button" value="click" onclick="msg()"/>

JavaScript DOM
Document Object Model

The document object represents the whole html document.

When html document is loaded in the browser, it becomes a document object. It is the root
element that represents the html document. It has properties and methods. By the help of
document object, we can add dynamic content to our web page.
 Page 224

Properties of document object

Let's see the properties of document object that can be accessed and modified by the document
object.

Methods of document object

We can access and change the contents of document by its methods.

The important methods of document object are as follows:

Method Description

write("string") writes the given string on the doucment.

 Page 225

writeln("string") writes the given string on the doucment with newline character at the end.

getElementById() returns the element having the given id value.

getElementsByName() returns all the elements having the given name value.

getElementsByTagName() returns all the elements having the given tag name.

getElementsByClassName() returns all the elements having the given class name.

Accessing field value by document object

In this example, we are going to get the value of input text by user. Here, we are using

document.form1.name.value to get the value of name field. Here, document is the root element

that represents the html document. form1 is the name of the form. name is the attribute name

of the input text. value is the property, that returns the value of the input text.

Let's see the simple example of document object that prints name with welcome message.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function printvalue(){
3. var name=document.form1.name.value;
4. alert("Welcome: "+name);
5. }
6. </script>
7.
8. <form name="form1">
9. Enter Name:<input type="text" name="name"/>
10. <input type="button" onclick="printvalue()" value="print name"/>
11. </form>
 Page 226

Output of the above example

Enter Name: print

Javascript - innerHTML

The innerHTML property can be used to write the dynamic html on the html document.

It is used mostly in the web pages to generate the dynamic html such as registration form,
comment form, links etc.

Example of innerHTML property

In this example, we are going to create the html form when user clicks on the button.

In this example, we are dynamically writing the html form inside the div name having the id
mylocation. We are identifing this position by calling the document.getElementById() method.

1. <script type="text/javascript" >

2. function showcommentform() {
3. var data="Name:<input type='text' name='name'><br>Comment:<br><textarea rows='5'
cols=' 80'></textarea>
4. <br><input type='submit' value='Post Comment'>";
5. document.getElementById('mylocation').innerHTML=data; 6. }
7. </script>
8. <form name="myForm">
9. <input type="button" value="comment" onclick="showcommentform()">
10. <div id="mylocation"></div>
11. </form>

Output of the above example

 Page 227

Show/Hide Comment Form Example using innerHTML

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <title>First JS</title>
5. <script>
6. var flag=true;
7. function commentform(){
8. var cform="<form action='Comment'>Enter Name:<br><input type='text' name='name'/><br/>

9. Enter Email:<br><input type='email' name='email'/><br>Enter Comment:<br/>

10. <textarea rows='5' cols='70'></textarea><br><input type='submit' value='Post Comment'/></f
orm>";
11. if(flag){
12. document.getElementById("mylocation").innerHTML=cform;
13. flag=false;
14. }else{
15. document.getElementById("mylocation").innerHTML="";
16. flag=true;
17. }
18. }
19. </script>
20. </head>
21. <body>
 Page 228

22. <button onclick="commentform()">Comment</button>

23. <div id="mylocation"></div>
24. </body>
25. </html>

JavaScript Form Validation

It is important to validate the form submitted by the user because it can have inappropriate
values. So, validation is must to authenticate user.

JavaScript provides facility to validate the form on the client-side so data processing will be faster
than server-side validation. Most of the web developers prefer JavaScript form validation.

Through JavaScript, we can validate name, password, email, date, mobile numbers and more
fields.

JavaScript Form Validation Example

In this example, we are going to validate the name and password. The name can’t be empty and
password can’t be less than 6 characters long.

Here, we are validating the form on form submit. The user will not be forwarded to the next page
until given values are correct.

1. <script>
2. function validateform(){
3. var name=document.myform.name.value; 4. var
password=document.myform.password.value;
5.
6. if (name==null || name==""){
7. alert("Name can't be blank");
8. return false;
9. }else if(password.length<6){
10. alert("Password must be at least 6 characters long.");
11. return false;
12. }
13. }
 Page 229

14. </script>
15. <body>
16. <form name="myform" method="post" action="abc.jsp" onsubmit="return validateform()" >
17. Name: <input type="text" name="name"><br/>
18. Password: <input type="password" name="password"><br/> 19. <input type="submit"
value="register">
20. </form>
Output:

JavaScript Retype Password Validation

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function matchpass(){
3. var firstpassword=document.f1.password.value; 4. var
secondpassword=document.f1.password2.value;
5.
6. if(firstpassword==secondpassword){
7. return true;
8. }
9. else{
10. alert("password must be same!");
11. return false;
12. }
13. }
14. </script>
15.
16. <form name="f1" action="register.jsp" onsubmit="return matchpass()"> 17.
Password:<input type="password" name="password" /><br/>
 Page 230

18. Re-enter Password:<input type="password" name="password2"/><br/>

19. <input type="submit">
20. </form>

JavaScript Number Validation

Let's validate the textfield for numeric value only. Here, we are using isNaN() function.

1. <script>
2. function validate(){
3. var num=document.myform.num.value;
4. if (isNaN(num)){
5. document.getElementById("numloc").innerHTML="Enter Numeric value only";
6. return false;
7. }else{
8. return true;
9. }
10. }
11. </script>
12. <form name="myform" onsubmit="return validate()" >
13. Number: <input type="text" name="num"><span id="numloc"></span><br/>
14. <input type="submit" value="submit">
15. </form>

JavaScript validation with image

Let’s see an interactive JavaScript form validation example that displays correct and incorrect
image if input is correct or incorrect.

1. <script>
2. function validate(){
3. var name=document.f1.name.value;
4. var password=document.f1.password.value;
5. var status=false;
 Page 231

6.
7. if(name.length<1){
8. document.getElementById("nameloc").innerHTML=
9. " <img src='unchecked.gif'/> Please enter your name";
10. status=false;
11. }else{
12. document.getElementById("nameloc").innerHTML=" <img src='checked.gif'/>";
13. status=true;
14. }
15. if(password.length<6){
16. document.getElementById("passwordloc").innerHTML=
17. " <img src='unchecked.gif'/> Password must be at least 6 char long";
18. status=false;
19. }else{
20. document.getElementById("passwordloc").innerHTML=" <img src='checked.gif'/>";
21. }
22. return status;
23. }
24. </script>
25.
26. <form name="f1" action="#" onsubmit="return validate()">
27. <table>
28. <tr><td>Enter Name:</td><td><input type="text" name="name"/>
29. <span id="nameloc"></span></td></tr>
30. <tr><td>Enter Password:</td><td><input type="password" name="password"/>
31. <span id="passwordloc"></span></td></tr>
32. <tr><td colspan="2"><input type="submit" value="register"/></td></tr>
33. </table>
34. </form> Output:

Enter Name:
 Page 232

Enter Password:

register

JavaScript email validation

We can validate the email by the help of JavaScript.

There are many criteria that need to be follow to validate the email id such as:

o email id must contain the @ and . character o

There must be at least one character before and after
the @. o There must be at least two characters after .
(dot).

Let's see the simple example to validate the email field.

1. <script>
2. function validateemail()
3. {
4. var x=document.myform.email.value;
5. var atposition=x.indexOf("@");
6. var dotposition=x.lastIndexOf(".");
7. if (atposition<1 || dotposition<atposition+2 || dotposition+2>=x.length){
8. alert("Please enter a valid email address \n atpostion:"+atposition+"\n
dotposition:"+dotposition); 9. return false;
10. }
11. }
12. </script>
13. <body>
14. <form name="myform" method="post" action="#" onsubmit="return validateemail();"> 15.
Email: <input type="text" name="email"><br/>
16.
 Page 233

17. <input type="submit" value="register">

18. </form>

JavaScript OOPs
JavaScript Classes

In JavaScript, classes are the special type of functions. We can define the class just like function
declarations and function expressions.

The JavaScript class contains various class members within a body including methods or
constructor. The class is executed in strict mode. So, the code containing the silent error or
mistake throws an error.

The class syntax contains two components:

o Class
declarations o Class
expressions

Class Declarations

A class can be defined by using a class declaration. A class keyword is used to declare a class with
any particular name. According to JavaScript naming conventions, the name of the class always
starts with an uppercase letter.

Class Declarations Example

Let's see a simple example of declaring the class.

1. <script>
2. //Declaring class
3. class Employee
4. {
5. //Initializing an object
6. constructor(id,name)
7. {
8. this.id=id;
9. this.name=name;
 Page 234

10. }
11. //Declaring method
12. detail()
13. {
14. document.writeln(this.id+" "+this.name+"<br>")
15. }
16. }
17. //passing object to a variable
18. var e1=new Employee(101,"Martin Roy");
19. var e2=new Employee(102,"Duke William");
20. e1.detail(); //calling method
21. e2.detail();
22. </script>

Output:

101 Martin Roy

102 Duke William
Class expressions

Another way to define a class is by using a class expression. Here, it is not mandatory to assign
the name of the class. So, the class expression can be named or unnamed. The class expression
allows us to fetch the class name. However, this will not be possible with class declaration.

Unnamed Class Expression

The class can be expressed without assigning any name to it.

Let's see an example.

1. <script>
2. var emp = class {
3. constructor(id, name) {
4. this.id = id;
5. this.name = name;
6. }
7. };
 Page 235

8. document.writeln(emp.name);
9. </script>

Output:

emp

Class Expression Example: Re-declaring Class

Unlike class declaration, the class expression allows us to re-declare the same class. So, if we try
to declare the class more than one time, it throws an error.

1. <script>
2. //Declaring class
3. var emp=class
4. {
5. //Initializing an object
6. constructor(id,name)
7. {
8. this.id=id;
9. this.name=name;
10. }
11. //Declaring method
12. detail()
13. {
14. document.writeln(this.id+" "+this.name+"<br>")
15. }
16. }
17. //passing object to a variable
18. var e1=new emp(101,"Martin Roy");
19. var e2=new emp(102,"Duke William");
20. e1.detail(); //calling method
21. e2.detail();
22.
23. //Re-declaring class
 Page 236

24. var emp=class

25. {
26. //Initializing an object
27. constructor(id,name)
28. {
29. this.id=id;
30. this.name=name;
31. }
32. detail()
33. {
34. document.writeln(this.id+" "+this.name+"<br>")
35. }
36. }
37. //passing object to a variable
38. var e1=new emp(103,"James Bella");
39. var e2=new emp(104,"Nick Johnson");
40. e1.detail(); //calling method
41. e2.detail();
42. </script>
Output:

101 Martin Roy

102 Duke William
103 James Bella
104 Nick Johnson

Named Class Expression Example

We can express the class with the particular name. Here, the scope of the class name is up to the
class body. The class is retrieved using class.name property.

1. <script>
2. var emp = class Employee {
3. constructor(id, name) {
4. this.id = id;
 Page 237

5. this.name = name;
6. }
7. };
8. document.writeln(emp.name); 9. /*document.writeln(Employee.name);
10. Error occurs on console:
11. "ReferenceError: Employee is not defined
12. */
13. </script>

JavaScript Objects
A javaScript object is an entity having state and behavior (properties and method). For example:
car, pen, bike, chair, glass, keyboard, monitor etc.

JavaScript is an object-based language. Everything is an object in JavaScript.

JavaScript is template based not class based. Here, we don't create class to get the object. But,
we direct create objects.

Creating Objects in JavaScript

There are 3 ways to create objects.

1. By object literal
2. By creating instance of Object directly (using new keyword)
3. By using an object constructor (using new keyword)

1) JavaScript Object by object literal

The syntax of creating object using object literal is given below:

1. object={property1:value1,property2:value2.....propertyN:valueN}

As you can see, property and value is separated by : (colon).

Let’s see the simple example of creating object in JavaScript.

 Page 238

1. <script>
2. emp={id:102,name:"Shyam Kumar",salary:40000}
3. document.write(emp.id+" "+emp.name+" "+emp.salary);
4. </script>
Output of the above example
102 Shyam Kumar 40000

2) By creating instance of Object

The syntax of creating object directly is given below:

1. var objectname=new Object();

Here, new keyword is used to create object.

Let’s see the example of creating object directly.

1. <script>
2. var emp=new Object();
3. emp.id=101;
4. emp.name="Ravi Malik";
5. emp.salary=50000;
6. document.write(emp.id+" "+emp.name+" "+emp.salary);
7. </script>
Output of the above example
101 Ravi 50000

3) By using an Object constructor

Here, you need to create function with arguments. Each argument value can be assigned in the
current object by using this keyword.

The this keyword refers to the current object.

The example of creating object by object constructor is given below.

1. <script>
 Page 239

2. function emp(id,name,salary){
3. this.id=id;
4. this.name=name;
5. this.salary=salary;
6. }
7. e=new emp(103,"Vimal Jaiswal",30000);
8.
9. document.write(e.id+" "+e.name+" "+e.salary);
10. </script>
Output of the above example
103 Vimal Jaiswal 30000

Defining method in JavaScript Object

We can define method in JavaScript object. But before defining method, we need to add property
in the function with same name as method.

The example of defining method in object is given below.

1. <script>
2. function emp(id,name,salary){
3. this.id=id;
4. this.name=name; 5. this.salary=salary;
6.
7. this.changeSalary=changeSalary;
8. function changeSalary(otherSalary){
9. this.salary=otherSalary;
10. }
11. }
12. e=new emp(103,"Sonoo Jaiswal",30000);
13. document.write(e.id+" "+e.name+" "+e.salary);
14. e.changeSalary(45000);
15. document.write("<br>"+e.id+" "+e.name+" "+e.salary);
16. </script>
 Page 240

JavaScript Constructor Method

A JavaScript constructor method is a special type of method which is used to initialize and create
an object. It is called when memory is allocated for an object.

Points to remember o The constructor keyword is used to declare a constructor

method. o The class can contain one constructor method only. o
JavaScript allows us to use parent class constructor through super
keyword.

Constructor Method Example

Let's see a simple example of a constructor method.

1. <script>
2. class Employee {
3. constructor() {
4. this.id=101;
5. this.name = "Martin Roy";
6. }
7. }
8. var emp = new Employee();
9. document.writeln(emp.id+" "+emp.name);
10. </script> Output:

101 Martin Roy

Constructor Method Example: super keyword

The super keyword is used to call the parent class constructor. Let's see an example.

1. <script>
2. class CompanyName
3. {
4. constructor()
5. {
6. this.company="Javatpoint";
 Page 241

7. }
8. }
9. class Employee extends CompanyName {
10. constructor(id,name) {
11. super();
12. this.id=id;
13. this.name=name;
14. }
15. }
16. var emp = new Employee(1,"John");
17. document.writeln(emp.id+" "+emp.name+" "+emp.company);
18. </script>

Output:
1 John Javatpoint
JavaScript Encapsulation

The JavaScript Encapsulation is a process of binding the data (i.e. variables) with the functions
acting on that data. It allows us to control the data and validate it. To achieve an encapsulation
in JavaScript: -

o Use var keyword to make data members private. o Use setter

methods to set the data and getter methods to get that data.

The encapsulation allows us to handle an object using the following properties:

Read/Write - Here, we use setter methods to write the data and getter methods read that data.

Read Only - In this case, we use getter methods only.

Write Only - In this case, we use setter methods only.

JavaScript Encapsulation Example

Let's see a simple example of encapsulation that contains two data members with its setter and
getter methods.

1. <script>
 Page 242

2. class Student
3. {
4. constructor()
5. {
6. var name;
7. var marks;
8. }
9. getName()
10. {
11. return this.name;
12. }
13. setName(name)
14. {
15. this.name=name;
16. }
17.
18. getMarks()
19. {
20. return this.marks;
21. }
22. setMarks(marks)
23. {
24. this.marks=marks;
25. }
26.
27. }
28. var stud=new Student();
29. stud.setName("John");
30. stud.setMarks(80);
31. document.writeln(stud.getName()+" "+stud.getMarks());
32. </script>

Output:
 Page 243

John 80
JavaScript Inheritance
The JavaScript inheritance is a mechanism that allows us to create new classes on the basis of
already existing classes. It provides flexibility to the child class to reuse the methods and variables
of a parent class.

The JavaScript extends keyword is used to create a child class on the basis of a parent class. It
facilitates child class to acquire all the properties and behavior of its parent class.
Points to remember o It maintains
an IS-A relationship.
o The extends keyword is used in class expressions or class declarations.
o Using extends keyword, we can acquire all the properties and behavior of the inbuilt
object as well as custom classes.
o We can also use a prototype-based approach to achieve inheritance.

JavaScript extends Example: inbuilt object

In this example, we extends Date object to display today's date.

1. <script>
2. class Moment extends Date {
3. constructor() {
4. super();
5. }}
6. var m=new Moment();
7. document.writeln("Current date:")
8. document.writeln(m.getDate()+"-"+(m.getMonth()+1)+"-"+m.getFullYear()); 9. </script>

Output:
Current date: 31-8-2018

Let's see one more example to display the year value from the given date.

1. <script>
2. class Moment extends Date {
3. constructor(year) {
 Page 244

4. super(year);
5. }}
6. var m=new Moment("August 15, 1947 20:22:10");
7. document.writeln("Year value:")
8. document.writeln(m.getFullYear());
9. </script>
Output:
Year value: 1947

JavaScript extends Example: Custom class

In this example, we declare sub-class that extends the properties of its parent class.

1. <script>
2. class Bike
3. {
4. constructor()
5. {
6. this.company="Honda";
7. }
8. }
9. class Vehicle extends Bike {
10. constructor(name,price) {
11. super();
12. this.name=name;
13. this.price=price;
14. }
15. }
16. var v = new Vehicle("Shine","70000");
17. document.writeln(v.company+" "+v.name+" "+v.price);
18. </script>

Output:

Honda Shine 70000

 Page 245

JavaScript extends Example: a Prototype-based approach

Here, we perform prototype-based inheritance. In this approach, there is no need to use class
and extends keywords.

1. <script>
2. //Constructor function
3. function Bike(company)
4. {
5. this.company=company;
6. }
7.
8. Bike.prototype.getCompany=function()
9. {
10. return this.company;
11. }
12. //Another constructor function
13. function Vehicle(name,price) {
14. this.name=name;
15. this.price=price;
16. }
17. var bike = new Bike("Honda");
18. Vehicle.prototype=bike; //Now Bike treats as a parent of Vehicle.
19. var vehicle=new Vehicle("Shine",70000);
20. document.writeln(vehicle.getCompany()+" "+vehicle.name+" "+vehicle.price);
21. </script> Test it Now Output:
Honda Shine 70000
JavaScript Polymorphism

The polymorphism is a core concept of an object-oriented paradigm that provides a way to

perform a single action in different forms. It provides an ability to call the same method on
different JavaScript objects. As JavaScript is not a type-safe language, we can pass any type of
data members with the methods.
 Page 246

JavaScript Polymorphism Example 1

Let's see an example where a child class object invokes the parent class method.

1. <script>
2. class A
3. {
4. display()
5. {
6. document.writeln("A is invoked");
7. }
8. }
9. class B extends A
10. {
11. }
12. var b=new B();
13. b.display();
14. </script>

Output:
A is invoked
JavaScript Abstraction

An abstraction is a way of hiding the implementation details and showing only the functionality
to the users. In other words, it ignores the irrelevant details and shows only the required one.

Points to remember o We cannot create an

instance of Abstract Class. o It reduces the
duplication of code.

JavaScript Abstraction Example

Example 1

Let's check whether we can create an instance of Abstract class or not.

1. <script>
 Page 247

2. //Creating a constructor function

3. function Vehicle()
4. {
5. this.vehicleName= vehicleName;
6. throw new Error("You cannot create an instance of Abstract class");
7.
8. }
9. Vehicle.prototype.display=function()
10. {
11. return this.vehicleName;
12. }
13. var vehicle=new Vehicle();
14. </script>

JavaScript Cookies
JavaScript Cookies

A cookie is an amount of information that persists between a server-side and a clientside.

A web browser stores this information at the time of browsing.

A cookie contains the information as a string generally in the form of a name-value pair
separated by semi-colons. It maintains the state of a user and remembers the user's
information among all the web pages.

How Cookies Works?

o When a user sends a request to the server, then each of that request is treated as a
new request sent by the different user.
 Page 248

o So, to recognize the old user, we need to add the cookie with the response from
the server.
o browser at the client-side.
o Now, whenever a user sends a request to the server, the cookie is added with that
request automatically. Due to the cookie, the server recognizes the users.

How to create a Cookie in JavaScript?

In JavaScript, we can create, read, update and delete a

cookie by using document.cookie property.

The following syntax is used to create a cookie:

1. document.cookie="name=value";
JavaScript Cookie Example

Example 1

Let's see an example to set and get a cookie.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. </head>
5. <body>
6. <input type="button" value="setCookie" onclick="setCookie()">
7. <input type="button" value="getCookie" onclick="getCookie()">
8. <script>
9. function setCookie()
10. {
 Page 249

11. document.cookie="username=Duke Martin";

12. }
13. function getCookie()
14. {
15. if(document.cookie.length!=0)
16. {
17. alert(document.cookie);
18. }
19. else
20. {
21. alert("Cookie not available");
22. }
23. } 24. </script>
25.
26. </body>
27. </html>

Example 2

Here, we display the cookie's name-value pair separately.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. </head>
5. <body>
6. <input type="button" value="setCookie" onclick="setCookie()">
7. <input type="button" value="getCookie" onclick="getCookie()">
8. <script>
9. function setCookie()
10. {
11. document.cookie="username=Duke Martin";
12. }
 Page 250

13. function getCookie()

14. {
15. if(document.cookie.length!=0)
16. {
17. var array=document.cookie.split("=");
18. alert("Name="+array[0]+" "+"Value="+array[1]);
19. }
20. else
21. {
22. alert("Cookie not available");
23. }
24. }
25. </script>
26.
27. </body>
28. </html>
Deleting a Cookie in JavaScript
In the previous section, we learned the different ways to set and update a cookie in
JavaScript. Apart from that, JavaScript also allows us to delete a cookie. Here, we see all
the possible ways to delete a cookie.

Different ways to delete a Cookie

These are the following ways to delete a cookie:

o A cookie can be deleted by using expire attribute. o

A cookie can also be deleted by using max-age
attribute.
o We can delete a cookie explicitly, by using a web
browser.
 Page 251

Examples to delete a Cookie

Example 1

In this example, we use expire attribute to delete a cookie by providing expiry date (i.e. any past
date) to it.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. </head>
5. <body>
6.
7. <input type="button" value="Set Cookie" onclick="setCookie()">
8. <input type="button" value="Get Cookie" onclick="getCookie()">
9. <script>
10. function setCookie()
11. {
12. document.cookie="name=Martin Roy; expires=Sun, 20 Aug 2000 12:00:00 UTC";
13.
14. }
15. function getCookie()
16. {
17. if(document.cookie.length!=0)
18. {
19. alert(document.cookie);
20. }
21. else
22. {
23. alert("Cookie not avaliable");
24. }
25. }
26. </script>
27. </body>
 Page 252

28. </html>
JavaScript Events
JavaScript Events
The change in the state of an object is known as an Event. In html, there are various events which
represents that some activity is performed by the user or by the browser. When javascript code is
included in HTML, js react over these events and allow the execution. This process of reacting over the
events is called Event Handling. Thus, js handles the HTML events via Event Handlers.

For example, when a user clicks over the browser, add js code, which will execute the task to be
performed on the event.

