CE F244

Highway Engineering

Dr. Nishant Bhargava

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Module 4
Pavement Materials
Contents
• Aggregates
• Bitumen
• Bituminous Mixture
 Design
 Testing

3
References

4
Aggregates
• Types of aggregates
• Production and storage of aggregates
• Sampling of aggregates
• Desirable properties of aggregates
• Aggregate testing

5
Why do we Need Aggregates ??
• Resist wear due to abrasive action of traffic
• Resist deterioration due to weathering
• Resist highest magnitude of wheel load stresses

6
Types of Aggregates
Natural aggregate Crushed rock,
Mineral sources sands and gravel

Aggregate Manufactured aggregate

Blast furnace slag
types Industrial process

Recycled aggregate
Reclaimed asphalt
Used in construction

7
Production of Aggregates
• Processed in stone quarries
o Boulder broken into smaller parts
 Earth moving equipment
 Explosion
o Further broken into smaller pieces for achieving suitable gradations
 Crushers
• Aggregates
o Screened through different sieves
o Batching

8
Stone Quarry Aggregate Quarry

9
Simple Quarry Set-up

10
Storage of Aggregates

11
Storage of Aggregates

12
Sampling of Aggregates for Testing
1. Loader enters stockpile with bucket 4. Sampling pad – Draw sample portions from each
≈ 150 mm above ground level quadrant

2. Loader gently rolls the material out 3. Loader reaches across the small pile,
of bucket to form a small pile lowers bucker & back-drags small pile

13
Desirable Properties of Aggregates
• Strength » Resistance to crushing
• Hardness » Resistance to abrasion & attrition
• Toughness » Resistance to impact
• Durability » Resistance to action of weather
• Shape » Measure of angularity, flakiness & elongation
• Water absorption » Measure of affinity of aggregates to absorb water
• Cleanliness » Measure of dust coatings on aggregate particles
• Adhesion with Bitumen » Stripping resistance of bitumen from aggregate surface
• Polish Characteristics » Resistance to polishing

14
 Specification Limits (MoRTH, 2014)
Property Test
BC DBM WMM GSB
Grain size analysis
Cleanliness (dust) Max 5% Max 5% -- --
(% passing 0.075 mm)
Combined Flakiness and
Particle shape Max 35% Max 35% Max 35% --
Elongation Index
Los Angeles Abrasion Value Max 30% Max 35% Max 40% --
Strength
or Aggregate Impact Value Max 24% Max 27% Max 30% Max 40
Soundness
Durability Sodium Sulphate Max 12% Max 12% -- --
Magnesium Sulphate Max 18% Max 18%
Polishing Polished Stone Value min. 55 -- -- --
Water Absorption Water Absorption Max 2% Max 2% Max 2% Max 2%
Stripping of Bituminous Mix
Stripping Min. 95% Min. 95% -- --
(% retained coating)
Water Sensitivity Retained Tensile Strength** Min. 80% Min. 80% -- --
Cleanliness – Materials finer than 75 μm
IS 2386-1: Determination of total quantity of material passing 75 μm sieve, i.e., claylike
materials in aggregates.

Procedure
• Place oven-dried aggregates in container
• Add water and agitate
• Pour sample onto 1.18 mm + 75 μm sieve
• Repeat until wash water is clear

Source: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/jrbzSDEzHjA/maxresdefault.jpg

16
Particle Shape

(a) Angular crushed stone. (b) Flaky crushed stone. (c) Elongate crushed stone. (d) Round river gravel

17
Flakiness and Elongation Index

18
Angularity Number
IS 2386-1: Angularity is the absence of rounding of the particles of an aggregate.
Angularity number of an aggregate is the amount (to the higher whole number) by
which the percentage of voids in it after compacting in a prescribed manner exceeds 33,
where 33 is the % of volume of voids in a perfectly rounded aggregate.

Procedure
• 10 kg oven dried aggregate of predominant size
• Pour sample in cylinder = 3 layers
 Tamping = 100 blows, 5 cm height
• Fill cylinder with water and weigh
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝑾
𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟔𝟕 −
𝑪×𝑮
19
Strength

20
Durability – Soundness Test
IS 2386-5: Soundness test is used to determine the resistance of aggregates to degradation
when exposed to weathering, i.e., wetting-drying and/or freezing-thawing.