Click Event

1. <html>
2. <head> Javascript Events </head>
3. <body>
4. <script language="Javascript" type="text/Javascript">
5. <!--
6. function clickevent()
7. {
8. document.write("This is JavaTpoint");
9. }
10. //-->
11. </script>
12. <form>
13. <input type="button" onclick="clickevent()" value="Who's this?"/>
14. </form>
15. </body>
16. </html>
MouseOver Event

1. <html>
2. <head>
3. <h1> Javascript Events </h1>
 Page 253

4. </head>
5. <body>
6. <script language="Javascript" type="text/Javascript">
7. <!--
8. function mouseoverevent()
9. {
10. alert("This is JavaTpoint");
11. }
12. //-->
13. </script>
14. <p onmouseover="mouseoverevent()"> Keep cursor over me</p>
15. </body>
16. </html>
Focus Event

1. <html>
2. <head> Javascript Events</head>
3. <body>
4. <h2> Enter something here</h2>
5. <input type="text" id="input1" onfocus="focusevent()"/>
6. <script>
7. <!--
8. function focusevent()
9. {
10. document.getElementById("input1").style.background=" aqua";
11. }
12. //-->
13. </script>
14. </body>
15. </html>
Keydown Event

1. <html>
2. <head> Javascript Events</head>
3. <body>
 Page 254

4. <h2> Enter something here</h2>

5. <input type="text" id="input1" onkeydown="keydownevent()"/>
6. <script>
7. <!--
8. function keydownevent()
9. {
10. document.getElementById("input1");
11. alert("Pressed a key");
12. }
13. //-->
14. </script>
15. </body>
16. </html>
Load event

1. <html>
2. <head>Javascript Events</head>
3. </br>
4. <body onload="window.alert('Page successfully loaded');">
5. <script>
6. <!--
7. document.write("The page is loaded successfully");
8. //-->
9. </script>
10. </body>
11. </html>

Check if the value exists in Array in Javascript

In a programming language like Javascript, to check if the value exists in an array, there are certain
methods. To be precise, there are plenty of ways to check if the value we are looking for resides amongst
the elements in an array given by the user or is predefined. Let's discuss these methods one by one using
various examples.
 Page 255

indexof() method
The indexof() method in Javascript is one of the most convenient ways to find out whether a value exists
in an array or not. The indexof() method works on the phenomenon of index numbers. This method
returns the index of the array if found and returns -1 otherwise. Let's consider the below code:

1. <script>
2. var army=["Marcos", "DeltaForce", "Seals", "SWAT", "HeadHunters"];
3.
4. if(army.indexOf("Marcos") !== -1)
5. {
6. alert("Yes, the value exists!")
7. }
8. else
9. {
10. alert("No, the value is absent.")
11. }
12.
13. </script>

Output

Yes, the value exists!

The above code prints the given out because the value is already present in the array. It is quite easy to
understand that the expected value is present at position 0. Thus, the indexof() method tells you that the
value expected is present in the given array.

includes() method
The includes() method is one such method using which we can easily find out whether the expected value
exists in the given array. There are various ways to use include() method. This method returns a Boolean
value i.e. true if the value exists and false if it incorrect. The includes() method can be used in various
ways to find out if the value exists. To name a few, take a look at the below examples to understand.

1. varspecialForces=["BlackCats","Marcos", "Demolishers","HeadHunters"];
2. r name = specialForces.includes("HeadHunters");
 Page 256

In the above method, we have defined two variables as shown. The includes() methods
return true because the value which we are looking for is already present in the given array. If the value
was not present in the array, the includes() methods might have returned false.

Another way of using the includes() method is by assigning the index value through which the element
we are looking for is generated as output. See the below code for reference.

1. var actors = ["Hrithik", "SRK", "Salman", "Vidyut"];

2. var names = actors.includes("Vidyut", 3);

In the above code snippet, we have defined the variable "actors" which the value. We have also defined
a variable "names" which would return true or false, if the includes() method returns the shown result.
The code above will return true since the value and the index number have been correctly assigned and
would return the output.

The above examples are some of the predefined methods that we have used to check whether an element
exists in the array or not. We have another approach to find out an array element using loops. Let's
discuss how can we check if the element exists in an array using loops as shown in the below code
snippet.

Using loops
1. var example_array = ['Rahul','Rajesh','Sonu','Siddhi','Mark','George'];
2.
3. function checkArray(value,array)
4. {
5. var status = 'Absent';
6.
7. for(var i=0; i<array.length; i++)
8. {
9. var name = array[i];
10. if(name == value){
11. status = 'Present';
12. break;
13. }
14. }
15. return status;
16. }
 Page 257

Output

status: Present
status: Absent

How to disable radio button using JavaScript?

Radio button is an input type that is used to get input from the user by selecting one value from multiple
choices. You have seen the radio buttons to choose gender between male and female. We select only
one entry, either male or female and leave the other entries are unselected.

There might be some cases when we need to disable the other entries based on some conditions. You
can enable and disable the radio button by using the disabled property of HTML DOM. Set this property
to true (disable=true) to disable the radio button in JavaScript.

Disable the radio button

Sometimes, we need to disable the radio button for a specific condition. These are special conditions
when we disable the radio button. When the radio buttons get disabled, their color changed to grey.

In the below examples, we will learn how to disable the radio button:

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Disable radio button using dropdown

Here, we will use a dropdown list having Yes and No as values to enable or disable the radio buttons. If
you choose No, all the radio buttons will be disabled. On the other hand, all the radio buttons will be
enabled if you select Yes.

Note that you can use the checkbox as well instead of a dropdown list.

Copy Code

1. <html>
2. <script>
3. function verifyAnswer() {
4. //get the selected value from the dropdown list
5. var mylist = document.getElementById("myAns");
6. var result = mylist.options[mylist.selectedIndex].text;
7. if (result == 'No') {
8. //disable all the radio button
 Page 258

9. document.getElementById("csharp").disabled = true;
10. document.getElementById("js").disabled = true;
11. document.getElementById("angular").disabled = true;
12. } else {
13. //enable all the radio button
14. document.getElementById("csharp").disabled = false;
15. document.getElementById("js").disabled = false;
16. document.getElementById("angular").disabled = false;
17. }
18. }
19. </script>
20.
21. <body>
22. <h2> Disable radio Button using dropdown </h2>
23. <form>
24. <!-- create a dropdown list -->
25. <h3> Are you a developer? </h3>
26. <select id = "myAns" onchange = "verifyAnswer()" >
27. <option value="choose"> --choose -- </option>
28. <option value="yes"> Yes </option>
29. <option value="no"> No </option>
30. </select>
31. </form>
32.
33. <p> <b> If Yes, Choose language your preferred programming Language</b> </p>
34. <!-- create a set of radio buttons -->
35. <label> <input type="radio" name="programming" id="csharp" value= "csharp"> C# </label>
36. <label> <input type="radio" name="programming" id="js" value= "js"> JavaScript </label>
37. <label> <input type="radio" name="programming" id="angular" value= "angular"> Angular </label>
38. </body>
39. </html>
Test it Now

Output 1
 Page 259

You will get the output same as the given below by running the above code. Here, first choose either Yes
or No from the dropdown list.

Output 2

By selecting No from the dropdown list, all radio buttons will get disabled, and you will not be allowed
to choose any of the programming languages. See the screenshot below:

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Output 2

By selecting Yes from the dropdown list, all radio buttons will get enabled again. So, you will be able to
choose one programming language. See the screenshot below:
 Page 260

Disable radio button using checkbox

Now we will use a checkbox to disable the radio button.

Copy Code

1. <html>
2. <script>
3. function verifyAnswer() {
4. //disable all the radio button
5. document.getElementById("csharp").disabled = true;
6. document.getElementById("js").disabled = true;
7. document.getElementById("angular").disabled = true;
8.
9. //get the value if checkbox is checked
10. var dev = document.getElementById("myCheck").checked;
11. if (dev == true) {
12. //enable all the radio button
13. document.getElementById("csharp").disabled = false;
14. document.getElementById("js").disabled = false;
15. document.getElementById("angular").disabled = false;
16. }
17. }
18. </script>
19.
 Page 261

20. <body>
21. <h2> Disable radio Button using checkbox </h2>
22. <form>
23. <!-- create a dropdown list -->
24. <h3> Are you a developer? </h3>
25. Yes:
26. <input type="checkbox" id="myCheck" onchange="verifyAnswer()" checked>
27. </form>
28.
29. <p> <b> If Yes, Choose language your preferred programming Language</b> </p>
30. <!-- create a set of radio buttons -->
31. <label> <input type="radio" name="programming" id="csharp" value= "csharp"> C# </label>
32. <label> <input type="radio" name="programming" id="js" value= "js"> JavaScript </label>
33. <label> <input type="radio" name="programming" id="angular" value= "angular"> Angular </label>
34. </body>
35. </html>
Test it Now

Output

You will get the output same as the given below by running the above code. Here, checkbox is already
checked, you just need to choose one programming language by clicking on radio button.

Uncheck the checkbox if you are not a developer. The radio buttons will get disabled by unchecking the
checkbox.

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 Page 262

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So, these are the different methods to disable the radio button.

A simple radio button example

It is a simple example of radio button created. In this example, we will create set of radio button for
gender and language selection. The input will be taken using the HTML form and calculated by JavaScript.
See the code below:

Copy Code

1. <html>
2. <script>
3. function calValue() {
4. //fetch all gender radio button data
5. var male = document.getElementById('g1');
6. var female = document.getElementById('g2');
7. var otherg = document.getElementById('g3');
8.
9. //fetch all language radio button data
10. var hindi = document.getElementById('l1');
11. var english = document.getElementById('l2');
12. var otherl = document.getElementById('l3');
13.
14. var gender;
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15. var language;

16. //check which gender is selected using radio button
17. if(male.checked == true) {
18. gender = male;
19. } else if(female.checked == true) {
20. gender = female;
21. } else if(otherg.checked == true) {
22. gender = otherg
23. }
24.
25. //check which language is selected using radio button
26. if(hindi.checked == true) {
27. language = hindi;
28. } else if(english.checked == true) {
29. language = english;
30. } else if(otherl.checked == true) {
31. language = otherl
32. }
33. //return data to HTML form
34. return document.getElementById("result").innerHTML = "Your selected gender is: " + gender.value + "</br> and
</br> Selected language is: " + language.value;
35. }
36. </script>
37.
38. <body>
39. <h2> Simple radio Buttons Example </h2>
40. <!-- create radio button for gender selection -->
41. <p> <b> Select your gender: </b> </p>
42. <input type="radio" id="g1" name="gender" value="male">
43. <label for="male"> Male </label> <br>
44. <input type="radio" id="g2" name="gender" value="female">
45. <label for="female"> Female </label> <br>
46. <input type="radio" id="g3" name="gender" value="other">
47. <label for="other"> Other </label>
 Page 264

48.
49. <br>
50. <!-- create radio button for language selection -->
51. <p> <b> Select your language: </b> </p>
52. <input type ="radio" id="l1" name="language" value="hindi">
53. <label for ="male"> Hindi </label> <br>
54. <input type="radio" id="l2" name="language" value="english">
55. <label for="female"> English </label> <br>
56. <input type="radio" id="l3" name="language" value="other">
57. <label for="other"> Other </label> <br> <br>
58.
59. <input type="submit" value="Submit" onclick="calValue()">
60. <h3 id="result" style="color:blue"> </h3>
61. </body>
62. </html>
Test it Now

Output

See the below screenshot for radio button. Here, selects one value from each set of radio buttons. We
have selected gender = female and language = hindi.
 Page 265

After selecting the radio button values, click on the Show Selected Values button, and you will get the
selected values have displayed on the web.

How to add JavaScript to html

JavaScript, also known as JS, is one of the scripting (client-side scripting) languages, that is usually used
in web development to create modern and interactive web-pages. The term "script" is used to refer to
the languages that are not standalone in nature and here it refers to JavaScript which run on the client
machine.

In other words, we can say that the term scripting is used for languages that require the support of
another language to get executed. For example, JavaScript programs cannot get executed without the
help of HTML or without integrated into HTML code.

JavaScript is used in several ways in web pages such as generate warning messages, build image galleries,
DOM manipulation, form validation, and more.

Adding JavaScript to HTML Pages

There are following three ways in which users can add JavaScript

1. Embedding code
2. Inline code
3. External file

We will see three of them step by step

 Page 266

I. Embedding code:-
To add the JavaScript code into the HTML pages, we can use the <script>.....</script> tag of the HTML
that wrap around JavaScript code inside the HTML program. Users can also define JavaScript code in
the <body> tag (or we can say body section) or <head> tag because it completely depends on the
structure of the web page that the users use.

We can understand this more clearly with the help of an example, how to add JavaScript to html

Example

1. <!DOCTYPE html >

2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <title> page title</title>
5. <script>
6. document.write("Welcome to Javatpoint");
7. </script>
8. </head>
9. <body>
10. <p>Inthis example we saw how to add JavaScript in the head section </p>
11. </body>
12. </html>

Output:

We can also define the JavaScript code in the <body> tags or body section.

Let's understand through an example.

1. <!DOCTYPE html >

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2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <title> page title</title>
5. </head>
6. <body>
7. <script>
8. document.write("Welcome to Javatpoint");
9. </script>
10. <p> In this example we saw how to add JavaScript in the body section </p>
11. </body>
12. </html>

Output

II. Inline code:-

Generally, this method is used when we have to call a function in the HTML event attributes. There are
many cases (or events) in which we have to add JavaScript code directly eg., OnMover event, OnClick,
etc.

Let's see with the help of an example, how we can add JavaScript directly in the html without using
the <script>.... </script> tag.

Let's look at the example.

1. <!DOCTYPE html >

2. <html>
3. <head>
 Page 268

4. <title> page title</title>

5. </head>
6. <body>
7. <p>
8. <a href="#" onClick="alert('Welcome !');">Click Me</a>
9. </p>
10. <p> in this example we saw how to use inline JavaScript or directly in an HTML tag. </p>
11. </body>
12. </html>

Output

III. External file:-

We can also create a separate file to hold the code of JavaScript with the (.js) extension and later
incorporate/include it into our HTML document using the src attribute of the <script> tag. It becomes
very helpful if we want to use the same code in multiple HTML documents. It also saves us from the task
of writing the same code over and over again and makes it easier to maintain web pages.

In this example, we will see how we can include an external JavaScript file in an HTML document.

Let's understand through a simple example.

1. <html>
2. <head>
3. <meta charset="utf-8">
4. <title>Including a External JavaScript File</title>
5. </head>
6. <body>
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7. <form>
8. <input type="button" value="Result" onclick="display()"/>
9. </form>
10. <script src="hello.js">
11. </script>
12. </body>
13. </html>

Now let's create separate JavaScript file

Hello.js

1. function display() {
2. alert("Hello World!");
3. }

Output

Both of the above programs are saved in the same folder, but you can also store JavaScript code in a
separate folder, all just you need to provide the address/path of the (.js) file in the src attribute of <script>
tag.

Important points
JavaScript files are common text files with (.js) extensions such as we created and used in the above
program.

External JavaScript file only contains JavaScript code and nothing else, even the <script>.... </script>tag
are also not used in it.
 Page 270

The HTML no script Element

The <nosscript> element provides us an alternate way to create content for the users that either have
browsers that don?t support the JavaScript or have disabled JavaScript in the browser.

This element can contain any HTML element other than the <script> tag that can be included in the
<HTML> element.

Let's understand it more clearly with the help of an example:

Program

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <body>
4. <h1>Thenoscript element</h1>
5. <p>If the user have a browser with JavaScript disabled will show the text inside the noscript element and "Hello
World!" will not be displayed.</p>
6. <script>
7. document.write("Hello World!")
8. </script>
9. <noscript>Sorry, your browser may not support JavaScript! orJavaScript is disabled in your browser </noscript
>
10.
11. </body>
12. </html>

In the above program, we have used the javascript to print the message "Hello World!" and also used
<nonscript> element to print the message " Sorry, your browser may not support JavaScript! Or
JavaScript is disabled in your browser". The <nonscript> element will print this message only if
JavaScript is disabled in the user's browser or his browser does not support JavaScript at all.

Let's see what output we get when we run the above given program in the JavaScript enabled browser.

Output
 Page 271

Now, let's see what output we will get when we run the same program in a JavaScript disabled browser
(or in a browser that does not support JavaScript).

Output

Example 2

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html lang="en">
3. <head>
4. <meta charset="utf-8">
5. <title>Noscript Demo</title>
6. </head>
7. <body>
 Page 272

8. <div id="greet"></div>
9. <script>
10. document.getElementById("greet").innerHTML = "Hello World!";
11. </script>
12. <noscript> //This element will print the given message only when the execution of the <script> tags does not
take place.
13. <p>Oops! This website requires a JavaScript-enabled browser.</p>
14. </noscript>
15. </body>
16. </html>

Let's run the above given program in the JavaScript enabled browser.

Output

Now let's run the above program on JavaScript disabled browser

Output

Debugging javascript using firebug:

 Page 273

Debugging JavaScript Using Developer Tools (Simple Explanation)

Modern web browsers like Google Chrome and Firefox have built-in tools to help you find and fix problems in
your JavaScript code. Here's how to do it step-by-step, with an example.
Example Scenario:
Imagine you have a webpage where a button is supposed to display an alert saying "Hello, World!" when
clicked, but it's not working.
Step 1: Open Developer Tools

How to Open:
Press F12 on your keyboard, or

Right-click anywhere on the page and select "Inspect" or "Inspect Element."

Step 2: Go to the Console Tab

What it Does:
The Console shows errors in your code and lets you run JavaScript commands directly.

Example:
If your button click isn't working, you might see an error message here.
Step 3: Go to the Sources Tab (Chrome) or Debugger Tab (Firefox)

What it Does:
This is where you can see your JavaScript files and find the exact line of code that might be causing the problem.

How to Use:
Find your JavaScript file in the list on the left.
Click on it to see the code.

Click on a line number to add a breakpoint (this pauses the code here so you can see what's happening).

Step 4: Use Breakpoints

What it Does:
Breakpoints let you pause the code and check what each part is doing.

Example:
 Page 274

If your code is supposed to show "Hello, World!" but doesn't, you can set a breakpoint where the alert should
happen.
When you click the button, the code will pause, and you can check if it's reaching the alert line.
Step 5: Check Variables

What it Does:
You can see the current value of variables in your code when it's paused.

Example:
If the alert isn’t working, maybe the button isn’t being detected properly. You can check the value of variables
related to the button and see if they look correct.
Step 6: Fix the Problem

How to Fix:
Based on what you see, you can figure out what's wrong and fix it in your code.

Example:
Maybe the button’s ID in your HTML is different from what you have in your JavaScript. You can correct it and
try again.
Final Result
Once you’ve used these steps to find and fix the problem, your button should work and show the "Hello,
World!" alert when clicked.
This is a basic introduction to debugging JavaScript. As you get more comfortable, you can explore more
features in the developer tools.

Introduction to various object models:

Browser objects BOM:
The Browser Object Model (BOM) in JavaScript refers to the objects provided by the browser that allow you to interact
with the browser itself, outside of the web page content. Unlike the Document Object Model (DOM), which deals with the
HTML and CSS of a webpage, the BOM provides methods and properties for interacting with the browser window.

Here are the key components of the BOM:

Window Object :
The window object is the main object in the BOM. It represents the browser window and acts as the global object in
JavaScript, meaning all global variables and functions are properties of window.

Example:
 Page 275

console.log(window.innerWidth); // Gets the width of the window's content area

Common properties and methods:

window.innerWidth and window.innerHeight: Get the width and height of the browser window's content area.

window.open(): Opens a new browser window or tab.

window.close(): Closes the current window.

window.alert(): Displays an alert dialog.

window.setTimeout(): Calls a function after a specified delay.

window.location: Provides information about the current URL and allows navigation to different URLs.

2. location Object
The location object contains information about the current URL and allows you to redirect the browser to a new URL.

Example:

console.log(window.location.href); // Prints the full URL of the current page

window.location.href = "https://www.example.com"; // Redirects to a new URL

Common properties:

location.href: Gets or sets the full URL.

location.hostname: Gets the domain name of the web host.

location.pathname: Gets the path of the URL.

location.search: Gets the query string part of the URL (e.g., ?id=123).

location.reload(): Reloads the current page.

3. navigator Object
The navigator object provides information about the browser and the user's system.

Example:

console.log(navigator.userAgent); // Prints the user agent string (browser info)

Common properties:

navigator.userAgent: Contains the user agent string, which includes information about the browser version,
operating system, etc.

navigator.language: Returns the language of the browser.

navigator.geolocation: Provides access to the user's location (with permission).

4. history Object
 Page 276

The history object allows you to interact with the browser's history (the list of pages the user has visited in the current
session).

Example:

window.history.back(); // Goes back to the previous page in history

Common methods:

history.back(): Goes back one page in the session history.

history.forward(): Goes forward one page in the session history.

history.go(n): Moves forward or backward by n pages in the session history.

5. screen Object
The screen object provides information about the user's screen, such as its resolution.

Example:

console.log(screen.width); // Prints the width of the user's screen

Common properties:

screen.width: The width of the screen in pixels.

screen.height: The height of the screen in pixels.

screen.availWidth: The width of the screen excluding the operating system taskbar.

screen.availHeight: The height of the screen excluding the operating system taskbar.

Summary

The BOM gives you tools to interact with the browser environment, such as controlling the browser window, navigating
between pages, and getting information about the user’s browser and screen. These features help make web pages more
dynamic and interactive by integrating with the browser itself.

Document Object Model

1. Document Object
2. Properties of document object
3. Methods of document object
4. Example of document object

The document object represents the whole html document.

When html document is loaded in the browser, it becomes a document object. It is the root element that
represents the html document. It has properties and methods. By the help of document object, we can add
dynamic content to our web page.
 Page 277

As mentioned earlier, it is the object of window. So

window.document

Is same as

document

According to W3C - "The W3C Document Object Model (DOM) is a platform and language-neutral interface that
allows programs and scripts to dynamically access and update the content, structure, and style of a document."

Properties of document object

Let's see the properties of document object that can be accessed and modified by the document

object.

Methods of document object

We can access and change the contents of document by its methods.

The important methods of document object are as follows:

Method Description

write("string") writes the given string on the doucment.

 Page 278

writeln("string") writes the given string on the doucment with newline character at the end.

getElementById() returns the element having the given id value.

getElementsByName() returns all the elements having the given name value.

getElementsByTagName() returns all the elements having the given tag name.

getElementsByClassName() returns all the elements having the given class name.

Accessing field value by document object

In this example, we are going to get the value of input text by user. Here, we are
using document.form1.name.value to get the value of name field.

Here, document is the root element that represents the html document.

form1 is the name of the form.

name is the attribute name of the input text.

value is the property, that returns the value of the input text.

Let's see the simple example of document object that prints name with welcome message.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function printvalue(){
3. var name=document.form1.name.value;
4. alert("Welcome: "+name);
5. }
6. </script>
7.
8. <form name="form1">
9. Enter Name:<input type="text" name="name"/>
10. <input type="button" onclick="printvalue()" value="print name"/>
11. </form>
 Page 279

Output of the above example

Enter Name:

Javascript - document.getElementById() method

1. getElementById() method
2. Example of getElementById()

The document.getElementById() method returns the element of specified id.

In the previous page, we have used document.form1.name.value to get the value of the input value. Instead of
this, we can use document.getElementById() method to get value of the input text. But we need to define id for
the input field.

Let's see the simple example of document.getElementById() method that prints cube of the given number.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function getcube(){
3. var number=document.getElementById("number").value;
4. alert(number*number*number);
5. }
6. </script>
7. <form>
8. Enter No:<input type="text" id="number" name="number"/><br/>
9. <input type="button" value="cube" onclick="getcube()"/>
10. </form>

Output of the above example

EnterNo:

Javascript - document.getElementsByName() method

1. getElementsByName() method
2. Example of getElementsByName()

The document.getElementsByName() method returns all the element of specified name.

 Page 280

The syntax of the getElementsByName() method is given below:

1. document.getElementsByName("name")

Here, name is required.

Example of document.getElementsByName() method

In this example, we going to count total number of genders. Here, we are using getElementsByName() method to
get all the genders.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function totalelements()
3. {
4. var allgenders=document.getElementsByName("gender");
5. alert("Total Genders:"+allgenders.length);
6. }
7. </script>
8. <form>
9. Male:<input type="radio" name="gender" value="male">
10. Female:<input type="radio" name="gender" value="female">
11.
12. <input type="button" onclick="totalelements()" value="Total Genders">
13. </form>

Output of the above example

Male: Female:

Javascript - document.getElementsByTagName() method

1. getElementsByTagName() method
2. Example of getElementsByTagName()

The document.getElementsByTagName() method returns all the element of specified tag name.

The syntax of the getElementsByTagName() method is given below:

1. document.getElementsByTagName("name")
 Page 281

Here, name is required.