Sodium Sulphate Solution

Reagents

Magnesium Sulphate Solution

21
Durability – Soundness Test
Fine aggregates Coarse aggregates

• Min. sample for each sieve = 100 g

• In terms of gradation, amount ≥ 5%

22
Durability – Soundness Test
Procedure
• Immersion: Sample in solution = 16-18 hrs at 27 ± 1°C
• Drying: Remove from solution ⇒ Oven dry at 105-110°C for 4-18 hrs
• Number of cycles: Repeat immersion and drying (MoRT&H = 5 cycles)
• After final cycle, wash with BaCl2 + water
• Oven dry and sieve to determine loss

23
Polishing – Polished Stone Value
IS 2386-4: Polished-stone value
gives a relative measure of the
extent to which different types
of aggregates in the wearing
surface will polish under traffic
Test conducted in 2 parts
• Accelerated polishing
• Friction test

24
Polishing – Polished Stone Value
Materials
• Hard siliceous sand – 2.5 kg • Air-floated emery powder – 350 g

Sieve size, mm % passing, by weight Sieve size, mm % passing, by weight

0.425 100 0.06 100
0.300 85-100 0.002 70-100
0.212 20-50
0.150 0-5

25
Polishing – Polished Stone Value
Specimen
• Aggregates = 3 kg of 10 to 8 mm
• Mount aggregate in a sand-cement mortar placed on the mold
• Single layer of 40 to 50 particles, area 90.5 × 44.5 mm

Procedure – Accelerated Polishing of Specimens

• Rigidly clamp 14 specimen on wheel of machine
• Pneumatic tyred wheel = 40 kg rotated at 300-325 rev/min
• Feed sand 12 g/min + water 20 g/min for 3 hours
• Clean. Feed emery powder 2 g/min + water 5 g/min for 3 hours.
• Clean machine and specimen. Test for friction.

26
Polishing – Polished Stone Value
Procedure – Friction test
• Level instrument – Leveling screws
• Zero adjustment – No obstruction, pointer reaches 0
• Slide Length Adjustment – Slider moves over
specimen for 75 mm length
• Testing – Wet surface.
Make 5 swings.

27
Polishing – Polished Stone Value
Calculations
Mean of the two values of the coefficient of friction, expressed as a percentage

𝑊𝑋𝑍
𝜇= × 100
𝑃𝐷𝑝

𝜇 =
Effective coefficient of friction, %
𝑊 =
Weight of the swinging arm, kg
𝑋 =
Distance of effective centre of gravity of the arm from the centre of oscillation, cm
𝑍 =
Vertical distance of the edge of the scale below the zero of the scale, ,which shall be 10 mm
below the horizontal when the arm is released to swing freely from the horizontal
𝑃 = Normal load on the slider, kg
𝐷 = Sliding distance, cm
𝑝 = Length of the pointer, cm
28
Adhesion With Bitumen – Stripping Test
IS 6241: Assessment of the property of adhesion of aggregates with different types of
bituminous binders so that the suitability of aggregates could be ascertained.

29
Adhesion With Bitumen – Stripping Test
Procedure
• 200 g oven-dry aggregate within 20-12.5 mm
• Heat aggregate to 150°C and bitumen to 160°C
• Add 5% bitumen and mix
• Cool for 2 hours
• Immerse in water for 24 hours at 40°C
Source: https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/stripping-value-test-road-aggregates/8597/

• Remove water
• Examine coating visually

30
Gradation and Size
• Grading: Process of arranging aggregates based on their size
• Aggregate gradation: Particle-size distribution of an aggregate – Sieve analysis

Classification of Aggregates based on Size (IS 1498, 1970)

Sand Gravel
Clay Silt Cobble Boulder
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse

20

200
0.002

4.75
0.425

80
2
0.075

Particle size in millimeters

31
Important Terminologies
MoRT&H Asphalt Institute MS-2

Nominal maximum Largest specified sieve size upon One sieve size larger than the first
aggregate size which any of the aggregate sieve size to retain more than 10%
(NMAS) material is retained. of the aggregate gradation

Smallest sieve size through which

Maximum size of
One sieve size larger than NMAS 100% of the aggregate pass. One
aggregate
sieve size larger than NMAS

32
Sieve Analysis
Procedure used to assess the particle size distribution
(gradation) of a granular material by allowing the material
to pass through a series of sieves of progressively smaller
mesh size and weighing the amount of material that is
stopped by each sieve as a fraction of the whole mass

Source: www.particletechlabs.com

33
Sieve Analysis – Calculations
Sieve Size, Weight Cumulative
• Sieve according to gradation requirements % retained
mm retained, g % passing
• Calculate % retained 19 0 0.0 100.0

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆 13.2 55.5 4.8 95.2

% 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 9.5
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 102.2 8.8 86.4

For 2.36 mm, % 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 =

288.2
× 100 = 24.8% 4.75 376.2 32.4 54.0
1159.9
2.36 288.2 24.8 29.1
• Calculate cumulative % passing 1.18 179.5 15.5 13.6
𝑪𝒖𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 % 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 0.6 86.8 7.5 6.2
= 𝑪𝒖𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 % 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆 0.3 25.7 2.2 3.9
− % 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆
0.15 11.5 1.0 3.0
For 2.36 mm sieve, % 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 54.0 − 24.8 = 29.1%
0.075 10.6 0.9 2.0
Pan 23.7 2.0
Total Weight 1159.9
34
Sieve Analysis – Graphical Representation
Sieve Size, Cumulative 100
mm % passing
19 100.0 80

Cumulative % passing
13.2 95.2
9.5 86.4 60

4.75 54.0
40
2.36 29.1
1.18 13.6
20
0.6 6.2
0.3 3.9 0
0.15 3.0 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0.075 2.0 Sieve size, mm (log scale)

35
Typical Aggregate Gradations
100
Uniformly-graded • Well graded/Dense graded
Cumulative % passing

Material present in all sieve sizes

80
• Uniformly or poorly graded
60 Gap-graded Most of the particles are
approximately of the same size
40
Well-graded
• Gap graded
20 At least one particle size is
completely missing
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve size, mm (log-scale)

36
Maximum Density Curves
Fuller’s Curve
𝒏
𝒅𝒊
𝒑𝒊 = 𝒏 = 0.50
𝑫

• Produces highest density & lowest void content

FHWA Maximum Density Curve

• In 1962 FHWA published a modified version
of Fuller’s equation with a different exponent
𝟎.𝟒𝟓
𝟎.𝟒𝟓 𝒅
𝒅𝒊 𝒑𝒊 = % passing 𝑖 𝑡ℎ
sieve 𝑷=
𝒑𝒊 = 𝒅𝒊 = Opening size of 𝑖 𝑡ℎ sieve 𝑫
𝑫 𝑫 = Maximum particle size
Source: Asphalt Institute MS-2

37
Blending of Aggregates

Stockpile A Stockpile B Stockpile C Aggregate Blend

How much proportion of Stockpile A, B and C

should be added to get desired aggregate blend ???

38
Blending of Aggregates
Trial and error method

𝑷=𝑨×𝒂+𝑩×𝒃+𝑪×𝒄+⋯

𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 = % passing for individual stockpile

𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 = Proportion of stockpile

𝒂+𝒃+𝒄+⋯=𝟏

39
Blending of Aggregates
Trial and error method Sieve Required gradation Stockpiles
Blended
Size,
• For 0.075 mm sieve mm
Lower Upper Mid Source Source Source gradation
Limit Limit Point A B C
7 = 0 × 𝑎 + 4 × 𝑏 + 21 × 𝑐
⇒ 4𝑏 + 21𝑐 = 7 19 100 100 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
13.2 90 100 95.0 86.0 100.0 100.0 95.0
• For 0.15 mm sieve
9.5 70 88 79.0 43.9 98.0 100.0 79.0
16 = 0 × 𝑎 + 6 × 𝑏 + 52.7 × 𝑐
⇒ 6𝑏 + 52.7𝑐 = 16 4.75 53 71 62.0 16.3 79.4 100.0 62.0
2.36 42 58 50.0 8.7 54.8 100.0 50.0
• Solve both equations
1.18 34 48 41.0 0.0 39.5 100.0 41.0
𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 ; 𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1 ⇒ 𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔 0.6 26 38 32.0 0.0 25.0 86.7 32.0
0.3 18 28 23.0 0.0 12.0 71.0 23.0
• Check for other sieves
0.15 12 20 16.0 0.0 6.0 52.7 16.0
Within lower and upper limit;
0.075 4 10 7.0 0.0 4.0 21.0 7.0
Close to mid-point
40
Blending of Aggregates
Using optimization tool SOLVER
• Microsoft Excel add-in program used for WHAT-IF analysis
• Data required
 Objective function
Minimize sum of squared error between blended and desired gradation
 Variables to be modified
Proportions of stockpile
 Constraints
Sum of proportions of all stockpiles = 1
Blended gradation is within desired range of gradation