Example of document.getElementsByTagName() method

In this example, we going to count total number of paragraphs used in the document. To do this, we have called
the document.getElementsByTagName("p") method that returns the total paragraphs.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function countpara(){
3. var totalpara=document.getElementsByTagName("p");
4. alert("total p tags are: "+totalpara.length);
5.
6. }
7. </script>
8. <p>This is a pragraph</p>
9. <p>Here we are going to count total number of paragraphs by getElementByTagName() method.</p>
10. <p>Let's see the simple example</p>
11. <button onclick="countpara()">count paragraph</button>

Output of the above example

This is a pragraph

Here we are going to count total number of paragraphs by getElementByTagName() method.

Let's see the simple example

count paragraph

Another example of document.getElementsByTagName() method

In this example, we going to count total number of h2 and h3 tags used in the document.

1. <script type="text/javascript">
2. function counth2(){
3. var totalh2=document.getElementsByTagName("h2");
4. alert("total h2 tags are: "+totalh2.length);
5. }
6. function counth3(){
 Page 282

7. var totalh3=document.getElementsByTagName("h3");
8. alert("total h3 tags are: "+totalh3.length);
9. }
10. </script>
11. <h2>This is h2 tag</h2>
12. <h2>This is h2 tag</h2>
13. <h3>This is h3 tag</h3>
14. <h3>This is h3 tag</h3>
15. <h3>This is h3 tag</h3>
16. <button onclick="counth2()">count h2</button>
17. <button onclick="counth3()">count h3</button>

Output of the above example

This is h2 tag

This is h2 tag

This is h3 tag

This is h3 tag

This is h3 tag
count h2 count h3

Javascript - innerHTML
1. javascript innerHTML
2. Example of innerHTML property

The innerHTML property can be used to write the dynamic html on the html document.

It is used mostly in the web pages to generate the dynamic html such as registration form, comment form, links
etc.

Example of innerHTML property

In this example, we are going to create the html form when user clicks on the button.
 Page 283

In this example, we are dynamically writing the html form inside the div name having the id mylocation. We are
identifing this position by calling the document.getElementById() method.

1. <script type="text/javascript" >

2. function showcommentform() {
3. var data="Name:<input type='text' name='name'><br>Comment:<br><textarea rows='5' cols='80'></textarea>

4. <br><input type='submit' value='Post Comment'>";

5. document.getElementById('mylocation').innerHTML=data;
6. }
7. </script>
8. <form name="myForm">
9. <input type="button" value="comment" onclick="showcommentform()">
10. <div id="mylocation"></div>
11. </form>

Show/Hide Comment Form Example using innerHTML

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <title>First JS</title>
5. <script>
6. var flag=true;
7. function commentform(){
8. var cform="<form action='Comment'>Enter Name:<br><input type='text' name='name'/><br/>
9. Enter Email:<br><input type='email' name='email'/><br>Enter Comment:<br/>
10. <textarea rows='5' cols='70'></textarea><br><input type='submit' value='Post Comment'/></form>";
11. if(flag){
12. document.getElementById("mylocation").innerHTML=cform;
13. flag=false;
14. }else{
15. document.getElementById("mylocation").innerHTML="";
16. flag=true;
17. }
18. }
 Page 284

19. </script>
20. </head>
21. <body>
22. <button onclick="commentform()">Comment</button>
23. <div id="mylocation"></div>
24. </body>
25. </html>

Javascript - innerText
1. javascript innerText
2. Example of innerText property

The innerText property can be used to write the dynamic text on the html document. Here, text will not be
interpreted as html text but a normal text.

It is used mostly in the web pages to generate the dynamic content such as writing the validation message,
password strength etc.

Javascript innerText Example

In this example, we are going to display the password strength when releases the key after press.

1. <script type="text/javascript" >

2. function validate() {
3. var msg;
4. if(document.myForm.userPass.value.length>5){
5. msg="good";
6. }
7. else{
8. msg="poor";
9. }
10. document.getElementById('mylocation').innerText=msg;
11. }
12.
13. </script>
14. <form name="myForm">
 Page 285

15. <input type="password" value="" name="userPass" onkeyup="validate()">

16. Strength:<span id="mylocation">no strength</span>
17. </form>
Test it Now

Output of the above example

Strength:no strength

Introduction to jQuery
jQuery is a fast, small, and feature-rich JavaScript library. It was designed to simplify the client-side scripting of
HTML. jQuery makes things like HTML document traversal and manipulation, event handling, animation, and
AJAX much simpler with an easy-to-use API that works across a multitude of browsers.

Why Use jQuery?

1. Simplifies JavaScript: jQuery provides a simplified syntax that makes it easier to write JavaScript code.
It takes common JavaScript tasks and reduces the amount of code needed to accomplish them.
2. Cross-Browser Compatibility: jQuery handles the differences between browsers, allowing you to write
code that works consistently across all major browsers.
3. Rich Set of Features: jQuery comes with a large number of built-in functions for tasks like DOM
manipulation, event handling, animations, and AJAX.
4. Extensibility: jQuery can be extended with plugins, which allow developers to add custom methods and
functions.
5. Large Community and Documentation: jQuery has a large community of users, which means plenty of
resources, tutorials, and plugins are available.

How to Include jQuery

You can include jQuery in your web project by using a <script> tag in your HTML file. There are two main
ways to do this:

1. Using a CDN (Content Delivery Network):

o Example:
o <script src="https://code.jquery.com/jquery-3.6.0.min.js"></script>
o This loads jQuery from a remote server, reducing the load on your own server.
2. Downloading jQuery:
o You can download jQuery from jQuery’s official website and include it in your project.
o Example:

<script src="path/to/jquery.min.js"></script>
 Page 286

Basic jQuery Syntax

The basic syntax of jQuery is:

$(selector).action();

 $: This is the jQuery object or function.

 selector: A string that specifies the HTML element(s) you want to select.
 action(): The jQuery action or method you want to perform on the selected elements.

Example: Hello World with jQuery

Here’s a simple example that changes the text of an HTML element when a button is clicked:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>jQuery Example</title>
<script src="https://code.jquery.com/jquery-3.6.0.min.js"></script>
<script>
$(document).ready(function() {
$("#myButton").click(function() {
$("#myText").text("Hello, World!");
});
});
</script>
</head>
<body>
<h1 id="myText">Welcome!</h1>
<button id="myButton">Change Text</button>
</body>
</html>
Explanation:

 $(document).ready(function() {...});: This ensures that the code inside the function runs only after the
DOM is fully loaded.
 $("#myButton").click(function() {...});: This selects the button with id="myButton" and sets up a
click event handler.
 $("#myText").text("Hello, World!");: When the button is clicked, the text of the element with
id="myText" is changed to "Hello, World!".

Common jQuery Methods

 DOM Manipulation:
o text(): Gets or sets the text content of elements.
o html(): Gets or sets the HTML content of elements.
o val(): Gets or sets the value of form fields.
o addClass(): Adds one or more classes to elements.
o removeClass(): Removes one or more classes from elements.
 Event Handling:
 Page 287

o click(): Attaches a click event to elements.

o hover(): Attaches a hover event (mouse over and mouse out) to elements.
o on(): Attaches event handlers for multiple events.
 Effects and Animations:
o show(): Displays hidden elements.
o hide(): Hides elements.
o fadeIn(): Fades in elements.
o fadeOut(): Fades out elements.
o slideUp(): Slides up elements.
o slideDown(): Slides down elements.
 AJAX:
o $.ajax(): Performs asynchronous HTTP requests.
o $.get(): Performs an HTTP GET request.
o $.post(): Performs an HTTP POST request.

Summary

jQuery is a powerful tool for simplifying JavaScript development, providing an easy-to-use API for common tasks
like DOM manipulation, event handling, and AJAX. It's widely used and supported, making it a great choice for
enhancing web development projects.

jQuery Example
jQuery is developed by Google. To create the first jQuery example, you need to use JavaScript file for jQuery. You
can download the jQuery file from jquery.com or use the absolute URL of jQuery file.

In this jQuery example, we are using the absolute URL of jQuery file. The jQuery example is written inside the
script tag.

Let's see a simple example of jQuery.

File: firstjquery.html

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <title>First jQuery Example</title>
5. <script type="text/javascript" src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/2.1.3/jquery.min.js">
6. </script>
7. <script type="text/javascript" language="javascript">
8. $(document).ready(function() {
9. $("p").css("background-color", "cyan");
 Page 288

10. });
11. </script>
12. </head>
13. <body>
14. <p>The first paragraph is selected.</p>
15. <p>The second paragraph is selected.</p>
16. <p>The third paragraph is selected.</p>
17. </body>
18. </html>

Output:

The first paragraph is selected.

The second paragraph is selected.

The third paragraph is selected.

$(document).ready() and $()

The code inserted between $(document).ready() is executed only once when page is ready for JavaScript code to
execute.

In place of $(document).ready(), you can use shorthand notation $() only.

1. $(document).ready(function() {
2. $("p").css("color", "red");
3. });

The above code is equivalent to this code.

1. $(function() {
2. $("p").css("color", "red");
3. });

Let's see the full example of jQuery using shorthand notation $().

File: shortjquery.html
 Page 289

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <title>Second jQuery Example</title>
5. <script type="text/javascript" src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/2.1.3/jquery.min.js">
6. </script>
7. <script type="text/javascript" language="javascript">
8. $(function() {
9. $("p").css("color", "red");
10. });
11. </script>
12. </head>
13. <body>
14. <p>The first paragraph is selected.</p>
15. <p>The second paragraph is selected.</p>
16. <p>The third paragraph is selected.</p>
17. </body>
18. </html>

Output:

The first paragraph is selected.

The second paragraph is selected.

The third paragraph is selected.

function() { $("p").css("background-color", "cyan"); }

It changes the background-color of all <p> tag or paragraph to cyan.

 Page 290

jQuery Effects:
jQuery enables us to add effects on a web page. jQuery effects can be categorized into fading, sliding,
hiding/showing and animation effects.

jQuery hide()
The jQuery hide() method is used to hide the selected elements.

Syntax:

1. $(selector).hide();
2. $(selector).hide(speed, callback);
3. $(selector).hide(speed, easing, callback);

speed: It is an optional parameter. It specifies the speed of the delay. Its possible vales are slow, fast and
milliseconds.

easing: It specifies the easing function to be used for transition.

callback: It is also an optional parameter. It specifies the function to be called after completion of hide() effect.

Let's take an example to see the jQuery hide effect.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <script src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
7. $("#hide").click(function(){
 Page 291

8. $("p").hide();
9. });
10. });
11. </script>
12. </head>
13. <body>
14. <p>
15. <b>This is a little poem: </b><br/>
16. Twinkle, twinkle, little star<br/>
17. How I wonder what you are<br/>
18. Up above the world so high<br/>
19. Like a diamond in the sky<br/>
20. Twinkle, twinkle little star<br/>
21. How I wonder what you are
22. </p>
23. <button id="hide">Hide</button>
24. </body>
25. </html>
Test it Now

Output:

This is a little poem:

Twinkle, twinkle, little star
How I wonder what you are
Up above the world so high
Like a diamond in the sky
Twinkle, twinkle little star
How I wonder what you are

Hide

jQuery show()
The jQuery show() method is used to show the selected elements.

Syntax:

1. $(selector).show();
 Page 292

2. $(selector).show(speed, callback);
3. $(selector).show(speed, easing, callback);

speed: It is an optional parameter. It specifies the speed of the delay. Its possible vales are slow, fast and
milliseconds.

easing: It specifies the easing function to be used for transition.

callback: It is also an optional parameter. It specifies the function to be called after completion of show() effect.

Let's take an example to see the jQuery show effect.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <script src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
7. $("#hide").click(function(){
8. $("p").hide();
9. });
10. $("#show").click(function(){
11. $("p").show();
12. });
13. });
14. </script>
15. </head>
16. <body>
17. <p>
18. <b>This is a little poem: </b><br/>
19. Twinkle, twinkle, little star<br/>
20. How I wonder what you are<br/>
21. Up above the world so high<br/>
22. Like a diamond in the sky<br/>
23. Twinkle, twinkle little star<br/>
24. How I wonder what you are
25. </p>
 Page 293

26. <button id="hide">Hide</button>

27. <button id="show">Show</button>
28. </body>
29. </html>

Output:

This is a little poem:

Twinkle, twinkle, little star
How I wonder what you are
Up above the world so high
Like a diamond in the sky
Twinkle, twinkle little star
How I wonder what you are

Hide Show

jQuery show() effect with speed parameter

Let's see the example of jQuery show effect with 1500 milliseconds speed.

1. $(document).ready(function(){
2. $("#hide").click(function(){
3. $("p").hide(1000);
4. });
5. $("#show").click(function(){
6. $("p").show(1500);
7. });
8. });
jQuery toggle()
The jQuery toggle() is a special type of method which is used to toggle between the hide() and show() method. It
shows the hidden elements and hides the shown element.

Syntax:

1. $(selector).toggle();
2. $(selector).toggle(speed, callback);
3. $(selector).toggle(speed, easing, callback);
4. $(selector).toggle(display);
 Page 294

speed: It is an optional parameter. It specifies the speed of the delay. Its possible vales are slow, fast and
milliseconds.

easing: It specifies the easing function to be used for transition.

callback: It is also an optional parameter. It specifies the function to be called after completion of toggle() effect.

display: If true, it displays element. If false, it hides the element.

Let's take an example to see the jQuery toggle effect.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <script src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
7. $("button").click(function(){
8. $("div.d1").toggle();
9. });
10. });
11. </script>
12. </head>
13. <body>
14. <button>Toggle</button>
15. <div class="d1" style="border:1px solid black;padding:10px;width:250px">
16. <p><b>This is a little poem: </b><br/>
17. Twinkle, twinkle, little star<br/>
18. How I wonder what you are<br/>
19. Up above the world so high<br/>
20. Like a diamond in the sky<br/>
21. Twinkle, twinkle little star<br/>
22. How I wonder what you are</p>
23. </div>
24. </body>
25. </html>

Output:
 Page 295

Toggle

This is a little poem:

Twinkle, twinkle, little star
How I wonder what you are
Up above the world so high
Like a diamond in the sky
Twinkle, twinkle little star
How I wonder what you are

jQuery toggle() effect with speed parameter

Let's see the example of jQuery toggle effect with 1500 milliseconds speed.

1. $(document).ready(function(){
2. $("button").click(function(){
3. $("div.d1").toggle(1500);
4. });
5. });

jQuery fadeIn()
jQuery fadeIn() method is used to fade in the element.

Syntax:

1. $(selector).fadein();
2. $(selector).fadeIn(speed,callback);
3. $(selector).fadeIn(speed, easing, callback);

speed: It is an optional parameter. It specifies the speed of the delay. Its possible vales are slow, fast and
milliseconds.

easing: It specifies the easing function to be used for transition.

callback: It is also an optional parameter. It specifies the function to be called after completion of fadein() effect.

Let's take an example to demonstrate jQuery fadeIn() effect.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
 Page 296

3. <head>
4. <script src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
7. $("button").click(function(){
8. $("#div1").fadeIn();
9. $("#div2").fadeIn("slow");
10. $("#div3").fadeIn(3000);
11. });
12. });
13. </script>
14. </head>
15. <body>
16. <p>See the fadeIn() method example with different parameters.</p>
17. <button>Click to fade in boxes</button><br><br>
18. <div id="div1" style="width:80px;height:80px;display:none;background-color:red;"></div><br>
19. <div id="div2" style="width:80px;height:80px;display:none;background-color:green;"></div><br>
20. <div id="div3" style="width:80px;height:80px;display:none;background-color:blue;"></div>
21. </body>
22. </html>
jQuery fadeOut()
The jQuery fadeOut() method is used to fade out the element.

Syntax:

1. $(selector).fadeOut();
2. $(selector).fadeOut(speed,callback);
3. $(selector).fadeOut(speed, easing, callback);

speed: It is an optional parameter. It specifies the speed of the delay. Its possible vales are slow, fast and
milliseconds.

easing: It specifies the easing function to be used for transition.

callback: It is also an optional parameter. It specifies the function to be called after completion of fadeOut() effect.

Let's take an example to demonstrate jQuery fadeOut() effect.

 Page 297

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <script src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
7. $("button").click(function(){
8. $("#div1").fadeOut();
9. $("#div2").fadeOut("slow");
10. $("#div3").fadeOut(3000);
11. });
12. });
13. </script>
14. </head>
15. <body>
16. <p>See the fadeOut() method example with different parameters.</p>
17. <button>Click to fade out boxes</button><br><br>
18. <div id="div1" style="width:80px;height:80px;background-color:red;"></div><br>
19. <div id="div2" style="width:80px;height:80px;background-color:green;"></div><br>
20. <div id="div3" style="width:80px;height:80px;background-color:blue;"></div>
21. </body>
22. </html>
jQuery fadeToggle()
jQuery fadeToggle() method is used to toggle between the fadeIn() and fadeOut() methods. If the elements are
faded in, it will make them faded out and if they are faded out it will make them faded in.

Syntax:

1. $(selector).fadeToggle();
2. $(selector).fadeToggle(speed,callback);
3. $(selector).fadeToggle(speed, easing, callback);

speed: It is an optional parameter. It specifies the speed of the delay. Its possible vales are slow, fast and
milliseconds.

easing: It specifies the easing function to be used for transition.

 Page 298

callback: It is also an optional parameter. It specifies the function to be called after completion of fadeToggle()
effect.

Let's take an example to demonstrate jQuery fadeToggle() effect.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <script src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
7. $("button").click(function(){
8. $("#div1").fadeToggle();
9. $("#div2").fadeToggle("slow");
10. $("#div3").fadeToggle(3000);
11. });
12. });
13. </script>
14. </head>
15. <body>
16. <p>See the fadeToggle() method example with different parameters.</p>
17. <button>Click to fade Toggle boxes</button><br><br>
18. <div id="div1" style="width:80px;height:80px;background-color:red;"></div><br>
19. <div id="div2" style="width:80px;height:80px;background-color:green;"></div><br>
20. <div id="div3" style="width:80px;height:80px;background-color:blue;"></div>
21. </body>
22. </html>
jQuery fadeTo()
jQuery fadeTo() method is used to fading to a given opacity.

Syntax:

1. $(selector).fadeTo(speed, opacity);
2. $(selector).fadeTo(speed, opacity, callback);
3. $(selector).fadeTo(speed, opacity, easing, callback);
 Page 299

speed: It specifies the speed of the delay. Its possible vales are slow, fast and milliseconds.

opacity:It specifies the opacity. The opacity value ranges between 0 and 1.

ADVERTISEMENT

easing: It specifies the easing function to be used for transition.

callback: It is also an optional parameter. It specifies the function to be called after completion of fadeToggle()
effect.

Let's take an example to demonstrate jQuery fadeTo() effect.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <script src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
7. $("button").click(function(){
8. $("#div1").fadeTo("slow", 0.3);
9. $("#div2").fadeTo("slow", 0.4);
10. $("#div3").fadeTo("slow", 0.5);
11. });
12. });
13. </script>
14. </head>
15. <body>
16. <p>See the fadeTo() method example with different parameters.</p>
17. <button>Click to fade boxes</button><br><br>
18. <div id="div1" style="width:80px;height:80px;background-color:red;"></div><br>
19. <div id="div2" style="width:80px;height:80px;background-color:green;"></div><br>
20. <div id="div3" style="width:80px;height:80px;background-color:blue;"></div>
21. </body>
22. </html>
jQuery slideDown()
jQuery slideDown() method is used to slide down an element.
 Page 300

Syntax:

1. $(selector).slideDown(speed);
2. $(selector).slideDown(speed, callback);
3. $(selector).slideDown(speed, easing, callback);

speed: It specifies the speed of the delay. Its possible vales are slow, fast and milliseconds.

easing: It specifies the easing function to be used for transition.

callback: It is also an optional parameter. It specifies the function to be called after completion of slideDown()
effect.

Let's take an example to demonstrate jQuery slideDown() effect.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <script src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
7. $("#flip").click(function(){
8. $("#panel").slideDown("slow");
9. });
10. });
11. </script>
12. <style>
13. #panel, #flip {
14. padding: 5px;
15. text-align: center;
16. background-color: #00FFFF;
17. border: solid 1px #c3c3c3;
18. }
19. #panel {
20. padding: 50px;
21. display: none;
22. }
 Page 301

23. </style>
24. </head>
25. <body>
26. <div id="flip">Click to slide down panel</div>
27. <div id="panel">Hello javatpoint.com!
28. It is the best tutorial website to learn jQuery and other languages.</div>
29. </body>
30. </html>
jQuery slideUp()
jQuery slideDown() method is used to slide up an element.

Syntax:

1. $(selector).slideUp(speed);
2. $(selector).slideUp(speed, callback);
3. $(selector).slideUp(speed, easing, callback);

speed: It specifies the speed of the delay. Its possible vales are slow, fast and milliseconds.

easing: It specifies the easing function to be used for transition.

callback: It is also an optional parameter. It specifies the function to be called after completion of slideUp() effect.

Let's take an example to demonstrate jQuery slideUp() effect.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <script src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
7. $("#flip").click(function(){
8. $("#panel").slideUp("slow");
9. });
10. });
11. </script>
12. <style>
 Page 302

13. #panel, #flip {

14. padding: 5px;
15. text-align: center;
16. background-color: #00FFFF;
17. border: solid 1px #c3c3c3;
18. }
19. #panel {
20. padding: 50px;
21. }
22. </style>
23. </head>
24. <body>
25. <div id="flip">Click to slide up panel</div>
26. <div id="panel">Hello javatpoint.com!
27. It is the best tutorial website to learn jQuery and other languages.</div>
28. </body>
29. </html>
jQuery animate()
The jQuery animate() method provides you a way to create custom animations.

Syntax:

1. $(selector).animate({params}, speed, callback);

Here, params parameter defines the CSS properties to be animated.

The speed parameter is optional and specifies the duration of the effect. It can be set as "slow" , "fast" or
milliseconds.

The callback parameter is also optional and it is a function which is executed after the animation completes.

Let's take a simple example to see the animation effect.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <script src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
 Page 303

5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
7. $("button").click(function(){
8. $("div").animate({left: '450px'});
9. });
10. });
11. </script>
12. </head>
13. <body>
14. <button>Start Animation</button>
15. <p>A simple animation example:</p>
16. <div style="background:#98bf21;height:100px;width:100px;position:absolute;"></div>
17. </body>
18. </html>
jQuery delay()
The jQuery delay() method is used to delay the execution of functions in the queue. It is a best method to make
a delay between the queued jQuery effects. The jQUery delay () method sets a timer to delay the execution of
the next item in the queue.

Syntax:

1. $(selector).delay (speed, queueName)

speed: It is an optional parameter. It specifies the speed of the delay. Its possible vales are slow, fast and
milliseconds.

queueName: It is also an optional parameter. It specifies the name of the queue. Its default value is "fx" the
standard queue effect.

Let's take an example to see the delay effect:

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.3/jquery.min.js"></script>
5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
 Page 304

7. $("button").click(function(){
8. $("#div1").delay("slow").fadeIn();
9. });
10. });
11. </script>
12. </head>
13. <body>
14. <button>Click me</button><br>
15. <div id="div1" style="width:90px;height:90px;display:none;background-color:black;"></div><br>
16. </body>
17. </html>
jQuery delay() example with different values

Let's see a jQuery delay() effect example where we are using fast, slow and milliseconds values.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.11.3/jquery.min.js"></script>
5. <script>
6. $(document).ready(function(){
7. $("button").click(function(){
8. $("#div1").delay("fast").fadeIn();
9. $("#div2").delay("slow").fadeIn();
10. $("#div3").delay(1000).fadeIn();
11. $("#div4").delay(2000).fadeIn();
12. $("#div5").delay(4000).fadeIn();
13. });
14. });
15. </script>
16. </head>
17. <body>
18. <p>This example sets different speed values for the delay() method.</p>
19. <button>Click to fade in boxes with a different delay time</button>
20. <br><br>
 Page 305

21. <div id="div1" style="width:90px;height:90px;display:none;background-color:black;"></div><br>

22. <div id="div2" style="width:90px;height:90px;display:none;background-color:green;"></div><br>
23. <div id="div3" style="width:90px;height:90px;display:none;background-color:blue;"></div><br>
24. <div id="div4" style="width:90px;height:90px;display:none;background-color:red;"></div><br>
25. <div id="div5" style="width:90px;height:90px;display:none;background-color:purple;"></div><br>
26. </body>
27. </html>
How to change the background image using jQuery?
Changing a background-image using jQuery is an easy task. We can use the css() method and the url() function
notation to change the background-image.

The syntax to change the background-image using jQuery is given as follows.

1. $("selector").css({"background-image": "url(image)"});

We can directly pass the image to the url() function as given above, or it can be done by storing the image in a
variable and pass the variable name to the url as given below.

1. var img = "image";

2. $("selector").css({"background-image": "url(" + img + ")"});
Example

In this example, there is a div element with its background-image. We are using the css() method
and url() function notation to change the background-image of the corresponding div element.

1. <!DOCTYPE html>
2. <html>
3. <head>
4. <style>
5. #d1 {
6. border: 3px solid red;
7. background-image: url("forest.jpg");
8. height: 300px;
9. width: 350px;
10. }
11.
 Page 306

12. </style>
13. <script src = "https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/3.5.1/jquery.min.js"> </script>
14.
15. <script>
16. $(document).ready(function() {
17. $("button").click(function() {
18. $("#d1").css({"background-image": "url(jtp.png)"});
19. });
20. });
21. </script>
22. </head>
23.
24. <body>
25. <center>
26. <h4> This is an example of changing the background-image using jQuery. </h4>
27. <div id = "d1"> </div>
28. <p> Click the following button to change the background image of above div </p>
29. <button>
30. Click me
31. </button>
32. </center>
33. </body>
34.
35. </html>

Output

After the execution of the above code, the output will be -

 Page 307

On clicking the given button, the output will be -

What is LINQ?
LINQ (Language Integrated Query) is a powerful feature in .NET languages (like C# and VB.NET) that allows you
to write queries directly within your code using a syntax that is similar to SQL. LINQ enables querying and
manipulating data from different sources like collections, databases, XML, and more in a consistent manner.

Why Use LINQ?

1. Readable Code: LINQ queries are more readable and expressive than traditional loops and conditions.
2. Type Safety: Since LINQ is integrated into the language, it provides compile-time checking, making it less
prone to runtime errors.
3. Flexibility: LINQ can query different data sources such as arrays, lists, XML documents, databases, and
more.
4. Less Code: LINQ allows you to perform complex queries with fewer lines of code.

LINQ Syntax

LINQ syntax can be written in two main styles:

1. Query Syntax (similar to SQL):

var result = from item in collection

where condition
select item;

2. Method Syntax (using extension methods):

var result = collection.Where(item => condition)

 Page 308

.Select(item => item);

LINQ Providers

LINQ works with different data sources through LINQ providers:

 LINQ to Objects: Queries on in-memory collections like arrays, lists, etc.

 LINQ to SQL: Queries on a SQL Server database.
 LINQ to XML: Queries on XML documents.
 LINQ to Entities: Part of Entity Framework, it allows querying on the database via entity objects.

Linq to object:
LINQ to Objects refers to the use of LINQ (Language Integrated Query) to query collections of objects in
memory, such as arrays, lists, or other IEnumerable<T> collections. With LINQ to Objects, you can perform
complex filtering, ordering, and grouping operations on in-memory data structures in a concise and readable
way.

Key Features of LINQ to Objects

 No External Dependencies: LINQ to Objects works directly with collections like arrays, lists, dictionaries,
etc., without requiring any external data source like a database.
 Query Capabilities: LINQ allows you to perform SQL-like operations such as where, select, group by,
order by, and more on in-memory data.
 Deferred Execution: LINQ queries are not executed when they are defined. Instead, they are executed
when you iterate over the query result. This allows for more efficient querying and data processing.
 Page 309

Common LINQ Operations

Let's look at some common operations using LINQ to Objects with examples.

1. Filtering (Where)

The Where method filters a collection based on a given condition.

Example:

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
// Sample list of integers
List<int> numbers = new List<int> { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 };

// Using LINQ to filter even numbers

var evenNumbers = numbers.Where(n => n % 2 == 0);

// Displaying the result

Console.WriteLine("Even Numbers:");
foreach (var number in evenNumbers)
{
Console.WriteLine(number);
}
}
}

Explanation:

 The Where method filters the numbers list to include only even numbers (n % 2 == 0).
 The query result is then iterated to display each even number.

2. Projection (Select)

The Select method is used to project each element of a collection into a new form.

Example:
 Page 310

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
// Sample list of strings
List<string> fruits = new List<string> { "Apple", "Banana", "Mango", "Orange" };

// Using LINQ to select the length of each fruit name

var fruitLengths = fruits.Select(fruit => fruit.Length);

// Displaying the result

Console.WriteLine("Length of each fruit name:");
foreach (var length in fruitLengths)
{
Console.WriteLine(length);
}
}
}

Explanation:

 The Select method projects each fruit name into its length.
 The result is a collection of integers representing the length of each fruit name.

3. Sorting (OrderBy, OrderByDescending)

The OrderBy and OrderByDescending methods are used to sort a collection in ascending and descending order,
respectively.

Example:

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
// Sample list of integers
 Page 311

List<int> numbers = new List<int> { 7, 1, 4, 9, 6, 3, 8, 2, 5 };

// Using LINQ to order numbers in ascending order

var sortedNumbers = numbers.OrderBy(n => n);

// Using LINQ to order numbers in descending order

var descendingNumbers = numbers.OrderByDescending(n => n);

// Displaying the results

Console.WriteLine("Numbers in ascending order:");
foreach (var number in sortedNumbers)
{
Console.WriteLine(number);
}

Console.WriteLine("Numbers in descending order:");

foreach (var number in descendingNumbers)
{
Console.WriteLine(number);
}
}
}

Explanation:

 OrderBy(n => n) sorts the numbers in ascending order.

 OrderByDescending(n => n) sorts the numbers in descending order.

4. Grouping (GroupBy)
The GroupBy method groups elements of a collection based on a specified key.

Example:

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
// Sample list of strings
List<string> words = new List<string> { "apple", "banana", "apricot", "blueberry", "avocado", "blackberry" };
 Page 312

// Using LINQ to group words by their first letter

var wordGroups = words.GroupBy(word => word[0]);

// Displaying the grouped result

foreach (var group in wordGroups)
{
Console.WriteLine($"Words that start with '{group.Key}':");
foreach (var word in group)
{
Console.WriteLine(word);
}
}
}
}

Explanation:

 The GroupBy method groups words based on their first letter (word[0]).
 Each group is displayed with its key (the first letter) and the corresponding words.

5. Aggregating (Sum, Count, Average, etc.)

LINQ provides various aggregation methods to perform calculations on collections, such as Sum, Count,
Average, etc.

Example:

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
// Sample list of integers
List<int> numbers = new List<int> { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 };

// Using LINQ to calculate the sum of all numbers

int sum = numbers.Sum();

// Using LINQ to count the number of elements

int count = numbers.Count();
 Page 313

// Using LINQ to calculate the average of all numbers

double average = numbers.Average();

// Displaying the results

Console.WriteLine($"Sum: {sum}");
Console.WriteLine($"Count: {count}");
Console.WriteLine($"Average: {average}");
}
}

Explanation:

 Sum() calculates the sum of all elements in the list.

 Count() returns the number of elements in the list.
 Average() calculates the average value of the elements in the list.

Example: Real-World LINQ to Objects Scenario

Suppose you have a list of employees, and you want to find out which departments have an average salary
greater than a certain threshold.

Code:

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
public class Employee
{
public string Name { get; set; }
public string Department { get; set; }
public double Salary { get; set; }
}

static void Main()

{
// Sample list of employees
List<Employee> employees = new List<Employee>
{
new Employee { Name = "Alice", Department = "HR", Salary = 60000 },
new Employee { Name = "Bob", Department = "IT", Salary = 80000 },
 Page 314

new Employee { Name = "Charlie", Department = "IT", Salary = 70000 },

new Employee { Name = "Dave", Department = "HR", Salary = 55000 },
new Employee { Name = "Eve", Department = "Finance", Salary = 90000 }
};

// LINQ query to group by department and calculate the average salary

var highEarningDepartments = from emp in employees
group emp by emp.Department into deptGroup
where deptGroup.Average(emp => emp.Salary) > 60000
select new
{
Department = deptGroup.Key,
AverageSalary = deptGroup.Average(emp => emp.Salary)
};

// Displaying the results

Console.WriteLine("Departments with an average salary greater than $60,000:");
foreach (var dept in highEarningDepartments)
{
Console.WriteLine($"Department: {dept.Department}, Average Salary: {dept.AverageSalary}");
}
}
}

Explanation:

 Employees are grouped by their department using group by.

 The where clause filters departments with an average salary greater than $60,000.
 The result is a list of departments and their average salaries, which are then displayed.

Summary

LINQ to Objects allows you to perform sophisticated queries on in-memory collections using a concise and
readable syntax. Whether you need to filter, sort, group, or aggregate data, LINQ provides a powerful and
flexible toolset that can significantly simplify your code. By leveraging LINQ to Objects, you can write more
maintainable, efficient, and expressive code when working with collections.

Linq to SQL:
LINQ to SQL is a tool in .NET that makes it easier to work with databases using your regular programming
language (like C#). Instead of writing complex SQL commands, you can use simple and familiar code to interact
with your database. Here's a basic overview:
 Page 315

What is LINQ to SQL?

 LINQ to SQL is a way to interact with a SQL Server database using LINQ (Language Integrated Query).
 It helps you work with database data as if it were just regular objects in your code.

Key Components

1. DataContext: This is the main class that helps you connect to the database and perform operations like
querying and updating data.
2. Entities: These are classes that represent tables in the database. Each object of an entity class
corresponds to a row in the table.

How to Use LINQ to SQL

1. Setup

 Create a Database: You need a database with tables. For example, a table called Students.
 Generate Classes: Use Visual Studio to create classes that represent your database tables. This is usually
done by dragging the table onto a designer surface which automatically creates these classes.

2. Performing Operations

1. Adding Data (Create)

To add a new student to the Students table:

using System;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
// Create a DataContext
var db = new SchoolDBDataContext();

// Create a new student

var newStudent = new Student
{
StudentID = 1,
Name = "John Doe",
Age = 20,
Grade = "A"
};
 Page 316

// Add the student to the database

db.Students.InsertOnSubmit(newStudent);
db.SubmitChanges();

Console.WriteLine("Student added successfully!");

}
}

Explanation:

 You create a new Student object.

 Add this student to the database using InsertOnSubmit.
 Save changes with SubmitChanges.

2. Retrieving Data (Read)

To get students older than 18:

using System;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
var db = new SchoolDBDataContext();

// Query to get students older than 18

var students = from s in db.Students
where s.Age > 18
select s;

// Display students
foreach (var student in students)
{
Console.WriteLine($"ID: {student.StudentID}, Name: {student.Name}, Age: {student.Age}");
}
}
}

Explanation:

 Use LINQ to filter students by age.

 Display the list of students who match the criteria.
 Page 317

3. Updating Data (Update)

To update a student’s grade:

using System;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
var db = new SchoolDBDataContext();

// Find the student with ID 1

var student = db.Students.SingleOrDefault(s => s.StudentID == 1);

if (student != null)
{
// Change the student's grade
student.Grade = "B+";
db.SubmitChanges();

Console.WriteLine("Student grade updated successfully!");

}
else
{
Console.WriteLine("Student not found!");
}
}
}

Explanation:

 Retrieve the student using their ID.

 Update the student's grade and save the changes.

4. Deleting Data (Delete)

To remove a student:

using System;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
 Page 318

static void Main()

{
var db = new SchoolDBDataContext();

// Find the student with ID 1

var student = db.Students.SingleOrDefault(s => s.StudentID == 1);

if (student != null)
{
// Remove the student
db.Students.DeleteOnSubmit(student);
db.SubmitChanges();

Console.WriteLine("Student deleted successfully!");

}
else
{
Console.WriteLine("Student not found!");
}
}
}

Explanation:

 Retrieve the student and mark them for deletion.

 Save changes to remove the student from the database.

Benefits

 Simpler Code: You don’t have to write complex SQL; just use regular C# code.
 Integrated: Queries and updates are written in the same language as your application code.

Summary

LINQ to SQL helps you interact with databases in a more straightforward and integrated way by using C# (or
other .NET languages) instead of writing raw SQL. It makes common database operations like adding, retrieving,
updating, and deleting data easier and more intuitive.

Linq to XMl:
LINQ to XML is a tool in .NET that makes working with XML data easier. XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is a
format used to store and transport data, and LINQ to XML lets you handle this data using simple and familiar C#
(or VB.NET) code.
 Page 319

What You Can Do with LINQ to XML

1. Load XML Data: Read XML files and load them into your program.
2. Query XML Data: Find specific information in your XML data.
3. Modify XML Data: Change or add data in your XML file.
4. Delete XML Data: Remove data from your XML file.

Examples

1. Loading XML Data

To load an XML file into your program:

using System;
using System.Xml.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
// Load the XML file
XDocument doc = XDocument.Load("example.xml");

// Print the XML content

Console.WriteLine(doc);
}
}

Explanation: This code reads the XML file example.xml and displays its content.

2. Querying XML Data

To find specific information, such as getting all books from an XML file:

using System;
using System.Linq;
using System.Xml.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
XDocument doc = XDocument.Load("example.xml");
 Page 320

// Get all books

var books = from book in doc.Descendants("Book")
select new
{
Title = book.Element("Title")?.Value,
Author = book.Element("Author")?.Value
};

// Print book details

foreach (var book in books)
{
Console.WriteLine($"Title: {book.Title}, Author: {book.Author}");
}
}
}

Explanation: This code finds all <Book> elements in the XML file and prints their titles and authors.

3. Modifying XML Data

To add new data, such as adding a new book:

using System;
using System.Xml.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
XDocument doc = XDocument.Load("example.xml");

// Create a new book element

XElement newBook = new XElement("Book",
new XElement("Title", "New Book Title"),
new XElement("Author", "New Author")
);

// Add the new book to the XML

doc.Root.Add(newBook);

// Save changes to the XML file

doc.Save("example.xml");

Console.WriteLine("New book added successfully!");

 Page 321

}
}

Explanation: This code creates a new book element and adds it to the XML file.

4. Deleting XML Data

To remove data, such as deleting a book with a specific title:

using System;
using System.Linq;
using System.Xml.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
XDocument doc = XDocument.Load("example.xml");

// Find the book to remove

XElement bookToRemove = doc.Descendants("Book")
.FirstOrDefault(b => b.Element("Title")?.Value == "Book Title to Remove");

if (bookToRemove != null)
{
// Remove the book from the XML
bookToRemove.Remove();
doc.Save("example.xml");
Console.WriteLine("Book removed successfully!");
}
else
{
Console.WriteLine("Book not found!");
}
}
}

Explanation: This code finds and removes a book with a specific title from the XML file.
 Page 322

Summary

LINQ to XML allows you to easily work with XML data using C# code. You can load, search, update, and delete
XML data without writing complex code. It makes handling XML files simple and integrated with your .NET
applications.

Linq to ado.net:
LINQ to ADO.NET (often referred to as LINQ to DataSet) is a feature in .NET that lets you use LINQ (Language
Integrated Query) to work with data stored in ADO.NET DataSets.

Here's a simple way to understand it:

What is ADO.NET?

 ADO.NET is a technology used to interact with databases in .NET applications.

 DataSet is a part of ADO.NET that stores data in memory as tables, similar to how a database stores
data.

What is LINQ to ADO.NET?

 LINQ to ADO.NET lets you use LINQ queries to interact with the data in a DataSet.
 This means you can write queries in C# (or VB.NET) to search, filter, and manipulate data in a DataSet,
just like you would with a database.

How to Use LINQ to ADO.NET

1. Setting Up

First, you need to have a DataSet filled with data. Here’s how you can set up a DataSet with some data:

using System;
using System.Data;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
{
// Create a DataSet
DataSet dataSet = new DataSet();

// Create a DataTable
DataTable table = new DataTable("Students");
 Page 323

table.Columns.Add("StudentID", typeof(int));
table.Columns.Add("Name", typeof(string));
table.Columns.Add("Age", typeof(int));

// Add some rows

table.Rows.Add(1, "John Doe", 20);
table.Rows.Add(2, "Jane Smith", 22);

// Add the table to the DataSet

dataSet.Tables.Add(table);

// Query the DataSet using LINQ

var students = from student in dataSet.Tables["Students"].AsEnumerable()
where student.Field<int>("Age") > 21
select new
{
Name = student.Field<string>("Name"),
Age = student.Field<int>("Age")
};

// Display the results

foreach (var student in students)
{
Console.WriteLine($"Name: {student.Name}, Age: {student.Age}");
}
}
}

Explanation:

 A DataSet is created, and a DataTable named "Students" is added to it.

 Rows are added to the table with student information.
 LINQ queries are used to filter students older than 21.

2. Querying Data

You can use LINQ to perform queries on the DataSet:

Example:

var students = from student in dataSet.Tables["Students"].AsEnumerable()

where student.Field<int>("Age") < 22
select new
{
 Page 324

Name = student.Field<string>("Name"),
Age = student.Field<int>("Age")
};

Explanation:

 This query filters students who are younger than 22.

3. Modifying Data

You can also use LINQ to update data:

Example:

foreach (DataRow row in dataSet.Tables["Students"].Rows)

{
if (row.Field<int>("StudentID") == 1)
{
row.SetField("Name", "John Doe Updated");
}
}

Explanation:

 This code finds the student with StudentID 1 and updates their name.

4. Adding and Removing Rows

Adding Rows:

dataSet.Tables["Students"].Rows.Add(3, "Alice Johnson", 23);

Removing Rows:

DataRow rowToRemove = dataSet.Tables["Students"].Rows.Find(2);

if (rowToRemove != null)
{
dataSet.Tables["Students"].Rows.Remove(rowToRemove);
}

Explanation:

 Adding and removing rows from the DataTable is straightforward. You can use Rows.Add() to add and
Rows.Remove() to delete rows.
 Page 325

Benefits

 Familiar Syntax: You can use LINQ, which is a familiar and powerful querying language in .NET, to work
with in-memory data.
 Simplifies Data Handling: LINQ to ADO.NET makes it easier to filter and manipulate data stored in
DataSets without having to write complex code.

Summary

LINQ to ADO.NET allows you to use LINQ to work with data in ADO.NET DataSets. This means you can write
simple and readable queries to interact with in-memory data, making data handling easier and more intuitive.

Linq to dataset:
LINQ to DataSet is a feature in .NET that allows you to use LINQ (Language Integrated Query) to work with data
stored in ADO.NET DataSets. It makes querying and manipulating in-memory data more straightforward by
allowing you to write queries in C# or VB.NET.

What is a DataSet?

 DataSet is a .NET class that can hold data in memory, like a database but not on disk.
 It consists of one or more DataTables, which represent tables of data, and relationships between those
tables.

What is LINQ to DataSet?

 LINQ to DataSet allows you to use LINQ queries to interact with the data in a DataSet.
 This means you can write queries to filter, sort, and manipulate data in your DataTables using LINQ
syntax.

How to Use LINQ to DataSet

1. Setting Up a DataSet

First, you need to create and populate a DataSet. Here’s an example:

using System;
using System.Data;
using System.Linq;

class Program
{
static void Main()
 Page 326

{
// Create a DataSet
DataSet dataSet = new DataSet();

// Create a DataTable
DataTable table = new DataTable("Students");
table.Columns.Add("StudentID", typeof(int));
table.Columns.Add("Name", typeof(string));
table.Columns.Add("Age", typeof(int));

// Add rows to the DataTable

table.Rows.Add(1, "John Doe", 20);
table.Rows.Add(2, "Jane Smith", 22);
table.Rows.Add(3, "Sam Brown", 19);

// Add the DataTable to the DataSet

dataSet.Tables.Add(table);

// Use LINQ to query the DataSet

var query = from student in dataSet.Tables["Students"].AsEnumerable()
where student.Field<int>("Age") > 20
select new
{
Name = student.Field<string>("Name"),
Age = student.Field<int>("Age")
};

// Display the results

foreach (var student in query)
{
Console.WriteLine($"Name: {student.Name}, Age: {student.Age}");
}
}
}

Explanation:

 A DataSet is created with one DataTable named "Students".

 Rows are added to the table with student information.
 LINQ is used to query students older than 20.

2. Querying Data

You can perform queries using LINQ syntax to filter and select data.
 Page 327

Example:

var youngStudents = from student in dataSet.Tables["Students"].AsEnumerable()

where student.Field<int>("Age") < 21
select new
{
Name = student.Field<string>("Name"),
Age = student.Field<int>("Age")
};

Explanation:

 This query selects students who are younger than 21.

3. Sorting Data

You can sort data using LINQ:

Example:

var sortedStudents = from student in dataSet.Tables["Students"].AsEnumerable()

orderby student.Field<int>("Age")
select new
{
Name = student.Field<string>("Name"),
Age = student.Field<int>("Age")
};

Explanation:

 This query sorts students by age in ascending order.

4. Modifying Data

You can modify data by directly interacting with the DataTable.

Example:

// Update student age

foreach (DataRow row in dataSet.Tables["Students"].Rows)
{
if (row.Field<int>("StudentID") == 1)
{
row.SetField("Age", 21);
 Page 328

}
}

Explanation:

 This code updates the age of the student with StudentID 1.

5. Adding and Removing Rows

Adding Rows:

dataSet.Tables["Students"].Rows.Add(4, "Alice Johnson", 23);

Removing Rows:

DataRow rowToRemove = dataSet.Tables["Students"].Rows.Find(2);

if (rowToRemove != null)
{
dataSet.Tables["Students"].Rows.Remove(rowToRemove);
}

Explanation:

 Use Rows.Add() to add new rows.

 Use Rows.Remove() to delete specific rows.

Benefits

 Familiar Syntax: You can use LINQ queries, which are familiar and powerful, to work with in-memory
data.
 Easy Data Manipulation: LINQ to DataSet simplifies querying and modifying data in a DataSet.

Summary

LINQ to DataSet allows you to use LINQ queries to work with data in ADO.NET DataSets. This makes it easier to
filter, sort, and manipulate in-memory data using simple and readable C# code.

Operation (projection, filtering and join ) using linq queries:

Let's explore how to perform the following operations using LINQ queries in C#:

1. Projection (using Select)

2. Filtering (using Where)
3. Join (using Join)
 Page 329

We'll use a scenario involving two lists: a list of students and a list of courses.

Setup

Let's start with the data classes and sample data:

public class Student

{
public int StudentId { get; set; }
public string Name { get; set; }
public int Age { get; set; }
}

public class Course

{
public int CourseId { get; set; }
public string CourseName { get; set; }
public int StudentId { get; set; } // Foreign key linking to Student
}

List<Student> students = new List<Student>

{
new Student { StudentId = 1, Name = "John", Age = 18 },
new Student { StudentId = 2, Name = "Jane", Age = 20 },
new Student { StudentId = 3, Name = "Sam", Age = 17 },
};

List<Course> courses = new List<Course>

{
new Course { CourseId = 101, CourseName = "Math", StudentId = 1 },
new Course { CourseId = 102, CourseName = "Science", StudentId = 2 },
new Course { CourseId = 103, CourseName = "History", StudentId = 3 },
new Course { CourseId = 104, CourseName = "Math", StudentId = 3 },
};
1. Projection (Using Select)
Projection allows you to transform the data in a collection. Suppose you want to create a list of student names
only:

var studentNames = students.Select(s => s.Name).ToList();

foreach (var name in studentNames)

{
Console.WriteLine(name);
 Page 330

 Explanation:
o Select(s => s.Name) projects each Student object to just its Name property.

2. Filtering (Using Where)

Filtering allows you to retrieve a subset of the data based on a condition. For instance, if you want to get a list of
students who are 18 years or older:

var adultStudents = students.Where(s => s.Age >= 18).ToList();

foreach (var student in adultStudents)

{
Console.WriteLine($"{student.Name}, {student.Age}");
}

 Explanation:
o Where(s => s.Age >= 18) filters the students list to include only those who are 18 or older.