41
Bitumen
IS 334 (2023)
A class of black or dark colored viscous material having adhesive and
waterproofing properties, derived from crude petroleum by refinery
processes or present in natural asphalt, completely or nearly completely
soluble in toluene

42
How Bitumen Behaves
• Bitumen behavior depends on temperature and time of loading

• Flow behavior of one bitumen

could be same for 1 hr at 60° C or
10 hr at 25°C
• Time and temperature are
interchangeable
 High temperature and short
time is equivalent to lower
temperature and longer times

43
Desirable Properties of Bitumen
• Adequate viscosity during mixing and compaction
• Sufficiently viscous on cooling to resist deformation under traffic
• Form ductile thin film around aggregates
• Not highly temperature susceptible
• Adhesion with aggregates

44
Physical Properties of Bitumen

Consistency : Degree of fluidity of bitumen at a particular temperature

Durability : Effect of ageing on the properties of bitumen

Tests on
Bitumen
Purity : Detect adulteration of bitumen

Safety : Detect presence of volatiles for safety considerations

45
Consistency Tests
• Bitumen – Thermoplastic material
 Consistency varies with temperature
 Testing – Same temperature and shear loading conditions

Softening Point

Penetration
Consistency tests
Absolute Viscosity

Kinematic Viscosity

46
Softening Point

47
Penetration

48
Absolute Viscosity
IS 1206 (Part II): It is an internal friction, such that if a
tangential force of one dyne (0.00001 N) acting on planes of unit
area separated by unit distance of the liquid produces unit
tangential velocity, in Poise

Cannon-Manning Vacuum
Capillary Viscometer
49
Kinematic Viscosity
IS 1206 (Part III): Quotient of the absolute or dynamic
viscosity divided by the density of the liquid under test; both
at the same temperature, in stoke (dimensions = cm2/sec).

Cannon-Fenske Opaque Viscometer

for Opaque and Transparent Liquids
50
Kinematic Viscosity
Testing Conditions
• Bitumen content = Invert viscometer. Insert
tube N in liquid. Apply suction to fill mark G
• Conditioning = 30 min at 135°C
• Flow of sample = Gravity

Measurements
• Time required for the leading edge of the
meniscus to pass from timing mark E to F

51
Kinematic Viscosity
ASTM D4402 - Rotational Viscometer: The torque
on the apparatus-measuring geometry, rotating in a
thermostatically controlled sample holder containing
a sample of asphalt, is used to measure the relative
resistance to rotation.

52
Kinematic Viscosity

53
Kinematic Viscosity
Testing Conditions
• Bitumen content = 8-10 g
• Conditioning = 15 min sample chamber
and 10 min bitumen in chamber
• Resisting torque = 10 to 98% of
instrument capacity
Viscometer Digital Displays
Measurements
• Measure either the viscosity or the torque at
1-min intervals for a total of three minutes

54
 Durability
Ageing
Increase in stiffness or hardening of bitumen during production and in-service of pavement

Short-term ageing
Loss of volatiles and oxidation of
bitumen during mixing, transportation,
laying and compaction of bituminous
mixture at elevated temperatures
Long-term ageing
Hardening of bitumen throughout
the pavement service life due to its
interaction with the environment
Source: Notani et al. (2021)

55
Durability Tests
Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT)
Short-term aging
Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT)
Durability
tests

Long-term aging Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV)

56
Rolling Thin Film Oven
IS 15799: Indicates approx. change in properties of
asphalt during conventional hot-mixing at about
150°C as indicated by viscosity and rheological
measurements

57
Rolling Thin Film Oven
Testing conditions
• Bitumen content = 35 g • Temperature = 163 ± 1°C for 85 min
• Air flow = 4000 ml/min • Rotation = 15 rev/min

Quantify amount of hardening in terms of reduction on penetration or increase in viscosity

Assess ductility of bitumen
58
Purity
• Pure bitumen – Entirely soluble in carbon disulfide or trichloroethylene
• Purity test
 Solubility in trichloroethylene
o Carbon disulfide ⇒ Flammable and presents safety hazard
 Detect adulteration in bitumen during delivery or otherwise
• Implications of impurities in bitumen
 Impurities not active cementing constituents
 Lower bitumen content in HMA

59
Solubility in Trichloroethylene
IS 1216 – Determination of the degree of solubility in
Gooch Crucible trichloroethylene of bitumen having little or no mineral
Rubber Tubing matter. The portion that is soluble in trichloroethylene
Filter Tube
represents the active cementing constituents