3. Joining (Using Join)

Joining combines elements from two collections based on a common key. For example, if you want to get a list
of students along with the courses they are enrolled in:

var studentCourses = students.Join(

courses,
student => student.StudentId,
course => course.StudentId,
(student, course) => new
{
StudentName = student.Name,
CourseName = course.CourseName
}).ToList();

foreach (var sc in studentCourses)

{
Console.WriteLine($"{sc.StudentName} is enrolled in {sc.CourseName}");
}

 Explanation:
o Join matches StudentId in the students list with StudentId in the courses list.
o The result is projected into a new anonymous type containing the StudentName and
CourseName.
 Page 331

Summary

 Projection (Select) transforms data from one form to another.

 Filtering (Where) extracts a subset of data based on a condition.
 Join combines data from two collections based on a common key.

These LINQ operations allow you to manipulate and query your collections efficiently and with clear, readable
code.

Introduction to ADO.net entity framework:

What is entity frame work?
Entity Framework (EF) is a tool in .NET that helps you work with databases using C# (or another .NET language)
in a simple and straightforward way. Instead of writing a lot of SQL code to interact with the database, you can
use C# objects and classes.

What Does Entity Framework Do?

1. Works with Data as Objects:

o Imagine you have a table in your database called Students. With EF, you can create a Student
class in C#, and Entity Framework will connect that class to the Students table. This means you
can work with your data as objects, which is easier to understand and work with.
2. No Need for SQL Code:
o Normally, to interact with a database, you would need to write SQL code to fetch, insert, update,
or delete data. EF lets you do all of this using simple C# code instead of SQL.

How Entity Framework Works

1. Create Classes for Your Data:

o You start by creating C# classes that represent your database tables. For example:

public class Student

{
public int StudentId { get; set; }
public string Name { get; set; }
public int Age { get; set; }
}

2. Set Up a DbContext:
o The DbContext class is like a bridge between your code and the database. You create a
DbContext class that tells EF which tables you want to work with:

public class SchoolContext : DbContext

 Page 332

{
public DbSet<Student> Students { get; set; }
}

3. Use C# to Interact with the Database:

o Once everything is set up, you can use C# code to get data from the database, add new data,
update existing data, or delete data. EF takes care of translating your C# code into SQL.

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
// Get all students who are older than 18
var students = context.Students.Where(s => s.Age > 18).ToList();
}
Example Operations with Entity Framework

 Adding a New Student:

context.Students.Add(new Student { Name = "John", Age = 20 });

context.SaveChanges();

 Finding a Student:

var student = context.Students.Find(1);

 Updating a Student:

student.Name = "John Doe";

context.SaveChanges();

 Deleting a Student:

context.Students.Remove(student);
context.SaveChanges();
Why Use Entity Framework?

 Easier to Use: You can work with data using familiar C# code instead of learning complex SQL.
 Less Code: EF reduces the amount of code you need to write to interact with a database.
 Keeps Things Organized: By working with objects, your code is more organized and easier to read.

Entity data model:

The Entity Data Model (EDM) is a key part of the Entity Framework architecture. It provides a way to describe
the data in your application in a way that’s independent of the database. The EDM defines the structure of your
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data and the relationships between different pieces of data, allowing Entity Framework to translate between
your application’s classes and the underlying database.

Components of the Entity Data Model

The Entity Data Model consists of three main components:

1. Conceptual Model
2. Storage Model
3. Mapping Model

1. Conceptual Model

 What it is: This is where you define your data as classes, properties, and relationships in a way that
makes sense for your application.
 Example: If you have a Student class with properties like StudentId, Name, and Age, this class would be
part of your conceptual model.
 Purpose: The conceptual model is independent of the database. It represents your application’s view of
the data.

2. Storage Model

 What it is: This part of the EDM describes the actual structure of the database, including tables,
columns, relationships, and constraints.
 Example: In your database, there might be a table called Students with columns StudentId, Name, and
Age. This table is part of the storage model.
 Purpose: The storage model represents the physical database schema.

3. Mapping Model

 What it is: The mapping model connects the conceptual model to the storage model. It defines how the
classes and properties in the conceptual model relate to the tables and columns in the storage model.
 Example: It maps the Student class in your code to the Students table in the database, and the Name
property of the Student class to the Name column in the Students table.
 Purpose: The mapping model ensures that data can be translated between your application's objects
and the database.

How the Entity Data Model Works

When you use Entity Framework to query data, insert new records, or update existing records, the EDM plays a
crucial role:

1. Querying Data: When you write a LINQ query, EF uses the EDM to translate your query into SQL. The
mapping model helps EF understand which database tables and columns to query.
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2. Inserting/Updating Data: When you add or modify data, EF uses the EDM to map your changes to the
appropriate tables and columns in the database.

Example of EDM in Action

Imagine you have a Student class in your application:

public class Student

{
public int StudentId { get; set; }
public string Name { get; set; }
public int Age { get; set; }
}

And you have a Students table in your database:

StudentId Name Age

1 John 20

2 Jane 22

Here’s how the EDM maps this:

 Conceptual Model: The Student class with StudentId, Name, and Age.
 Storage Model: The Students table with columns StudentId, Name, and Age.
 Mapping Model: Links Student.StudentId to Students.StudentId, Student.Name to Students.Name, and
Student.Age to Students.Age.

Summary

 Conceptual Model: Your application's classes and properties.

 Storage Model: The actual tables and columns in your database.
 Mapping Model: The glue that connects your classes to the database schema.

The Entity Data Model allows Entity Framework to seamlessly translate between the way you think about your
data in your application and the way the data is stored in the database.

CSDL:
The term CSDL stands for Conceptual Schema Definition Language. It's a language used in the context of the
Entity Data Model (EDM) within Entity Framework. CSDL describes the conceptual model, which is the
application’s view of the data, independent of how the data is stored in the database.
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What is CSDL?

 CSDL is an XML-based language that defines the structure of the conceptual model in the EDM. This
includes the entities (like classes), their properties (like fields), and the relationships between them (like
associations or navigations).
 It describes how the data is structured from the perspective of the application, not the database. This
means it focuses on how the data is used and understood in your code.

Key Components of CSDL

1. Entity Types:
o These represent the classes in your application.
o Example: If you have a Student class, it will be represented as an EntityType in CSDL.
2. Properties:
o These define the data fields or attributes of each entity type.
o Example: The Name and Age properties of the Student class would be defined as properties
within the Student entity type.
3. Associations:
o These represent the relationships between different entity types.
o Example: If a Student is enrolled in multiple Courses, the relationship between Student and
Course would be defined as an association.
4. Navigation Properties:
o These allow you to navigate from one entity to another, based on the relationships.
o Example: You could have a navigation property in the Student entity that lets you access the
Courses the student is enrolled in.

How CSDL Fits into the Entity Framework

 CSDL is one part of the overall Entity Data Model (EDM), which also includes the Storage Schema
Definition Language (SSDL) for the database schema and the Mapping Schema Definition Language
(MSL) for mapping between the conceptual and storage models.
 CSDL is generated when you create your Entity Framework model, either by using a visual designer or by
writing it by hand (in advanced scenarios). It is typically part of the .edmx file, which combines CSDL,
SSDL, and MSL into a single XML file.

Example of CSDL

Here’s a very simplified example of what CSDL might look like for a Student entity:

<Schema Namespace="SchoolModel" Alias="Self" xmlns="http://schemas.microsoft.com/ado/2008/09/edm">

<EntityType Name="Student">
<Key>
<PropertyRef Name="StudentId" />
</Key>
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<Property Name="StudentId" Type="Int32" Nullable="false" />

<Property Name="Name" Type="String" Nullable="false" />
<Property Name="Age" Type="Int32" Nullable="false" />
</EntityType>
</Schema>

 EntityType Name="Student": This defines an entity named Student.

 Key: Defines StudentId as the primary key.
 Properties: StudentId, Name, and Age are defined as properties of the Student entity.

Summary

 CSDL is the part of Entity Framework that describes how your data is structured within your application,
independent of the database.
 It defines entities, their properties, and relationships in an XML format.
 CSDL is used in the Entity Data Model to map your application’s data to the actual database schema.

In essence, CSDL helps Entity Framework understand how to represent and work with your data in the context
of your application.

Eager vs lazy loading:

Eager loading and lazy loading are two strategies used in Entity Framework (and other ORM frameworks) to
load related data from a database. These strategies determine when and how related data (like navigation
properties) is loaded when you query an entity.

1. Eager Loading
Eager loading means that related data is loaded from the database at the same time as the main entity. In other
words, when you query for an entity, Entity Framework will also retrieve the related data in a single query,
avoiding the need for additional queries later on.

How to Use Eager Loading:

 You can use the Include method in Entity Framework to specify which related data should be loaded
eagerly.

Example:

Suppose you have two entities: Student and Course. A Student can enroll in multiple Courses.

var students = context.Students

.Include(s => s.Courses) .ToList();
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 What happens: When you query for Students, Entity Framework also retrieves the Courses each Student
is enrolled in at the same time.
 Advantage: Reduces the number of database queries because all necessary data is fetched in one go.
 Disadvantage: Can load more data than you need, which might slow down performance if the related
data set is large.

2. Lazy Loading
Lazy loading means that related data is only loaded when you access it for the first time. When you query for an
entity, Entity Framework retrieves just the main entity, and the related data is fetched separately only when it is
accessed in your code.

How to Use Lazy Loading:

 In Entity Framework, lazy loading is enabled by default if you use navigation properties that are marked
as virtual.

Example:

Using the same Student and Course example:

var student = context.Students.First();

var courses = student.Courses; // This triggers a separate query to load Courses

 What happens: Initially, only the Student entity is loaded. When you access student.Courses, a separate
query is made to the database to load the related Courses.
 Advantage: Avoids loading unnecessary data upfront, which can improve performance if you don’t need
the related data immediately.
 Disadvantage: Can result in multiple database queries, which might lead to performance issues known
as the "N+1 query problem" if not managed properly.

Summary of Differences

 Eager Loading:
o Loads related data immediately with the main entity.
o Fewer database queries, but might load more data than necessary.
o Use when you know you will need the related data.
 Lazy Loading:
o Loads related data only when it’s accessed.
o More efficient upfront, but might result in multiple queries.
o Use when you might not need the related data immediately.
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Choosing Between Eager and Lazy Loading

 Eager Loading is better when:

o You know you will need the related data.
o You want to avoid multiple database queries.
 Lazy Loading is better when:
o You might not need the related data at all.
o You want to minimize the initial data load and improve performance on the first query.

Choosing the right strategy depends on the specific use case and performance considerations in your
application.

POCO classes:
POCO stands for Plain Old CLR Object. In the context of Entity Framework, POCO classes are simple C# classes
that represent your data model without any dependency on the Entity Framework itself. They are used to
define the structure of your data in a way that is clean and easy to work with.

Key Features of POCO Classes

1. No Dependencies on Entity Framework:

o POCO classes do not require any specific base class or interface from Entity Framework. This
means they are not tied to the framework, making them reusable and easy to test.
2. Properties Only:
o They typically contain properties that represent the data fields. There are no methods or
behavior; they are just data containers.
3. Encapsulation:
o POCO classes can encapsulate data and behavior. While they primarily focus on data properties,
you can also add methods if needed (although this is not common).
4. Easy to Work With:
o They make it easy to manage data in a way that is straightforward and understandable, without
dealing with the complexities of the Entity Framework.

Example of a POCO Class

Here’s a simple example of a POCO class representing a Student:

public class Student

{
public int StudentId { get; set; }
public string Name { get; set; }
public int Age { get; set; }
}
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How POCO Classes Work with Entity Framework

 When you create a POCO class, you can use it in Entity Framework to define your data model.
 Entity Framework can map these POCO classes to database tables without requiring any special
attributes or interfaces.
 You can also create relationships between POCO classes, like having a Course class that relates to the
Student class.

Example with Relationships

Here’s how you can define a Course class and create a relationship with the Student class:

public class Course

{
public int CourseId { get; set; }
public string Title { get; set; }

// Navigation property to link to Students

public virtual ICollection<Student> Students { get; set; }
}
Advantages of Using POCO Classes

 Separation of Concerns: POCO classes help separate your business logic from the data access logic.
 Testability: Since they have no dependencies on Entity Framework, they are easier to test in isolation.
 Flexibility: You can use POCO classes with different data access technologies, not just Entity Framework.

Summary

 POCO Classes: Simple C# classes representing your data without ties to any framework.
 Focus on Data: They primarily store data through properties.
 Easy to Use: They work well with Entity Framework for mapping to database tables.

In summary, POCO classes are a clean and effective way to represent data in your application, making it easier
to manage and work with that data.

DB context API:
The DbContext API is a key component of Entity Framework, providing a way to interact with the database
using your domain model (like POCO classes). It serves as a bridge between your application and the database,
allowing you to perform CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete) operations on your data.

Key Features of DbContext

1. Database Connection:
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o DbContext manages the connection to the database. It uses a connection string from your
configuration file to connect to the appropriate database.
2. DbSet Properties:
o You define DbSet properties in your DbContext class for each entity type you want to work with.
Each DbSet represents a table in the database.
3. Change Tracking:
o DbContext keeps track of changes made to your entities. When you modify an entity, DbContext
knows what has changed and can generate the appropriate SQL commands to save those
changes to the database.
4. Querying Data:
o You can use LINQ queries to retrieve data through DbContext. It allows you to write expressive
queries using your C# objects.
5. SaveChanges Method:
o After making changes to your entities, you call the SaveChanges method to persist those changes
to the database.

Creating a DbContext Class

Here’s a simple example of how to create a DbContext class:

using System.Data.Entity;

public class SchoolContext : DbContext

{
public SchoolContext() : base("name=SchoolDb") // Connection string name
{
}

public DbSet<Student> Students { get; set; } // Table for Students

public DbSet<Course> Courses { get; set; } // Table for Courses
}
Performing CRUD Operations

1. Creating Entities

To add a new student:

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
var student = new Student { Name = "Alice", Age = 21 };
context.Students.Add(student);
context.SaveChanges(); // Save changes to the database
}
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2. Reading Entities

To retrieve a list of students:

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
var students = context.Students.ToList(); // Get all students
}
3. Updating Entities

To update an existing student:

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
var student = context.Students.Find(1); // Find student by ID
if (student != null)
{
student.Age = 22; // Update age
context.SaveChanges(); // Save changes
}
}
4. Deleting Entities

To delete a student:

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
var student = context.Students.Find(1); // Find student by ID
if (student != null)
{
context.Students.Remove(student); // Remove student
context.SaveChanges(); // Save changes
}
}
Summary

 DbContext is a central part of Entity Framework that helps you interact with your database using your
object model.
 It manages connections, tracks changes, and provides methods to perform CRUD operations.
 By defining DbSet properties, you can easily work with your entity classes, allowing you to query and
manipulate data efficiently.

In short, the DbContext API simplifies data access in your application, making it easier to work with databases
using C# objects.
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Querying Entity Data Model

Querying an Entity Data Model (EDM) in Entity Framework allows you to retrieve data from the database using
LINQ (Language Integrated Query). This approach makes it easy to work with your data in a type-safe and
readable way. Below are the main aspects of querying an EDM:

Basics of Querying with LINQ

1. DbContext: Start by creating an instance of your DbContext class, which represents the session with the
database.
2. DbSet: Use the DbSet properties defined in your DbContext to access the tables in your database.
3. LINQ Queries: Write LINQ queries to filter, sort, and manipulate data.

Example of a DbContext Class

Assuming you have a SchoolContext class with Student and Course entities:

public class SchoolContext : DbContext

{
public DbSet<Student> Students { get; set; }
public DbSet<Course> Courses { get; set; }
}
Querying Data

Here are some common examples of querying data using Entity Framework and LINQ:

1. Retrieving All Records

To get all students from the database:

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
var students = context.Students.ToList(); // Gets all students
}
2. Filtering Records

To find students older than 20:

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
var students = context.Students
.Where(s => s.Age > 20)
.ToList(); // Gets students older than 20
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}
3. Sorting Records

To get students sorted by their names:

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
var students = context.Students
.OrderBy(s => s.Name)
.ToList(); // Gets students sorted by name
}
4. Selecting Specific Properties

To get a list of student names and ages:

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
var studentInfo = context.Students
.Select(s => new { s.Name, s.Age })
.ToList(); // Gets a list of names and ages
}
5. Joining Tables

To get students with their courses, assuming each student can have multiple courses:

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
var studentCourses = context.Students
.Select(s => new
{
StudentName = s.Name,
Courses = s.Courses.Select(c => c.Title) // Assuming Courses is a navigation property
})
.ToList(); // Gets students with their course titles
}
6. Grouping Records

To count how many students are in each age group:

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
var ageGroups = context.Students
.GroupBy(s => s.Age)
.Select(g => new
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{
Age = g.Key,
Count = g.Count()
})
.ToList(); // Gets the number of students in each age group
}
Summary of Querying with Entity Framework

 Use DbContext: Create an instance of your DbContext to connect to the database.

 DbSet Properties: Access your entities through DbSet properties.
 LINQ Queries: Write queries using LINQ methods like Where, OrderBy, Select, and GroupBy to retrieve
and manipulate data.
 Type Safety: LINQ provides type-safe queries, reducing runtime errors.

Example of a Complete Query

Here’s a complete example that combines several querying techniques:

using (var context = new SchoolContext())

{
var results = context.Students
.Where(s => s.Age > 20)
.OrderBy(s => s.Name)
.Select(s => new
{
s.Name,
Courses = s.Courses.Select(c => c.Title)
})
.ToList(); // Gets students older than 20, sorted by name with their course titles
}

This example retrieves students older than 20, sorts them by name, and includes their course titles in the result.

In summary, querying an Entity Data Model using Entity Framework and LINQ is straightforward and allows for
powerful data manipulation and retrieval.

ASP.Net MVC
ASP.NET MVC (Model-View-Controller) is a framework for building web applications using the MVC design
pattern. It separates an application into three main components, allowing for a more organized and manageable
codebase. Here’s a simple introduction to ASP.NET MVC:
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Key Concepts of ASP.NET MVC

1. Model:
o Purpose: Represents the data and the business logic of the application. It handles data retrieval,
storage, and manipulation.
o Components: Usually includes classes that represent the data (like POCO classes) and might also
include validation logic.
2. View:
o Purpose: Represents the user interface of the application. It is responsible for displaying the data
to the user and providing a way to interact with it.
o Components: Typically made up of HTML and Razor syntax (a templating engine) that generates
dynamic content.
3. Controller:
o Purpose: Handles user input and interactions. It processes incoming requests, manipulates the
model, and returns the appropriate view.
o Components: Contains action methods that handle requests and return responses.

How ASP.NET MVC Works

1. User Request:
o A user interacts with the application (e.g., submits a form or clicks a link). This generates an HTTP
request that is sent to the server.
2. Routing:
o The request is processed by the ASP.NET routing engine, which determines which controller and
action method should handle the request.
3. Controller:
o The selected controller’s action method is executed. This method interacts with the model to
retrieve or manipulate data.
4. Model:
o The controller may use the model to get data from the database or perform other business logic.
5. View:
o The controller then passes the data to a view. The view generates HTML content using the data
and Razor syntax.
6. Response:
o The generated HTML is sent back to the user’s browser as an HTTP response.

Example Workflow

1. User Interaction: A user navigates to a URL like http://example.com/Students/Index.

2. Routing: The routing system maps this URL to the Index action method of the
StudentsController.
3. Controller Action: The Index method of the StudentsController retrieves a list of students from
the database and passes it to the view.
4. Model: The Students model is used to fetch the list of students.
5. View: The view (e.g., Index.cshtml) formats the student data into HTML.
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6. Response: The HTML is sent back to the user's browser.

Basic Components
1. Model (Student.cs)

public class Student

{
public int StudentId { get; set; }
public string Name { get; set; }
public int Age { get; set; }
}
2. View (Index.cshtml)

@model IEnumerable<Student>

<h2>Student List</h2>

<table>
<tr>
<th>ID</th>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Age</th>
</tr>
@foreach (var student in Model)
{
<tr>
<td>@student.StudentId</td>
<td>@student.Name</td>
<td>@student.Age</td>
</tr>
}
</table>
3. Controller (StudentsController.cs)

public class StudentsController : Controller

{
private readonly SchoolContext _context;

public StudentsController()
{
_context = new SchoolContext();
}

public ActionResult Index()

{
var students = _context.Students.ToList();
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return View(students);
}
}
Advantages of ASP.NET MVC

 Separation of Concerns: MVC divides an application into three distinct parts, making it easier to manage
and scale.
 Testability: The separation of concerns allows for easier unit testing of components.
 Flexibility: Provides greater control over HTML and URL routing, which can be beneficial for complex
applications.
 Built-in Features: ASP.NET MVC includes features like model binding, validation, and routing, which
streamline development.

Summary

 ASP.NET MVC is a framework for building web applications using the MVC pattern.
 Model handles data and business logic.
 View handles the user interface.
 Controller handles user input and interactions.

ASP.NET MVC helps in organizing code efficiently and building scalable and maintainable web applications.

MVC Controller:
The MVC Controller is an important part of ASP.NET MVC (Model-View-Controller). It helps manage how your
web application works by handling user actions, processing data, and showing the right pages. Here’s a simple
breakdown:

What Does a Controller Do?

1. Handle User Actions:

o The controller responds when a user does something, like clicking a button or submitting a form.
2. Process Requests:
o It processes the user’s request by deciding what needs to happen next. This might mean getting
data from a database or performing some calculations.
3. Work with the Model:
o The controller talks to the model (which contains the data) to get or update information. For
example, it might ask for a list of students.
4. Choose the View:
o After processing, the controller decides which page (view) to show the user and sends the
necessary data to that page.
5. Send Back a Response:
o Finally, the controller returns a response to the user, which could be a web page or some data.
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Example of a Simple Controller

Here’s a basic example of a controller for managing students:

1. The StudentsController Class

public class StudentsController : Controller

{
private readonly SchoolContext _context; // This connects to the database

public StudentsController()
{
_context = new SchoolContext(); // Set up the connection
}

// This shows a list of all students

public ActionResult Index()
{
var students = _context.Students.ToList(); // Get all students
return View(students); // Show the list in the view
}

// This shows details for a specific student

public ActionResult Details(int id)
{
var student = _context.Students.Find(id); // Find the student by ID
if (student == null)
{
return HttpNotFound(); // Show 404 if not found
}
return View(student); // Show the student's details
}

// This shows a form to create a new student

public ActionResult Create()
{
return View(); // Show the create form
}

// This saves the new student to the database

[HttpPost]
public ActionResult Create(Student student)
{
if (ModelState.IsValid) // Check if the form data is valid
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{
_context.Students.Add(student); // Add the new student
_context.SaveChanges(); // Save to the database
return RedirectToAction("Index"); // Go back to the student list
}
return View(student); // Show the form again if there are errors
}
}
How the Controller Works

 Setup: The controller connects to the database using SchoolContext.

 Index Action: When a user wants to see all students, this action gets the list and shows it on the page.
 Details Action: If a user wants to see details about a specific student, this action finds that student and
displays the information.
 Create Action: When a user wants to add a new student, this action shows a form. After the user fills it
out and submits it, this action saves the new student to the database if everything is correct.

Summary

 The MVC Controller manages user actions in an ASP.NET MVC application.

 It processes requests, interacts with data, chooses what to show, and sends responses back to the user.
 This keeps your code organized and makes it easier to develop web applications.

ASP.NET Controller Actions and Parameters

An action method in ASP.NET MVC is a method within a controller that handles incoming requests from users.
When a user interacts with a web application, such as clicking a link or submitting a form, the action method is
executed to process that request.

The MVC application uses the routing rules that are defined in the Global.asax.cs file. This file is used to parse the
URL and determine the path of the controller. Now, controller executes the appropriate action to handle the user
request.

ActionResult Return Type

The ActionResult class is the base class for all action results. Action methods return an instance of this class. There
can be different action result types depending on the task that the action is implementing. For example, if an
action is to call the View method, the View method returns an instance of the ViewResult which is derived from
the ActionResult class.

We can also create action method that returns any type of object like: integer, string etc.
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The following table contains built-in action result types.

Action Result Helper Method Description

ViewResult View It is used to render a view as a Web page.

PartialViewResult PartialView It is used to render a partial view.

RedirectResult Redirect It is used to redirect to another action

method by using its URL.

RedirectToRouteResult RedirectToAction It is used to redirect to another action

RedirectToRoute method.

ContentResult Content It is used to return a user-defined content

type.

JsonResult Json It is used to return a serialized JSON object.

JavaScriptResult JavaScript It is used to return a script that can be

executed on the client.

FileResult File It is used to return binary output to write to

the response.

EmptyResult (None) It represents a return value that is used if

the action method must return a null
result.

Adding an Action method

Here, we will add a new action method to the controller that we crested in previous chapter.

To add action to the existing controller, we need to define a public method to our controller.
Our MusicStoreController.cs file is looks like the following after adding a welcome action method.
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// MusicStoreController.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Collections.Generic;
3. using System.Linq;
4. using System.Web;
5. using System.Web.Mvc;
6. namespace MvcApplicationDemo.Controllers
7. {
8. public class MusicStoreController : Controller
9. {
10. // GET: MusicStrore
11. public ActionResult Index()
12. {
13. return View();
14. }
15. public string Welcome()
16. {
17. return "Hello, this is welcome action message";
18. }
19. }
20. }

Output:

To access the welcome action method, execute the application then access it by using MusicStore/Welcome URL.
It will produce the following output.
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Action Method Parameters

Action parameters are the variables that are used to retrieve user requested values from the URL.

The parameters are retrieved from the request's data collection. It includes name/value pairs for form data, query
string value etc. the controller class locates for the parameters values based on the RouteData instance. If the
value is present, it is passed to the parameter. Otherwise, exception is thrown.

The Controller class provides two properties Request and Response that can be used to get handle user request
and response.

Example

Here, we are creating an action method in the controller. This action method has a parameter. The controller
code looks like this:

// MusicStoreController.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Collections.Generic;
3. using System.Linq;
4. using System.Web;
5. using System.Web.Mvc;
6. namespace MvcApplicationDemo.Controllers
7. {
8. public class MusicStoreController : Controller
9. {
10. // GET: MusicStrore
11. public ActionResult Index()
12. {
13. return View();
14. }
15. public string ShowMusic(string MusicTitle)
16. {
17. return "You selected " + MusicTitle + " Music";
18. }
19. }
20. }
 Page 353

Output:

In URL, we have to pass the parameter value. So, we are doing it by this URL localhost:port-
no/MusicStore/ShowMusic?MusicTitle=Classic. it produces the following result.

Action method:
An action method in ASP.NET MVC is a method within a controller that handles incoming requests from users.
When a user interacts with a web application, such as clicking a link or submitting a form, the action method is
executed to process that request. Here’s a breakdown of what action methods are and how they work:

Key Features of Action Methods

1. Location:
o Action methods are found in controllers, which are classes that inherit from the Controller base
class.
2. Naming:
o Action methods typically have descriptive names that indicate what they do, such as Index,
Create, Edit, or Delete.
3. Return Types:
o Action methods usually return an ActionResult, which represents the result of the action. This
can be a view, JSON data, or a redirect to another action.
4. HTTP Verbs:
o Action methods can be decorated with attributes to specify which HTTP methods (like GET, POST,
PUT, DELETE) they respond to. For example, [HttpGet] for retrieving data and [HttpPost] for
submitting data.

Example of Action Methods

Here's a simple example of a controller with different action methods for managing students:
 Page 354

StudentsController Class

using System.Web.Mvc;
using YourNamespace.Models; // Change to your actual namespace

public class StudentsController : Controller

{
private readonly SchoolContext _context; // Database context

public StudentsController()
{
_context = new SchoolContext(); // Initialize the context
}

// GET: Students
public ActionResult Index()
{
var students = _context.Students.ToList(); // Retrieve all students
return View(students); // Return the view with the student list
}

// GET: Students/Details/5
public ActionResult Details(int id)
{
var student = _context.Students.Find(id); // Find student by ID
if (student == null)
{
return HttpNotFound(); // Return 404 if not found
}
return View(student); // Return the details view
}

// GET: Students/Create
public ActionResult Create()
{
return View(); // Return the create view
}

// POST: Students/Create
[HttpPost]
public ActionResult Create(Student student)
{
if (ModelState.IsValid) // Check if the model state is valid
{
 Page 355

_context.Students.Add(student); // Add the new student

_context.SaveChanges(); // Save changes to the database
return RedirectToAction("Index"); // Redirect to the index action
}
return View(student); // Return the view with the student data if validation fails
}
}
Explanation of Action Methods in the Example

1. Index Action:
o Purpose: Retrieves a list of all students from the database and displays it.
o Method: public ActionResult Index()
o Returns: A view that shows the list of students.
2. Details Action:
o Purpose: Displays details of a specific student based on the ID provided.
o Method: public ActionResult Details(int id)
o Returns: A view with the student’s details or a 404 error if the student is not found.
3. Create Action (GET):
o Purpose: Shows a form to create a new student.
o Method: public ActionResult Create()
o Returns: The view for creating a new student.
4. Create Action (POST):
o Purpose: Handles the form submission to create a new student.
o Method: public ActionResult Create(Student student) with the [HttpPost] attribute.
o Returns: Redirects to the index action if successful, or returns the form view with error messages
if validation fails.

Summary

 Action methods are the core of how controllers handle requests in ASP.NET MVC.
 They process user actions, interact with the model, and determine what to display to the user.
 Action methods can respond to different HTTP methods and return various types of results, such as
views or data.

ASP.NET MVC Model Binding

Model binding is a process in which we bind a model to controller and view. It is a simple way to map posted form
values to a .NET Framework type and pass the type to an action method as a parameter. It acts as a converter
because it can convert HTTP requests into objects that are passed to an action method.

Example

Here, we are creating an example, in which a simple model is binding with the view and controller. We are creating
a Student model that has some properties. These properties will be used to create form fields.
 Page 356

Create a Model

Right click on the Model folder and add a class to create new model.

This file contains some default code, but we have added some properties to it. Model looks like this:

// Student.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Collections.Generic;
3. using System.Linq;
4. using System.Web;
5. namespace MvcApplicationDemo.Models
6. {
7. public class Student
8. {
9. public int ID { get; set; }
10. public string Name { get; set; }
11. public string Email { get; set; }
12. public string Contact { get; set; }
13. }
14. }

Create a Controller

After creating model, now let's create a controller for this class. Right click on the Controller folder and add the
controller class.
 Page 357

After adding, it provides the following predefined code.

// StudentsController.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Collections.Generic;
3. using System.Linq;
4. using System.Web;
5. using System.Web.Mvc;
6. namespace MvcApplicationDemo.Controllers
7. {
8. public class StudentsController : Controller
9. {
10. // GET: Students
11. public ActionResult Index()
12. {
13. return View();
14. }
15. }
16. }
 Page 358

Creating a View

To create view right click within the body of Index action method and select Add View option, it will pop up for
the name of the view and Model to attach with the view.

After adding, it generates an index file within the Students folder that contains the following code.

// Index.cshtml

1. @model MvcApplicationDemo.Models.Student
2. @{
3. ViewBag.Title = "Index";
4. }
5. <h2>Index</h2>
6. @using (Html.BeginForm())
7. {
8. @Html.AntiForgeryToken()
9. <div class="form-horizontal">
10. <h4>Student</h4>
11. <hr />
12. @Html.ValidationSummary(true, "", new { @class = "text-danger" })
13. <div class="form-group">
14. @Html.LabelFor(model => model.Name, htmlAttributes: new { @class = "control-label col-md-2" })
15. <div class="col-md-10">
16. @Html.EditorFor(model => model.Name, new { htmlAttributes = new { @class = "form-control" } })
17. @Html.ValidationMessageFor(model => model.Name, "", new { @class = "text-danger" })
18. </div>
 Page 359

19. </div>
20. <div class="form-group">
21. @Html.LabelFor(model => model.Email, htmlAttributes: new { @class = "control-label col-md-2" })
22. <div class="col-md-10">
23. @Html.EditorFor(model => model.Email, new { htmlAttributes = new { @class = "form-control" } })
24. @Html.ValidationMessageFor(model => model.Email, "", new { @class = "text-danger" })
25. </div>
26. </div>
27. <div class="form-group">
28. @Html.LabelFor(model => model.Contact, htmlAttributes: new { @class = "control-label col-md-2" })
29. <div class="col-md-10">
30. @Html.EditorFor(model => model.Contact, new { htmlAttributes = new { @class = "form-control" } })
31. @Html.ValidationMessageFor(model => model.Contact, "", new { @class = "text-danger" })
32. </div>
33. </div>
34. <div class="form-group">
35. <div class="col-md-offset-2 col-md-10">
36. <input type="submit" value="Create" class="btn btn-default" />
37. </div>
38. </div>
39. </div>
40. }
41. <div>
42. @Html.ActionLink("Back to List", "Index")
43. </div>
ASP.NET MVC Input Validation
Validation of user input is necessary task for the application programmer. An application should allow only valid
user input so that we get only desired information.

ASP.NET MVC framework provides built-in annotations that we can apply on Model properties. It validates input
and display appropriate message to the user.
 Page 360

Commonly used Validation Annotations

Annotations Description

Required It is used to make a required field.

DisplayName It is used to define the text we want to display for the fields.

StringLength It defines a maximum length for a string field.

Range It is used to set a maximum and minimum value for a numeric field.

Bind It lists fields to exclude or include when binding parameter or form

values to model properties.

ScaffoldColumn It allows hiding fields from editor forms.

MaxLength It is used to set max length for a field.

EmailAddress It is used to validate email address.

DataType It is used to specify data type for the field.

RegularExpression It is used to associate regular expression for a field.

Example

Let's create an example that will validate input by using the annotations. To create the example, first we are
creating a StudentsController and then a Student Model.

Controller

// StudentsController.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Collections.Generic;
3. using System.Linq;
 Page 361

4. using System.Web;
5. using System.Web.Mvc;
6. namespace MvcApplicationDemo.Controllers
7. {
8. public class StudentsController : Controller
9. {
10. // GET: Students
11. public ActionResult Index()
12. {
13. return View();
14. }
15. }
16. }

Model

// Student.cs

1. using System.ComponentModel.DataAnnotations;
2.
3. namespace MvcApplicationDemo.Models
4. {
5. public class Student
6. {
7. public int ID { get; set; }
8. // -- Validating Student Name
9. [Required(ErrorMessage ="Name is required")]
10. [MaxLength(12)]
11. public string Name { get; set; }
12. // -- Validating Email Address
13. [Required(ErrorMessage ="Email is required")]
14. [EmailAddress(ErrorMessage = "Invalid Email Address")]
15. public string Email { get; set; }
16. // -- Validating Contact Number
17. [Required(ErrorMessage = "Contact is required")]
 Page 362

18. [DataType(DataType.PhoneNumber)]
19. [RegularExpression(@"^\(?([0-9]{3})\)?[-. ]?([0-9]{3})[-. ]?([0-
9]{4})$", ErrorMessage = "Not a valid Phone number")]
20. public string Contact { get; set; }
21. }
22. }

View

// Index.cshtml

1. @model MvcApplicationDemo.Models.Student
2. @{
3. ViewBag.Title = "Index";
4. }
5. <h2>Index</h2>
6. @using (Html.BeginForm())
7. {
8. @Html.AntiForgeryToken()
9. <div class="form-horizontal">
10. <h4>Student</h4>
11. <hr />
12. @Html.ValidationSummary(true, "", new { @class = "text-danger" })
13. <div class="form-group">
14. @Html.LabelFor(model => model.Name, htmlAttributes: new { @class = "control-label col-md-2" })
15. <div class="col-md-10">
16. @Html.EditorFor(model => model.Name, new { htmlAttributes = new { @class = "form-control" } })
17. @Html.ValidationMessageFor(model => model.Name, "", new { @class = "text-danger" })
18. </div>
19. </div>
20. <div class="form-group">
21. @Html.LabelFor(model => model.Email, htmlAttributes: new { @class = "control-label col-md-2" })
22. <div class="col-md-10">
23. @Html.EditorFor(model => model.Email, new { htmlAttributes = new { @class = "form-control" } })
24. @Html.ValidationMessageFor(model => model.Email, "", new { @class = "text-danger" })
 Page 363

25. </div>
26. </div>
27. <div class="form-group">
28. @Html.LabelFor(model => model.Contact, htmlAttributes: new { @class = "control-label col-md-2" })
29. <div class="col-md-10">
30. @Html.EditorFor(model => model.Contact, new { htmlAttributes = new { @class = "form-control" } })
31. @Html.ValidationMessageFor(model => model.Contact, "", new { @class = "text-danger" })
32. </div>
33. </div>
34. <div class="form-group">
35. <div class="col-md-offset-2 col-md-10">
36. <input type="submit" value="Create" class="btn btn-default" />
37. </div>
38. </div>
39. </div>
40. }
41. <div>
42. @Html.ActionLink("Back to List", "Index")
43. </div>
44. @section Scripts {
45. @Scripts.Render("~/bundles/jqueryval")
46. }

Output:

To see the output, right click on the Index.cshtml file and select view in browser. This will produce the following
result.
 Page 364

As we can see that it validates form fields and display error message to the user. In the below screenshot, we are
validating that the entered data is as expected.

ASP.NET MVC Entity Framework

ASP.NET MVC and Entity Framework (EF) are often used together to create powerful web applications. Here’s a
simple explanation of what Entity Framework is and how it integrates with ASP.NET MVC.

What is Entity Framework?

Entity Framework is an Object-Relational Mapping (ORM) framework that allows developers to work with
databases using .NET objects. Instead of writing complex SQL queries, you can use C# or VB.NET to interact with
the database, making it easier to manage data.

Key Features of Entity Framework:

1. Modeling: Allows you to define your data model using classes.

2. Querying: Use LINQ (Language Integrated Query) to query the database.
3. Change Tracking: Automatically tracks changes to your data and helps manage updates.
4. Migration: Provides tools to update your database schema as your model changes.

How ASP.NET MVC Works with Entity Framework

When you combine ASP.NET MVC with Entity Framework, you typically follow these steps:

1. Create Models: Define your data models as classes.

public class Product

 Page 365

{
public int Id { get; set; }
public string Name { get; set; }
public decimal Price { get; set; }
}

2. Set Up DbContext: Create a context class that derives from DbContext, which acts as a bridge between
your models and the database.

public class ApplicationDbContext : DbContext

{
public DbSet<Product> Products { get; set; }
}

3. Add Controller: Create a controller to handle requests related to your models. Use dependency injection
to include the DbContext.

public class ProductsController : Controller

{
private readonly ApplicationDbContext _context;

public ProductsController()
{
_context = new ApplicationDbContext();
}

// Action to list products

public ActionResult Index()
{
var products = _context.Products.ToList();
return View(products);
}
}

4. Create Views: Create Razor views to display and interact with your data. For example, the Index.cshtml
view might look like this:

@model IEnumerable<Product>

<h2>Products</h2>
<table>
<tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Price</th>
</tr>
 Page 366

@foreach (var product in Model)

{
<tr>
<td>@product.Name</td>
<td>@product.Price</td>
</tr>
}
</table>

5. Perform CRUD Operations: Use Entity Framework to create, read, update, and delete data in your
database from your controllers.

Example of a CRUD Operation

 Create:

public ActionResult Create(Product product)

{
if (ModelState.IsValid)
{
_context.Products.Add(product);
_context.SaveChanges();
return RedirectToAction("Index");
}
return View(product);
}

 Read (as shown in the Index action).

 Update:

public ActionResult Edit(int id)

{
var product = _context.Products.Find(id);
return View(product);
}

[HttpPost]
public ActionResult Edit(Product product)
{
if (ModelState.IsValid)
{
_context.Entry(product).State = EntityState.Modified;
_context.SaveChanges();
return RedirectToAction("Index");
 Page 367

}
return View(product);
}

 Delete:

public ActionResult Delete(int id)

{
var product = _context.Products.Find(id);
return View(product);
}

[HttpPost, ActionName("Delete")]
public ActionResult DeleteConfirmed(int id)
{
var product = _context.Products.Find(id);
_context.Products.Remove(product);
_context.SaveChanges();
return RedirectToAction("Index");
}

ASP.NET MVC Authentication

Authentication in ASP.NET MVC is the process of verifying the identity of users who want to access your
application. Here’s a simple explanation of how it works:

What is Authentication?

Authentication is like checking someone’s ID before letting them into a club. In a web application, it ensures
that users are who they say they are before allowing them access to certain features or data.

How ASP.NET MVC Handles Authentication

1. User Registration:
o Users create an account by providing information like their email and password.
o This information is stored securely in a database.
2. Login:
o Users enter their email and password to log in.
o The application checks these credentials against the stored information in the database.
o If the credentials match, the user is granted access.
3. Authorization:
o After logging in, the application determines what the user can do based on their role or
permissions (like admin or regular user).
o For example, an admin can access the admin dashboard, while a regular user cannot.
 Page 368

Steps to Implement Authentication in ASP.NET MVC

1. Install Identity: Use ASP.NET Identity, which is a membership system that provides authentication and
user management features.
2. Create a User Model: This model represents the user in your application.

public class ApplicationUser : IdentityUser

{
// Additional properties can be added here
}

3. Configure Identity: In the Startup.cs file, configure services to use Identity.

services.AddIdentity<ApplicationUser, IdentityRole>()
.AddEntityFrameworkStores<ApplicationDbContext>()
.AddDefaultTokenProviders();

4. Create Login and Registration Views: Create forms for users to register and log in.
o Registration: A form where users enter their email and password.
o Login: A form where users enter their email and password to log in.
5. Create Controller Actions:
o Register:

[HttpPost]
public async Task<IActionResult> Register(RegisterViewModel model)
{
if (ModelState.IsValid)
{
var user = new ApplicationUser { UserName = model.Email, Email = model.Email };
var result = await _userManager.CreateAsync(user, model.Password);
if (result.Succeeded)
{
// Sign in the user
await _signInManager.SignInAsync(user, isPersistent: false);
return RedirectToAction("Index", "Home");
}
}
return View(model);
}

o Login:

[HttpPost]
public async Task<IActionResult> Login(LoginViewModel model)
 Page 369

{
if (ModelState.IsValid)
{
var result = await _signInManager.PasswordSignInAsync(model.Email, model.Password,
model.RememberMe, lockoutOnFailure: false);
if (result.Succeeded)
{
return RedirectToAction("Index", "Home");
}
}
return View(model);
}

6. Secure Your Pages: Use the [Authorize] attribute to restrict access to certain actions or controllers.

[Authorize]
public class AdminController : Controller
{
public IActionResult Index()
{
return View();
}
}
Summary

In ASP.NET MVC, authentication is a straightforward process that involves registering users, verifying their
identities, and controlling their access to various parts of the application. By using ASP.NET Identity, you can
easily implement secure authentication features in your application.

MVC Routing:
Routing in ASP.NET MVC is the process of mapping a URL to a specific action in a controller. It helps the
application understand which code to run when a user requests a particular URL. Here’s a simple explanation of
how routing works:

How Routing Works

1. URL Pattern: When a user types a URL in the browser, the routing system checks the URL against
predefined patterns to find a match.
2. Controller and Action: Each pattern specifies which controller and which action method should be
executed. For example, a URL like /Products/Details/5 would match the Details action in the Products
controller with an ID of 5.
 Page 370

Default Routing

By default, ASP.NET MVC uses a route configuration that looks like this:

routes.MapRoute(
name: "Default",
url: "{controller}/{action}/{id}",
defaults: new { controller = "Home", action = "Index", id = UrlParameter.Optional }
);

 {controller}: The name of the controller (e.g., Products).

 {action}: The name of the action method (e.g., Details).
 {id}: An optional parameter, usually used for identifying specific data (like a product ID).

Example Routes

1. Home Page:
o URL: /
o Matches: HomeController.Index
2. Products List:
o URL: /Products
o Matches: ProductsController.Index
3. Product Details:
o URL: /Products/Details/5
o Matches: ProductsController.Details(5)

Custom Routes

You can also define custom routes for specific URLs. For example:

routes.MapRoute(
name: "About",
url: "AboutUs",
defaults: new { controller = "Home", action = "About" }
);

 This route means that when a user visits /AboutUs, it will call the About action in the HomeController.

Route Constraints

You can add conditions to your routes to make them more specific. For example, you can require that the id
parameter must be a number:

routes.MapRoute(
 Page 371

name: "Product",
url: "Products/Details/{id}",
defaults: new { controller = "Products", action = "Details" },
constraints: new { id = @"\d+" } // id must be a number
);
Summary

Routing in ASP.NET MVC is essential for directing incoming requests to the correct controller actions based on
the URL. It helps create user-friendly URLs and organize your application better.

ASP.NET Razor Introduction

Razor is a standard markup syntax that allows us to embed server code into the web pages. It uses its own syntax
and keywords to generate view.

If there is server code in the web page, server executes that code first then send response to the browser. It
allows us to perform logical tasks in the view page. We can create expressions, loops and variables in the view
page.

It has simplified syntax which is easy to learn and code. This file extension is .cshtml.

@ Character

Razor uses this character to transit from HTML to C#. When @ symbol is used with razor syntax, it transits into
Razor specific markup, otherwise it transitions into plain C#. We used it, to start single line expression, single
statement block or multi-statement block.

Razor Keywords

o functions
o inherits
o model
o section
o helper (Not supported by ASP.NET Core.)

Example

Let's create a view that has Razor syntax. Right click on the Controller folder and select add->controller, it will
prompt the following dialog.
 Page 372

Provide a name to the controller.

Click on add button, this will create a controller and adding the following code.

//StudentsController.cs

1. using System;
2. using System.Collections.Generic;
3. using System.Linq;
4. using System.Web;
5. using System.Web.Mvc;
6. namespace RazorViewExample.Controllers
7. {
8. public class StudentsController : Controller
9. {
10. // GET: Students
11. public ActionResult Index()
12. {
13. return View();
14. }
15. }
 Page 373

16. }

// Index.cshtml

1. @{
2. Layout = null;
3. var name = "Joseph";
4. }
5. <!DOCTYPE html>
6. <html>
7. <head>
8. <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width" />
9. <title>Index</title>
10. </head>
11. <body>
12. <h2>My name is @name </h2>
13. </body>
14. </html>

It produces the following output to the browser.

ASP.NET Razor Code Expressions

Razor syntax is widely used with C# programming language. To write C# code into a view use @ (at) sign to start
Razor syntax. We can use it to write single line expression or multiline code block. Let's see how we can use C#
code in the view page.

The following example demonstrate code expression.

// Index.cshtml

1. @{
 Page 374

2. Layout = null;
3. var coursename = "Java Collection";
4. }
5. <!DOCTYPE html>
6. <html>
7. <head>
8. <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width" />
9. <title>Index</title>
10. </head>
11. <body>
12. <h2>I want to learn @coursename </h2>
13. </body>
14. </html>

Produce the following output.

Output:

Implicit Razor Expressions

Implicit Razor expression starts with @ (at) character followed by C# code. The following example demonstrates
about implicit expressions.

// Index.cshtml

1. @{
2. Layout = null;
 Page 375

3. }
4. <!DOCTYPE html>
5. <html>
6. <head>
7. <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width" />
8. <title>Index</title>
9. </head>
10. <body>
11. <p>Current Time is: @DateTime.Now.ToString("T")</p>
12. </body>
13. </html>

It produces the following output.

Output:

Explicit Razor Expressions

Explicit Razor expression consists of @ (at) character with balanced parenthesis. In the following example,
expression is enclosed with parenthesis to execute safely. It will throw an error if it is not enclosed with
parenthesis.

We can use explicit expression to concatenate text with an expression.

// Index.cshtml

1. @{
2. Layout = null;
 Page 376

3. }
4. <!DOCTYPE html>
5. <html>
6. <head>
7. <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width" />
8. <title>Index</title>
9. </head>
10. <body>
11. <p>2 + 5 = @(2+5)</p>
12. </body>
13. </html>

It produces the following output.