Neoprene Stopper Testing conditions

• Material – 2 g bitumen in 100 ml trichloroethylene
Filter flask
• Conditioning of sample – Stir and rest for 1 hour
• Test – Sample filtered through glass fiber pad
• Drying of crucible – 30 min in air + 1 hr in oven at 105°C

60
Spot Test
AASHTO M102 – Spot test is used to
determine if an asphaltic material has
been overheated during processing,
i.e., cracked bitumen

Testing conditions
• Material = 2 g bitumen in 10 ml naphtha
• Temperature = 32°C for 15 min before test
• Timing = One after 1 hr and other after 24 hr
Measurement
Uniformly brown circular stain ⇒ Uncracked bitumen
61
Safety
• Heating of bitumen to elevated temperature
 Formation of vapours
 Ignite in the presence of a spark or open flame

Flash point Fire point

Lowest temperature at which application Lowest temperature at which application
of a test flame causes the vapour of the of a test flame causes the vapour of the
test portion to ignite and the flame to test portion to ignite and sustain burning
propagate across the surface of the liquid, for a minimum of 5 s under the specified
under the specified conditions of test conditions of test

62
Flash Point
IS 1448-69: Cleveland open cup method. Detect presence
of some volatiles like kerosene in bitumen.
Test conditions
• Heating rate = 14-17°C/min initially ; 5-7°C/min when
temperature is 23°C below expected flash point
• Application of test flame = Every 2°C (final stage)

63
Ductility

64
Specific Gravity
Ratio of the mass of the material at a given temperature to the mass of an
equal volume of water at the same temperature

A B C D

Empty Pycnometer Pycnometer Pycnometer +

pycnometer + water + bitumen bitumen + water

𝐶−𝐴
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐵−𝐴 − 𝐷−𝐶

Used in converting weight to volume

65
Specification Limits

66
Bitumen Grading System – History
Grading by chewing Viscosity grading
Based on stiffness at 37°C Based on stiffness at 60°C
Chewing in mouth Absolute viscosity test

Late 19th
century
1903 1970s 1993

Penetration grading Performance grading

Based on stiffness at 25°C Based on climate and traffic
Penetration test Rheological tests

67
Bitumen Grading System

68
Bitumen Grading – India : IS 73
1950 First Revision 1992 Third Revision 2013
Accommodated IS Grading changed
1201-1220 (1958) from penetration to
Methods for testing viscosity grading
tar and bitumen. system
Paving grades
introduced.

Specification for Second Revision Fourth Revision

asphaltic bitumen Accommodate Increased emphasis
and fluxed mastic revised IS 1201- on viscosity at 60°C.
asphalt for road 1220 (1978): Waxy Provision of
making purposes viscosity range and
1961 and non-waxy crude 2006 minimum
grades
penetration value

69
Penetration Grading
• H.C. Bowen in 1888 invented penetration machine
• Grading system – Based on penetration test
 Greater the penetration ⇒ Softer the bitumen

Penetration grades for bitumen

ASTM D946 IS 73 (1992)
 40-50 (Hardest bitumen grade)  Type S
 60-70 o S35, S45, S55, S65, S90, S200
 85-100  Type A
 120-150 o A35, A55, A65, A90
 200-300 (Softest bitumen grade)

70
Advantages of Penetration Grading
• Test done at average service temperature
• Easy test, inexpensive equipment
• Special ovens or water baths aren’t required ⇒ Test at room temperature

71
Limitations of Penetration Grading
• Empirical test
• Can’t be used effectively for polymer
modified bitumen
• Similitude at 25°C ⇒ Doesn’t capture
temperature susceptibility
• Doesn’t specifically address aging
• No bitumen viscosity available near
mixing and compaction temperature 25°C

72
Viscosity Grading
• Early 1960s : Development of viscosity grading (based on viscosity at 60°C)
 Replacement of empirical test by a fundamental test
 60°C – Average max surface temperature in US during hot summers

Viscosity grades for bitumen

ASTM D3381 IS 73 (2013)
 AC-2.5 ; AC-5 ; AC-10 ; AC-20 ; AC-30 ; AC-40  VG-10 ; VG-20 ; VG-30 ; VG-40

73
Viscosity Grading

– 25°C 25°C 60°C 135°C

74
Viscosity Grading
Viscosity Grade General Applications

Use in highly stressed areas (intersections,

VG-40
near toll booths, and truck parking lots) in
(40/60 penetration)
lieu of old 30/40 penetration grade