Output:

Razor Expression Encoding

Razor provides expression encoding to avoid malicious code and security risks. In case, if user enters a malicious
script as input, razor engine encode the script and render as HTML output.

Here, we are not using razor syntax in view page.

// Index.cshtml

1. @{
2. Layout = null;
3. }
4. <!DOCTYPE html>
5. <html>
 Page 377

6. <head>
7. <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width" />
8. <title>Index</title>
9. </head>
10. <body>
11. Html.Raw("<script>alert('System Failure!')</script>")
12. </body>
13. </html>

It produces the following output.

Output:

In the following example, we are encoding JavaScript script.

// Index.cshtml

1. @{
2. Layout = null;
3. }
4. <!DOCTYPE html>
5. <html>
6. <head>
7. <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width" />
8. <title>Index</title>
9. </head>
 Page 378

10. <body>
11. @("<script>alert('this is alert box')</script>")
12. </body>
13. </html>

Now, it produces the following output.

Output:

This time razor engine encodes the script and return as a simple HTML string.

ASP.NET Razor Code Blocks

Code block is used to enclose C# code statements. It starts with @ (at) character and is enclosed by {} (curly
braces). Unlike expressions, C# code inside code blocks is not rendered. The default language in a code block is
C#, but we can transit back to HTML. HTML within a code block will be rendered as HTML.

Example

// Index.cshtml

1. @{
2. Layout = null;
3. var name = "John";
4. }
5. <!DOCTYPE html>
6. <html>
 Page 379

7. <head>
8. <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width" />
9. <title>Index</title>
10. </head>
11. <body>
12. <h2>My name is: @name </h2>
13. </body>
14. </html>

It produces the following output.

Implicit transitions

C# is default language in Razor code block. HTML written within code block is rendered as HTML, this is called
implicit transition. Razor code blocks implicit transitions HTML code and render to the view page.

In the following code, HTML is written and it executes without error.

// Index.cshtml

1. @{
2. Layout = null;
3. }
4. <!DOCTYPE html>
5. <html>
6. <head>
7. <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width" />
8. <title>Index</title>
9. </head>
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10. <body>
11. @{
12. var name = "JavaTpoint";
13. <h4>Welcome to the @name </h4>
14. }
15. </body>
16. </html>

It produces the following output.

Explicit delimited transition

Sometimes, when we define a sub-section of a code block that should render HTML, surround the characters to
be rendered with the Razor <text> tag.

It is mandate to use <text> tag. Otherwise, it throws a compile time error. See the following code.

// Index.cshtml

1. @{
2. Layout = null;
3. }
4. <!DOCTYPE html>
5. <html>
6. <head>
7. <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width" />
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8. <title>Index</title>
9. </head>
10. <body>
11. @for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++)
12. {
13. <text>i= @i </text> <br/>
14. }
15. </body>
16. </html>

It produces the following output.

Data annotations:
Data Annotations are used to validate user input by applying validation rules defined in your model. These
annotations help ensure that the data users enter into forms is correct before it’s processed or saved to the
database.

How Data Annotations Work in Razor

1. Define Annotations in the Model:

o You add Data Annotation attributes to your model properties.
o These attributes specify validation rules like "required," "string length," or "range."
2. Automatic Validation in Razor Forms:
o When a form is submitted, Razor automatically checks the input against the validation rules
defined by the Data Annotations.
o If the input doesn’t meet the rules, error messages are displayed next to the form fields.

Step-by-Step Example

Let’s go through a simple example:

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Step 1: Create a Model with Data Annotations

Here’s a basic model with some Data Annotations:

public class User

{
[Required(ErrorMessage = "Name is required.")]
[StringLength(50, ErrorMessage = "Name cannot be longer than 50 characters.")]
public string Name { get; set; }

[Required(ErrorMessage = "Email is required.")]

[EmailAddress(ErrorMessage = "Invalid email address.")]
public string Email { get; set; }

[Range(18, 99, ErrorMessage = "Age must be between 18 and 99.")]

public int Age { get; set; }
}

 [Required]: Ensures the field is not empty.

 [StringLength]: Limits the length of the Name to 50 characters.
 [EmailAddress]: Checks that the Email is in a valid format.
 [Range]: Ensures that Age is between 18 and 99.

Step 2: Create a Razor View for the Form

Now, create a form in your Razor view to collect user data:

@model YourNamespace.Models.User

@using (Html.BeginForm())
{
<div>
@Html.LabelFor(m => m.Name)
@Html.TextBoxFor(m => m.Name)
@Html.ValidationMessageFor(m => m.Name)
</div>

<div>
@Html.LabelFor(m => m.Email)
@Html.TextBoxFor(m => m.Email)
@Html.ValidationMessageFor(m => m.Email)
</div>

<div>
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@Html.LabelFor(m => m.Age)

@Html.TextBoxFor(m => m.Age)
@Html.ValidationMessageFor(m => m.Age)
</div>

<button type="submit">Submit</button>
}

@section Scripts {
@Scripts.Render("~/bundles/jqueryval")
}

 @Html.LabelFor: Renders a label for the form field.

 @Html.TextBoxFor: Renders a text box for user input.
 @Html.ValidationMessageFor: Displays validation error messages if the input doesn’t meet the rules.

Step 3: Handle Validation in the Controller

In your controller, you handle the form submission and check for validation:

[HttpPost]
public ActionResult Register(User model)
{
if (ModelState.IsValid)
{
// Save the data or perform other actions
return RedirectToAction("Success");
}

// If the model is not valid, return the view with the same model to show errors
return View(model);
}

 ModelState.IsValid: Checks if all validation rules are satisfied.

 If validation fails, the form is redisplayed with error messages next to the invalid fields.

Summary

In Razor, Data Annotations make it easy to validate user input by defining rules in your model. The Razor view
then automatically checks these rules when the form is submitted and displays error messages if something is
wrong. This ensures that your application handles data safely and correctly.

Client and server side validation:

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Client-side validation and server-side validation are both important for ensuring that the data submitted
through forms in your web application is valid and secure. Here's a simple explanation of each:

Client-Side Validation
Client-side validation occurs in the user's browser before the data is sent to the server. It helps improve user
experience by providing instant feedback when the user fills out a form.

How It Works:

 Validation rules are applied directly in the user's browser using JavaScript (or a library like jQuery).
 When a user submits a form, the browser checks the input against these rules.
 If there’s an error (e.g., a required field is empty), the user sees an error message immediately, and the
form isn't submitted.

Example:

 If you have a required field for an email address, the browser will check if the user has entered a valid
email format before allowing the form to be sent.

Benefits:

 Instant Feedback: Users know right away if they’ve made a mistake.

 Reduced Server Load: Invalid data is caught before it reaches the server, reducing unnecessary
processing.

Example in Razor:

@model YourNamespace.Models.User

@using (Html.BeginForm())
{
<div>
@Html.LabelFor(m => m.Name)
@Html.TextBoxFor(m => m.Name)
@Html.ValidationMessageFor(m => m.Name)
</div>

<div>
@Html.LabelFor(m => m.Email)
@Html.TextBoxFor(m => m.Email)
@Html.ValidationMessageFor(m => m.Email)
</div>
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<div>
@Html.LabelFor(m => m.Age)
@Html.TextBoxFor(m => m.Age)
@Html.ValidationMessageFor(m => m.Age)
</div>

<button type="submit">Submit</button>
}

@section Scripts {
@Scripts.Render("~/bundles/jqueryval") <!-- jQuery validation library -->
}

In this Razor view:

 The validation happens instantly on the client side using jQuery.

Server-Side Validation
Server-side validation happens on the server after the data is sent from the browser. It acts as the final
safeguard to ensure that the data is correct and secure before it is processed or stored.

How It Works:

 When a form is submitted, the data is sent to the server.

 The server checks the data against the validation rules defined in your model.
 If the data is invalid, the server sends the form back to the user with error messages.

Example:

 If a user disables JavaScript in their browser, client-side validation won't work. Server-side validation
ensures that even in such cases, invalid data won't be processed.

Benefits:

 Security: Protects your application from malicious input, like SQL injection or cross-site scripting (XSS).
 Reliability: Ensures that data is validated even if the client-side validation is bypassed.

Example in ASP.NET MVC:

[HttpPost]
public ActionResult Register(User model)
{
if (ModelState.IsValid)
 Page 386

{
// Save the data or perform other actions
return RedirectToAction("Success");
}

// If the model is not valid, return the view with the same model to show errors
return View(model);
}

In this controller action:

 The server checks if the model is valid using ModelState.IsValid. If not, the view is returned with error
messages.

Combining Client-Side and Server-Side Validation

Best Practice: Always use both client-side and server-side validation.

 Client-Side: Improves user experience with instant feedback.

 Server-Side: Ensures security and correctness by validating the data once it reaches the server.

By using both, you ensure that your application is user-friendly, secure, and reliable.

MVC membership:
ASP.NET MVC Membership refers to the system that handles authentication and authorization in ASP.NET MVC
applications. It provides a framework for managing user accounts, passwords, roles, and permissions, allowing
you to control who can access your web application and what they can do within it.

Key Concepts of MVC Membership

1. Authentication: Verifies the identity of a user (e.g., by checking their username and password).
2. Authorization: Determines what an authenticated user is allowed to do (e.g., which pages they can
access).
3. Membership Provider: The component that interacts with the database to manage user information,
such as creating users, validating credentials, and managing roles.

ASP.NET Identity

In modern ASP.NET MVC applications, ASP.NET Identity is commonly used for managing membership. ASP.NET
Identity replaces the older Membership system and offers more flexibility and features.
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Features of ASP.NET Identity:

 User Management: Create, update, and delete user accounts.

 Role Management: Assign roles to users and manage role-based access control.
 Claims-Based Authentication: Manage user permissions and data using claims.
 OAuth and Social Logins: Supports external login providers like Google, Facebook, and Microsoft.
 Two-Factor Authentication: Enhances security by requiring a second form of verification.

Setting Up Membership with ASP.NET Identity

Step 1: Install ASP.NET Identity

If you're starting a new project, ASP.NET Identity is usually included by default in templates like "Individual User
Accounts." If you're adding it to an existing project, you might need to install the necessary NuGet packages:

Install-Package Microsoft.AspNet.Identity.EntityFramework
Install-Package Microsoft.AspNet.Identity.Owin
Step 2: Configure Identity

ASP.NET Identity uses UserManager, SignInManager, and RoleManager classes to manage users and roles.
These are typically set up in the Startup.cs file.

public void ConfigureServices(IServiceCollection services)

{
// Configure Identity services
services.AddIdentity<ApplicationUser, IdentityRole>()
.AddEntityFrameworkStores<ApplicationDbContext>()
.AddDefaultTokenProviders();

// Other service configurations

}

 ApplicationUser: A custom user class that usually inherits from IdentityUser.

 ApplicationDbContext: The Entity Framework context that manages your database.

Step 3: Create Users and Roles

You can create users and roles in your controller or during application setup.

public async Task<ActionResult> Register(RegisterViewModel model)

{
if (ModelState.IsValid)
{
var user = new ApplicationUser { UserName = model.Email, Email = model.Email };
 Page 388

var result = await UserManager.CreateAsync(user, model.Password);

if (result.Succeeded)
{
await SignInManager.SignInAsync(user, isPersistent: false, rememberBrowser: false);
return RedirectToAction("Index", "Home");
}
AddErrors(result);
}

return View(model);
}
Step 4: Authentication and Authorization

Use [Authorize] attributes to protect your controllers or actions:

[Authorize(Roles = "Admin")]
public ActionResult AdminOnly()
{
return View();
}

 This action will only be accessible to users in the "Admin" role.

Summary

 ASP.NET MVC Membership: Manages user authentication and authorization.

 ASP.NET Identity: The modern way to handle membership, offering features like role management,
social logins, and two-factor authentication.
 Setup: Involves configuring services, managing users and roles, and applying authentication and
authorization to your application.

This system allows you to build secure web applications with user management features, ensuring that only
authorized users can access specific parts of your application.

Service Oriented Architecture (SOA)

A Service-Oriented Architecture or SOA is a design pattern which is designed to build distributed systems that
deliver services to other applications through the protocol. It is only a concept and not limited to any
programming language or platform.
 Page 389

What is Service?

A service is a well-defined, self-contained function that represents a unit of functionality. A service can exchange
information from another service. It is not dependent on the state of another service. It uses a loosely coupled,
message-based communication model to communicate with applications and other services.

Service Connections

The figure given below illustrates the service-oriented architecture. Service consumer sends a service request to
the service provider, and the service provider sends the service response to the service consumer. The service
connection is understandable to both the service consumer and service provider.

Service-Oriented Terminologies

Let's see some important service-oriented terminologies:

o Services - The services are the logical entities defined by one or more published interfaces.
o Service provider - It is a software entity that implements a service specification.
o Service consumer - It can be called as a requestor or client that calls a service provider. A service consumer
can be another service or an end-user application.
 Page 390

o Service locator - It is a service provider that acts as a registry. It is responsible for examining service
provider interfaces and service locations.
o Service broker - It is a service provider that pass service requests to one or more additional service
providers.

Characteristics of SOA

The services have the following characteristics:

o They are loosely coupled.

o They support interoperability.
o They are location-transparent
o They are self-contained.

Components of service-oriented architecture

The service-oriented architecture stack can be categorized into two parts - functional aspects and quality of
service aspects.
 Page 391

Functional aspects

The functional aspect contains:

o Transport - It transports the service requests from the service consumer to the service provider and service
responses from the service provider to the service consumer.
o Service Communication Protocol - It allows the service provider and the service consumer to communicate
with each other.
o Service Description - It describes the service and data required to invoke it.
o Service - It is an actual service.
o Business Process - It represents the group of services called in a particular sequence associated with the
particular rules to meet the business requirements.
o Service Registry - It contains the description of data which is used by service providers to publish their
services.

Quality of Service aspects

The quality of service aspects contains:

o Policy - It represents the set of protocols according to which a service provider make and provide the
services to consumers.
o Security - It represents the set of protocols required for identification and authorization.
o Transaction - It provides the surety of consistent result. This means, if we use the group of services to
complete a business function, either all must complete or none of the complete.
o Management - It defines the set of attributes used to manage the services.

Advantages of SOA

SOA has the following advantages:

o Easy to integrate - In a service-oriented architecture, the integration is a service specification that provides
implementation transparency.
o Manage Complexity - Due to service specification, the complexities get isolated, and integration becomes
more manageable.
o Platform Independence - The services are platform-independent as they can communicate with other
applications through a common language.
 Page 392

o Loose coupling - It facilitates to implement services without impacting other applications or services.
o Parallel Development - As SOA follows layer-based architecture, it provides parallel development.
o Available - The SOA services are easily available to any requester.
o Reliable - As services are small in size, it is easier to test and debug them.

SOAP:
SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) is a protocol used for exchanging structured information in web services.
It relies on XML (eXtensible Markup Language) for its message format and usually operates over HTTP or HTTPS.
SOAP is designed to allow programs running on different operating systems and programming languages to
communicate with each other.

Key Features of SOAP

1. XML-Based: SOAP messages are formatted in XML, making them platform- and language-independent.
2. Protocol Independence: While it commonly uses HTTP, SOAP can also operate over other protocols such
as SMTP, TCP, or JMS.
3. WSDL (Web Services Description Language): SOAP services use WSDL files to describe the service,
including available methods, input/output formats, and data types.
4. Extensibility: SOAP supports extensions such as WS-Security for security features like authentication and
encryption.
5. Reliability: SOAP provides features to ensure message delivery, such as acknowledgments and
retransmissions.

Basic Structure of a SOAP Message

A SOAP message consists of the following parts:

1. Envelope: The root element that defines the XML document as a SOAP message.
2. Header (optional): Contains metadata about the message, such as authentication or transaction
information.
3. Body: Contains the main message or data, including method calls and return values.
4. Fault (optional): Provides error and status information about the SOAP message.

Example of a SOAP Message

Here’s a simple example of a SOAP message for a service that adds two numbers:

<soap:Envelope xmlns:soap="http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/soap/envelope/">
<soap:Header>
<m:Transaction xmlns:m="http://www.example.org/transaction">
12345
 Page 393

</m:Transaction>
</soap:Header>
<soap:Body>
<m:Add xmlns:m="http://www.example.org/math">
<m:Number1>5</m:Number1>
<m:Number2>3</m:Number2>
</m:Add>
</soap:Body>
</soap:Envelope>
Creating a SOAP Web Service in C#

To create a SOAP web service in C#, you can use Windows Communication Foundation (WCF), which provides a
framework for building SOAP services.

Step 1: Create a WCF Service

1. Open Visual Studio and create a new project.

2. Select WCF Service Application.

Step 2: Define the Service Contract

Define the service interface that specifies the methods the service will expose. For example, a simple math
service:

[ServiceContract]
public interface IMathService
{
[OperationContract]
int Add(int number1, int number2);
}
Step 3: Implement the Service

Create a class that implements the service contract:

public class MathService : IMathService

{
public int Add(int number1, int number2)
{
return number1 + number2;
}
}
Step 4: Configure the Service

In the Web.config file, you’ll define the service endpoint and binding:
 Page 394

<system.serviceModel>
<services>
<service name="YourNamespace.MathService">
<endpoint address="" binding="basicHttpBinding" contract="YourNamespace.IMathService" />
<host>
<baseAddresses>
<add baseAddress="http://localhost:8733/Design_Time_Addresses/YourNamespace/MathService/"
/>
</baseAddresses>
</host>
</service>
</services>
</system.serviceModel>
Step 5: Host and Test the Service

 Run your project, and the service will be hosted on a specified URL (e.g., http://localhost:8733/...).
 You can use a tool like WCF Test Client or Postman to test your SOAP service by sending a SOAP request.

Summary

 SOAP is a protocol for exchanging structured information in web services.

 It uses XML and operates over various protocols, primarily HTTP.
 SOAP services are defined using WSDL files and can be created in C# using WCF.
 SOAP provides features like extensibility and reliability, making it suitable for enterprise-level
applications.

WSDL:
WSDL (Web Services Description Language) is an XML-based language used to describe the functionalities
offered by a web service. It provides a standard way to define the interface, including the available methods,
input and output parameters, data types, and how to access the service.

Key Components of WSDL

A WSDL document typically consists of the following major parts:

1. Definitions: The root element that defines the entire WSDL document. It includes namespaces and
overall structure.
2. Types: This section defines the data types used by the web service. It often uses XML Schema to specify
complex types, elements, and data structures.
3. Messages: Messages describe the data that is being exchanged between the client and the service. Each
message can consist of one or more parts, which represent the parameters of the method.
4. Port Types: This section defines a set of operations (methods) that the service can perform. Each
operation specifies the input and output messages.
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5. Bindings: Bindings define the communication protocols and message formats used by the service. For
example, it specifies whether to use SOAP over HTTP.
6. Service: This section defines the endpoint (URL) where the web service can be accessed. It includes the
service name and the address (URL) for the service.

Example of a WSDL Document

Here’s a simple example of a WSDL document for a web service that performs addition:

<definitions xmlns="http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/wsdl/"
xmlns:soap="http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/wsdl/soap/"
xmlns:tns="http://www.example.org/math"
name="MathService"
targetNamespace="http://www.example.org/math">

<types>
<xsd:schema xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema"
targetNamespace="http://www.example.org/math">
<xsd:element name="AddRequest">
<xsd:complexType>
<xsd:sequence>
<xsd:element name="Number1" type="xsd:int"/>
<xsd:element name="Number2" type="xsd:int"/>
</xsd:sequence>
</xsd:complexType>
</xsd:element>
<xsd:element name="AddResponse">
<xsd:complexType>
<xsd:sequence>
<xsd:element name="Result" type="xsd:int"/>
</xsd:sequence>
</xsd:complexType>
</xsd:element>
</xsd:schema>
</types>

<message name="AddRequest">
<part name="parameters" element="tns:AddRequest"/>
</message>
<message name="AddResponse">
<part name="parameters" element="tns:AddResponse"/>
</message>

<portType name="MathServicePortType">
 Page 396

<operation name="Add">
<input message="tns:AddRequest"/>
<output message="tns:AddResponse"/>
</operation>
</portType>

<binding name="MathServiceBinding" type="tns:MathServicePortType">

<soap:binding transport="http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/soap/http"/>
<operation name="Add">
<soap:operation soapAction="http://www.example.org/math/Add"/>
<input>
<soap:body use="literal"/>
</input>
<output>
<soap:body use="literal"/>
</output>
</operation>
</binding>

<service name="MathService">
<port name="MathServicePort" binding="tns:MathServiceBinding">
<soap:address
location="http://localhost:8733/Design_Time_Addresses/YourNamespace/MathService/"/>
</port>
</service>
</definitions>
Explanation of the Example

 Definitions: The root element defines the WSDL and includes namespaces.
 Types: It defines the complex types used in the request and response.
 Messages: Each operation (like Add) has associated messages for input and output.
 Port Types: It defines the operations available in the service.
 Bindings: Specifies the protocol (SOAP over HTTP) used by the service.
 Service: Provides the endpoint where the service can be accessed.

How to Use WSDL

1. Client Generation: Tools can automatically generate client code based on a WSDL document. This allows
developers to easily interact with the web service without manually writing all the communication code.
2. Service Discovery: Clients can use WSDL to understand what operations a service offers and how to call
them.
3. Interoperability: WSDL helps different systems (written in different programming languages) to
communicate effectively, as they follow the standards defined in the WSDL.
 Page 397

Summary

 WSDL is an XML format for describing web services and their interfaces.
 It includes definitions for data types, messages, operations, bindings, and service endpoints.
 WSDL enables automatic client code generation and helps ensure interoperability between different
systems.

Service contract:
A Service Contract in the context of web services, particularly in Windows Communication Foundation (WCF),
is an essential part of defining how a web service will operate. It specifies the methods (operations) that the
service will expose, the data types that will be used, and the protocols that will be supported for
communication. Essentially, it acts as a contract between the service and its clients.

Key Elements of a Service Contract

1. ServiceContract Attribute: This attribute is used to define an interface as a service contract. It indicates
that the interface will expose operations for clients to call.
2. OperationContract Attribute: This attribute is applied to methods within the service contract to indicate
that they are operations that can be called by clients. Each operation may have additional attributes for
configuration.
3. Data Types: The data types used as parameters and return values for the operations must be serializable
(convertible to and from XML or JSON).

Example of a Service Contract

Here’s a simple example of a service contract for a calculator service in C#:

using System.ServiceModel;

[ServiceContract]
public interface ICalculatorService
{
[OperationContract]
int Add(int number1, int number2);

[OperationContract]
int Subtract(int number1, int number2);

[OperationContract]
int Multiply(int number1, int number2);

[OperationContract]
 Page 398

int Divide(int number1, int number2);

}
Explanation of the Example

 ServiceContract: The ICalculatorService interface is decorated with the [ServiceContract] attribute,

indicating that it defines a service contract.
 OperationContract: Each method (like Add, Subtract, Multiply, and Divide) is decorated with the
[OperationContract] attribute, making it available for clients to call.
 Method Signatures: Each operation takes two integers as input and returns an integer as output. This is
the expected behavior for a simple calculator service.

Using the Service Contract

Once you define a service contract, you need to implement it in a service class. Here’s how you might
implement the ICalculatorService interface:

public class CalculatorService : ICalculatorService

{
public int Add(int number1, int number2)
{
return number1 + number2;
}

public int Subtract(int number1, int number2)

{
return number1 - number2;
}

public int Multiply(int number1, int number2)

{
return number1 * number2;
}

public int Divide(int number1, int number2)

{
if (number2 == 0) throw new DivideByZeroException("Cannot divide by zero.");
return number1 / number2;
}
}
Key Points About Service Contracts

1. Loose Coupling: Service contracts promote loose coupling between the client and service
implementation. Clients only depend on the contract rather than the specific implementation.
 Page 399

2. Interoperability: Service contracts can be exposed using standards like SOAP and WSDL, ensuring that
clients written in different languages can interact with the service.
3. Versioning: You can evolve your service contract over time without breaking existing clients by
introducing new operations and deprecating old ones.

Summary

 A Service Contract defines the operations that a web service exposes to clients.
 It is created using the [ServiceContract] and [OperationContract] attributes in C#.
 It allows for loose coupling, interoperability, and easier versioning of services.

Data contract:
A Data Contract in the context of Windows Communication Foundation (WCF) defines the data types that can
be used in the service's messages. It specifies how data is serialized (converted to a format suitable for
transmission) and deserialized (converted back to an object) when it is exchanged between a client and a
service.

Key Elements of a Data Contract

1. DataContract Attribute: This attribute is used to mark a class or struct as a data contract. It indicates
that the class is intended for serialization in WCF.
2. DataMember Attribute: This attribute is applied to the fields or properties of a data contract to indicate
that they should be serialized. You can control the order of serialization and whether the member is
required.
3. Serialization: Data contracts allow you to define how the data will be serialized into XML or JSON format
for transmission.

Example of a Data Contract

Here’s a simple example of a data contract for a Product class in C#:

using System.Runtime.Serialization;

[DataContract]
public class Product
{
[DataMember(Order = 1)]
public int Id { get; set; }

[DataMember(Order = 2)]
public string Name { get; set; }

[DataMember(Order = 3)]
 Page 400

public decimal Price { get; set; }

}
Explanation of the Example

 DataContract: The [DataContract] attribute indicates that the Product class is a data contract that will be
serialized.
 DataMember: Each property in the Product class is decorated with the [DataMember] attribute. This
tells WCF to include these properties when serializing and deserializing the object. The Order property
specifies the order in which members should appear in the serialized output.

Using the Data Contract

Data contracts are typically used in conjunction with service contracts. When defining a WCF service, you would
use the data contract as part of the messages sent between the client and the service.

Example of Using Data Contracts in a Service Contract

Here’s how you might use the Product data contract in a service contract:

[ServiceContract]
public interface IProductService
{
[OperationContract]
Product GetProduct(int id);

[OperationContract]
void AddProduct(Product product);
}
Key Points About Data Contracts

1. Serialization Control: Data contracts provide control over how data is serialized, allowing you to specify
which members to include and their order.
2. Versioning: You can evolve data contracts over time by adding new members. Existing members will still
be serialized correctly for clients expecting the old version.
3. Interoperability: Data contracts ensure that the data can be easily understood and processed by clients
written in different programming languages.

Summary

 A Data Contract defines the data types used in messages exchanged between a client and a WCF service.
 It is created using the [DataContract] and [DataMember] attributes in C#.
 Data contracts control serialization, support versioning, and promote interoperability.

XML:
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XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is a markup language used to store and transport data. It is both human-
readable and machine-readable, making it an ideal choice for representing structured information. XML is
widely used in various applications, including web services, configuration files, and data interchange between
systems.

Key Features of XML

1. Self-Describing: XML data is structured in a way that makes it easy to understand. The tags define the
data, so the structure and meaning of the data are clear.
2. Hierarchical Structure: XML documents have a tree-like structure, with a single root element and nested
child elements. This makes it easy to represent complex data relationships.
3. Flexibility: XML is extensible, meaning you can create custom tags to suit your needs. You can define the
structure of your data without being limited by predefined tags.
4. Platform-Independent: XML is text-based and can be used across different systems and platforms,
making it suitable for data interchange.

Basic Structure of an XML Document

An XML document consists of the following components:

1. Declaration: The XML declaration specifies the version of XML being used and optionally the encoding.
2. Root Element: The root element is the top-level element that contains all other elements.
3. Child Elements: These are the nested elements that contain data or further structure.
4. Attributes: Elements can have attributes that provide additional information about the element.

Example of an XML Document

Here’s a simple example of an XML document representing a list of books:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

<library>
<book id="1">
<title>The Great Gatsby</title>
<author>F. Scott Fitzgerald</author>
<price>10.99</price>
<publishDate>1925-04-10</publishDate>
</book>
<book id="2">
<title>1984</title>
<author>George Orwell</author>
<price>9.99</price>
<publishDate>1949-06-08</publishDate>
</book>
</library>
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Explanation of the Example

 Declaration: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> specifies the XML version and encoding used.
 Root Element: <library> is the root element containing all other elements.
 Child Elements: Each <book> element contains nested elements like <title>, <author>, <price>, and
<publishDate>.
 Attributes: The <book> element has an attribute id that provides an identifier for the book.

XML vs. Other Data Formats

 XML vs. JSON: Both XML and JSON are used for data interchange, but JSON is often preferred for web
APIs due to its simpler syntax and smaller size. XML is more verbose but offers more features like
attributes and mixed content.
 XML vs. CSV: XML is hierarchical and supports complex structures, while CSV (Comma-Separated Values)
is flat and best for simple tabular data.

Common Uses of XML

1. Web Services: XML is commonly used in SOAP web services for message formatting.
2. Configuration Files: Many applications use XML files to store configuration settings.
3. Data Interchange: XML is widely used for exchanging data between different systems and applications.

Summary

 XML is a flexible and self-describing markup language used to store and transport structured data.
 It has a hierarchical structure with a root element and nested child elements.
 XML is platform-independent and widely used in web services, configuration files, and data interchange.

WCF binding:
What are WCF Bindings?

WCF bindings are like rules that tell your WCF service how to communicate with other applications (like clients).
They define things like how data is sent, what formats to use, and how to keep the data secure.

Types of WCF Bindings

1. BasicHttpBinding:
o What It Is: A simple way to send messages over the web.
o When to Use: Good for basic web services that work with older services (like ASMX).
2. WsHttpBinding:
o What It Is: A more advanced way to send messages that supports extra features.
o When to Use: Ideal for services that need better security and reliability.
3. NetTcpBinding:
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What It Is: A fast way to send messages over a network using TCP.
o
When to Use: Best for applications on the same network (like a company’s internal apps).
o
4. NetNamedPipeBinding:
o What It Is: A very fast way to send messages between applications on the same computer.
o When to Use: Good for services that run in the same place and need quick communication.
5. NetMsmqBinding:
o What It Is: A way to send messages using a queue, which allows messages to be stored until the
receiver is ready.
o When to Use: Best for situations where messages need to be delivered reliably, even if the
service is offline.
6. WebHttpBinding:
o What It Is: A way to create services that use web standards like REST.
o When to Use: Great for building APIs that can send data in formats like JSON or XML.

Example of a WCF Binding Configuration

Here’s a simple example of setting up a WCF service using WsHttpBinding in a configuration file:

<system.serviceModel>
<services>
<service name="YourNamespace.YourService">
<endpoint address=""
binding="wsHttpBinding"
contract="YourNamespace.IYourService" />
<host>
<baseAddresses>
<add baseAddress="http://localhost:8733/YourService/" />
</baseAddresses>
</host>
</service>
</services>
</system.serviceModel>
Explanation of the Example

 Service Name: This tells where to find the service.

 Endpoint: This is where clients connect to the service. Here, we're using wsHttpBinding to send
messages.
 Base Address: This is the URL where the service can be accessed.

Summary

 WCF bindings are rules for how services communicate with clients.
 There are different types of bindings, each suited for specific needs (like speed, security, and data
format).
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 Common bindings include BasicHttpBinding, WsHttpBinding, NetTcpBinding, and more.

ABC of WCF
Here’s a simplified overview of the ABC of WCF (Windows Communication Foundation), covering the basics of
what WCF is, its components, and key concepts:

A - Architecture

 What is WCF?: WCF is a framework for building service-oriented applications. It allows different
applications to communicate with each other over networks using various protocols.
 Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA): WCF follows the SOA design principle, where services are
independent and can be used by multiple clients.

B - Bindings

 What are Bindings?: Bindings define how messages are sent and received between clients and services.
 Types of Bindings:
o BasicHttpBinding: Simple web service communication.
o WsHttpBinding: Supports advanced features like security and reliability.
o NetTcpBinding: Fast communication over TCP, ideal for intranet.
o WebHttpBinding: Used for RESTful services and web APIs.

C - Contracts

 Service Contract: An interface that defines what operations (methods) the service offers. It uses the
[ServiceContract] attribute.
 Data Contract: Defines the data types that the service will use. It specifies how data is structured and
serialized using the [DataContract] and [DataMember] attributes.
 Operation Contract: Marks methods in the service contract that can be called by clients, using the
[OperationContract] attribute.

Key Concepts

1. Endpoints: Each WCF service has one or more endpoints, which specify the address (URL), binding
(communication method), and contract (operations) that clients use to interact with the service.
2. Hosting: WCF services can be hosted in various environments, including:
o IIS (Internet Information Services): For web applications.
o Windows Services: For background services.
o Self-hosting: Running a service in a console application or other applications.
3. Security: WCF supports various security mechanisms to protect data during transmission, including
transport security (like HTTPS) and message security (encrypting the message itself).
4. Transactions: WCF supports distributed transactions, allowing multiple operations to be grouped
together so that they either all succeed or all fail.
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5. Error Handling: WCF provides ways to handle errors gracefully, allowing developers to log exceptions or
return friendly error messages to clients.

Summary

 WCF is a framework for building services that communicate over networks.

 It uses bindings to define how data is transmitted and contracts to define what services offer.
 Key concepts include endpoints, hosting, security, transactions, and error handling.

Restful services:
RESTful services are web services that follow the principles of Representational State Transfer (REST)
architecture. REST is an architectural style used for designing networked applications and is commonly used for
building APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) that enable communication between client and server over
HTTP.

Key Principles of REST

1. Statelessness:
o Each request from a client to a server must contain all the information needed to understand and
process that request.
o The server does not store any session information about the client between requests.
2. Resource-Based:
o Everything in REST is treated as a resource, identified by a unique URI (Uniform Resource
Identifier).
o Resources can be anything: data objects, services, or even collections of data.
3. HTTP Methods:
o RESTful services use standard HTTP methods to perform operations on resources:
 GET: Retrieve data from the server.
 POST: Send data to the server to create a new resource.
 PUT: Update an existing resource.
 DELETE: Remove a resource from the server.
4. Representations:
o Resources can be represented in various formats (e.g., JSON, XML, HTML).
o Clients can request the desired format using the Accept header in HTTP requests.
5. Stateless Communication:
o Each request from the client to the server must contain all the information needed to complete
the request, allowing for improved scalability.

Example of a RESTful API

Here’s an example of a simple RESTful API for managing a collection of books:

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Endpoints

1. Get all books:

o Method: GET
o URL: /api/books
o Response: A list of books in JSON format.
2. Get a specific book:
o Method: GET
o URL: /api/books/{id}
o Response: Details of the book with the specified ID.
3. Add a new book:
o Method: POST
o URL: /api/books
o Request Body: JSON representation of the new book.
o Response: Confirmation of the book created.
4. Update an existing book:
o Method: PUT
o URL: /api/books/{id}
o Request Body: JSON representation of the updated book.
o Response: Confirmation of the book updated.
5. Delete a book:
o Method: DELETE
o URL: /api/books/{id}
o Response: Confirmation of the book deleted.

Example of a RESTful Service Implementation in C#

Here’s a simple example of how you might implement a RESTful service using ASP.NET Core:

using Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc;
using System.Collections.Generic;

[Route("api/[controller]")]
[ApiController]
public class BooksController : ControllerBase
{
private static List<Book> books = new List<Book>();

// GET: api/books
[HttpGet]
public ActionResult<List<Book>> GetBooks()
{
return books;
}
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// GET: api/books/1
[HttpGet("{id}")]
public ActionResult<Book> GetBook(int id)
{
var book = books.Find(b => b.Id == id);
if (book == null) return NotFound();
return book;
}

// POST: api/books
[HttpPost]
public ActionResult<Book> CreateBook(Book book)
{
books.Add(book);
return CreatedAtAction(nameof(GetBook), new { id = book.Id }, book);
}

// PUT: api/books/1
[HttpPut("{id}")]
public IActionResult UpdateBook(int id, Book book)
{
var existingBook = books.Find(b => b.Id == id);
if (existingBook == null) return NotFound();

existingBook.Title = book.Title;
existingBook.Author = book.Author;
return NoContent();
}

// DELETE: api/books/1
[HttpDelete("{id}")]
public IActionResult DeleteBook(int id)
{
var book = books.Find(b => b.Id == id);
if (book == null) return NotFound();

books.Remove(book);
return NoContent();
}
}

public class Book

{
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public int Id { get; set; }

public string Title { get; set; }
public string Author { get; set; }
}
Benefits of RESTful Services

 Simplicity: RESTful services are easy to use and understand, following standard HTTP methods.
 Scalability: Statelessness allows for better scalability since the server does not need to manage client
sessions.
 Flexibility: Resources can be represented in multiple formats (JSON, XML, etc.).
 Interoperability: RESTful services can be consumed by any client that can send HTTP requests.

Summary

 RESTful services are web services that use standard HTTP methods to communicate and are based on
resources identified by URIs.
 They follow principles like statelessness, resource-based communication, and use of representations.
 Common HTTP methods used include GET, POST, PUT, and DELETE.

Consuming rest services(CRUD Operations) using jquery,AJAX And JSON:

Here’s a simple guide on how to use jQuery and AJAX to consume RESTful services for CRUD (Create, Read,
Update, Delete) operations using JSON. This will help you manage data easily, such as adding, retrieving,
updating, and deleting records.

What Are CRUD Operations?

CRUD operations are the basic tasks you can do with data:

1. Create: Add new data.

2. Read: Get existing data.
3. Update: Change existing data.
4. Delete: Remove data.

Steps to Use jQuery, AJAX, and JSON

1. Setup Your HTML

First, make sure you include jQuery in your HTML file. Here’s a simple example:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
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<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">

<title>CRUD with jQuery</title>
<script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/3.6.0/jquery.min.js"></script>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Book Management</h1>
<!-- Add your UI elements here -->
<script>
// Place your jQuery code here
</script>
</body>
</html>
Example API Endpoints

Assume you have a RESTful API for managing books with these endpoints:

 GET /api/books: Get all books.

 GET /api/books/{id}: Get a book by its ID.
 POST /api/books: Add a new book.
 PUT /api/books/{id}: Update a book.
 DELETE /api/books/{id}: Delete a book.

CRUD Operations Using jQuery and AJAX

2. Read (Get All Books)

To get a list of all books, you can use the following code:

function getAllBooks() {
$.ajax({
url: '/api/books', // URL of the API endpoint
method: 'GET', // Use GET method to retrieve data
success: function(data) {
console.log(data); // Display the list of books in the console
},
error: function(error) {
console.error('Error fetching books:', error); // Handle errors
}
});
}

// Call the function to fetch books

getAllBooks();
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3. Read (Get a Book by ID)

To get a specific book by its ID:

function getBookById(id) {
$.ajax({
url: '/api/books/' + id, // URL with the book ID
method: 'GET', // Use GET method to retrieve data
success: function(data) {
console.log(data); // Display the book data
},
error: function(error) {
console.error('Error fetching book:', error); // Handle errors
}
});
}

// Call the function to fetch a book with ID 1

getBookById(1); // Replace 1 with the desired book ID
4. Create (Add a New Book)

To add a new book to the collection:

function addBook(book) {
$.ajax({
url: '/api/books', // URL of the API endpoint
method: 'POST', // Use POST method to add data
contentType: 'application/json', // Specify that you're sending JSON data
data: JSON.stringify(book), // Convert the book object to JSON format
success: function(data) {
console.log('Book created:', data); // Confirmation of creation
getAllBooks(); // Refresh the list of books
},
error: function(error) {
console.error('Error creating book:', error); // Handle errors
}
});
}

// Example book object to add

const newBook = {
title: "New Book Title", // Title of the new book
author: "Author Name" // Author of the new book
};
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// Call the function to add the new book

addBook(newBook);
5. Update (Edit an Existing Book)

To update an existing book:

function updateBook(id, updatedBook) {

$.ajax({
url: '/api/books/' + id, // URL with the book ID
method: 'PUT', // Use PUT method to update data
contentType: 'application/json', // Specify that you're sending JSON data
data: JSON.stringify(updatedBook), // Convert the updated book object to JSON
success: function(data) {
console.log('Book updated:', data); // Confirmation of update
getAllBooks(); // Refresh the list of books
},
error: function(error) {
console.error('Error updating book:', error); // Handle errors
}
});
}

// Example updated book object

const updatedBook = {
title: "Updated Book Title", // New title for the book
author: "Updated Author Name" // New author for the book
};

// Call the function to update a book with ID 1

updateBook(1, updatedBook); // Replace 1 with the desired book ID
6. Delete (Remove a Book)

To delete a book:

function deleteBook(id) {
$.ajax({
url: '/api/books/' + id, // URL with the book ID
method: 'DELETE', // Use DELETE method to remove data
success: function(data) {
console.log('Book deleted:', data); // Confirmation of deletion
getAllBooks(); // Refresh the list of books
},
error: function(error) {
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console.error('Error deleting book:', error); // Handle errors

}
});
}

// Call the function to delete a book with ID 1

deleteBook(1); // Replace 1 with the desired book ID
Summary

 GET requests are used to read data (Get all books or Get a book by ID).
 POST requests are used to create new data (Add a new book).
 PUT requests are used to update existing data (Edit a book).
 DELETE requests are used to remove data (Delete a book).

Introduction to Web API

A Web API (Application Programming Interface) is a set of rules and protocols that allows different software
applications to communicate with each other over the web. It enables developers to access the functionality of
a service or application using standard web protocols. Here's a breakdown of the key concepts and components
of Web APIs.

What is a Web API?

 Interface: A Web API acts as a bridge between different software systems. It allows one application to
communicate with another, regardless of the programming language or platform they are built on.
 HTTP Protocol: Web APIs typically use the HTTP protocol for communication. This means you can use
standard web methods like GET, POST, PUT, and DELETE to interact with the API.
 Data Formats: Web APIs usually exchange data in formats like JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) or XML
(eXtensible Markup Language), making it easy to read and parse.

Key Components of a Web API

1. Endpoints: An endpoint is a specific URL where the API can be accessed. Each endpoint corresponds to a
particular resource or action (e.g., retrieving a list of books).
2. HTTP Methods:
o GET: Retrieve data from the server (e.g., get a list of users).
o POST: Send data to the server to create a new resource (e.g., add a new user).
o PUT: Update an existing resource (e.g., update user information).
o DELETE: Remove a resource from the server (e.g., delete a user).
3. Request and Response:
o Request: When a client makes a call to a Web API, it sends an HTTP request to a specific
endpoint, which may include parameters and data.
o Response: The server processes the request and sends back an HTTP response, which contains
the requested data or confirmation of the action taken.
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4. Status Codes: Each response from a Web API includes an HTTP status code that indicates the result of
the request. Common status codes include:
o 200 OK: The request was successful.
o 201 Created: A new resource was successfully created.
o 400 Bad Request: The request was invalid.
o 404 Not Found: The requested resource could not be found.
o 500 Internal Server Error: An error occurred on the server.

Benefits of Using Web APIs

 Interoperability: Web APIs allow different applications and services to work together, regardless of their
technology stacks.
 Scalability: APIs can be designed to handle a large number of requests, making it easy to scale
applications as needed.
 Reusability: APIs enable developers to reuse existing services, reducing the need to build everything
from scratch.
 Integration: APIs can connect to various third-party services, such as payment gateways, social media
platforms, and data analytics tools.

Examples of Web APIs

 RESTful APIs: These APIs follow REST (Representational State Transfer) principles, which emphasize
stateless interactions and a uniform interface. They typically use JSON for data exchange.
 SOAP APIs: These APIs use the Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) for communication. They are more
rigid and require a specific message structure, often using XML.
 GraphQL APIs: A modern API design that allows clients to request specific data and aggregate responses
in a single request.

WEB API USING CRUD EXAMPLE

Here’s a simple explanation of how to create a Web API that can manage a collection of books using CRUD
operations (Create, Read, Update, Delete). This example uses ASP.NET Core.

What is a Web API?

A Web API allows different applications to talk to each other over the internet. In this case, we will build an API
to manage books, so other applications can add, get, update, and delete book information.

Step-by-Step Guide
Step 1: Create the Project

1. Open Visual Studio and create a new project.

2. Choose ASP.NET Core Web Application.
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3. Select the API template to create a Web API project.

Step 2: Define the Book Model

This model represents a book with some properties:

// Book.cs
public class Book
{
public int Id { get; set; } // Unique ID for the book
public string Title { get; set; } // Title of the book
public string Author { get; set; } // Author of the book
public string ISBN { get; set; } // ISBN number of the book
}
Step 3: Create a Data Store

We'll use a simple list to store the books in memory. In real applications, you would use a database.

// BookStore.cs
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;

public static class BookStore

{
private static List<Book> books = new List<Book>(); // List to store books
private static int nextId = 1; // ID counter

public static List<Book> GetAllBooks() => books; // Get all books

public static Book GetBook(int id) => books.FirstOrDefault(b => b.Id == id); // Get a book by ID

public static void AddBook(Book book)

{
book.Id = nextId++; // Assign a new ID to the book
books.Add(book); // Add the book to the list
}

public static void UpdateBook(Book book)

{
var existingBook = GetBook(book.Id); // Find the book to update
if (existingBook != null)
{
existingBook.Title = book.Title;
existingBook.Author = book.Author;
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existingBook.ISBN = book.ISBN;
}
}

public static void DeleteBook(int id)

{
var book = GetBook(id); // Find the book to delete
if (book != null)
{
books.Remove(book); // Remove the book from the list
}
}
}
Step 4: Create the Books Controller

This controller will handle the requests for books.

// BooksController.cs
using Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc;

[Route("api/[controller]")]
[ApiController]
public class BooksController : ControllerBase
{
[HttpGet]
public ActionResult<List<Book>> GetAllBooks()
{
return BookStore.GetAllBooks(); // Return all books
}

[HttpGet("{id}")]
public ActionResult<Book> GetBook(int id)
{
var book = BookStore.GetBook(id);
if (book == null)
{
return NotFound(); // Return 404 if the book is not found
}
return book; // Return the found book
}

[HttpPost]
public ActionResult<Book> AddBook(Book book)
{
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BookStore.AddBook(book); // Add a new book

return CreatedAtAction(nameof(GetBook), new { id = book.Id }, book); // Return the created book
}

[HttpPut("{id}")]
public IActionResult UpdateBook(int id, Book book)
{
if (id != book.Id)
{
return BadRequest(); // Return 400 if IDs don't match
}
BookStore.UpdateBook(book); // Update the book
return NoContent(); // Return 204 No Content
}

[HttpDelete("{id}")]
public IActionResult DeleteBook(int id)
{
BookStore.DeleteBook(id); // Delete the book
return NoContent(); // Return 204 No Content
}
}
Step 5: Configure the Application

In your project, make sure to configure it to use controllers. This is usually done in the Startup.cs file:

public void ConfigureServices(IServiceCollection services)

{
services.AddControllers(); // Add support for controllers
}

public void Configure(IApplicationBuilder app, IWebHostEnvironment env)

{
if (env.IsDevelopment())
{
app.UseDeveloperExceptionPage(); // Show detailed errors in development
}

app.UseRouting(); // Enable routing

app.UseEndpoints(endpoints =>
{
endpoints.MapControllers(); // Map controller endpoints
});
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}
Step 6: Testing the API

You can test the API using tools like Postman. Here are examples of how to use it:

1. Create a Book (POST)

Request:

POST /api/books
Content-Type: application/json

{
"title": "The Great Gatsby",
"author": "F. Scott Fitzgerald",
"ISBN": "9780743273565"
}

Response: The API will return the created book with a status of 201 Created.

2. Get All Books (GET)

Request:

GET /api/books

Response: The API will return a list of all books.

3. Get a Book by ID (GET)

Request:

GET /api/books/1

Response: The API will return the book with ID 1.

4. Update a Book (PUT)

Request:

PUT /api/books/1
Content-Type: application/json
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{
"id": 1,
"title": "The Great Gatsby - Updated",
"author": "F. Scott Fitzgerald",
"ISBN": "9780743273565"
}

Response: The API will return 204 No Content, meaning the update was successful.

5. Delete a Book (DELETE)

Request:

DELETE /api/books/1

Response: The API will return 204 No Content, indicating the book has been deleted.

Summary

This example shows how to create a simple Web API to manage books using ASP.NET Core. You can create,
read, update, and delete books through HTTP requests. This allows your applications to manage book data
easily.