VG-30 Use for paving in most of India in lieu of

(50/70 penetration) old 60/70 penetration grade

VG-20 Use for paving in cold climatic, high

(60/80 penetration) altitude regions of North India

Use in spraying applications and for paving

VG-10
in very cold climate in lieu of old 80/100
(80/100 penetration)
penetration grade

75
Advantages of Viscosity Grading
• Wide range of temperature
 25°C – Penetration ⇒ Raveling/fatigue cracking resistance
 60°C – Absolute viscosity ⇒ Rutting
 135°C – Kinematic viscosity ⇒ Construction, minimize potential of tender mix
• Same viscosity grade ⇒ Similar rutting performance in hot summer
• Min. penetration & kinematic viscosity ⇒ Temperature susceptibility
• Mixing and compaction temperature

76
Limitations of Viscosity Grading
• Grading at 60°C is deceptive to performance at average or low service temperatures
• Test is expensive and time consuming
• TFOT residue viscosity can vary considerably within the same grade

77
Shortcoming – Bitumen Grading System
 Bitumen can have different
temperature and performance
within the same grade
 Long term aging not considered
 Not applicable to modified
binders
 Same test temperatures
irrespective of project location

78
Superpave Performance Grading (PG)
• SUPERPAVE = Superior Performing Asphalt Pavement
• Development of performance based grading system for bitumen
 Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP)
 50 million dollar, 5 year program (1987-1992)
 Based on engineering principles to address common pavement distress issues
• Asphalt binder grades are specified primarily with respect to pavement temperatures

PG 64 - 22
Min pavement
Performance temperature
Grade
Average 7-day max
pavement temperature
79
PG Specification Tests

Rheology Fundamental properties related to HMA performance

Test Parameters Selected to represent in-service & construction temperatures

Bitumen Conditioning Environment factors – Short-term and long-term aging

80
Rheological Tests
Construction
Rutting
Fatigue
Low-temperature
cracking

-20 25 60 135

81
Performance Grading – ASTM D6373

82
Purpose of Specification Limits
Specification requirements to control workability during construction

Specification requirements to control rutting

Specification requirements to control fatigue cracking

Specification requirements to control low-temperature cracking

83
Modification of Bitumen
Polymer Modified Bitumen
Bituminous binder whose rheological properties have been modified during manufacture
by the use of one or more organic polymers.

Rubberized Bitumen
Bituminous binder whose rheological properties have been modified during manufacture
by the use of one or more chemical agents. Such chemical agents include crumb rubber,
natural rubber, synthetic polymers, waxes, and sulphur

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Modification of Bitumen
Why is modification required ??
 Increase in rainfall and temperature variations
 Increases in axle weight, tyre pressures and freight movement
 Tendency to use thinner layers in pavements
 Reduce frequency of maintenance

Basis of choice of modified bitumen

 Traffic
 Climate
 Life cycle cost analysis

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Advantages of Modified Bitumen
One or more of the following
• Lower susceptibility to temperature variations
• Higher resistance to deformation at high pavement temperature
• Delay of cracking and reflective cracking
• Better age resistance properties
• Better adhesion between aggregates and binder
• Higher fatigue life of mixes
• Overall improved performance

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General Requirements of Modifiers
Selected polymers/rubbers or its blend should have the following properties
• Compatible with bitumen
• Resist degradation at mixing temperature
• Capable of being processed by conventional mixing and laying machinery
• Produce coating viscosity at application temperature
• Maintain premium properties during storage, application and in service
• Capable of providing homogeneous blend with bitumen

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Classification of Polymer Modified Bitumen
Polymer modified bitumen (PMB) shall be classified into five grades
• Grade PMB 64-10
• Grade PMB 70-10
Based on average maximum pavement temperature
• Grade PMB 76-10
and minimum pavement temperature
• Grade PMB 82-10
• Grade PMB 76-22

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Testing of PMB
• Traditional bitumen tests
• Special tests
 Storage stability for phase separation
 Elastic recovery
 Multiple stress and creep recovery

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Specification
Limits

90
Specification
Limits

91
Specification Limits

92
What is an Emulsion ?
Emulsions are MIXTURES
of two immiscible liquids,
such as oil and water,
STABILIZED by an
EMULSIFIER

• Droplets in a continuous phase

• E.g. : Milk, mayonnaise, ice cream, salad dressing, skin creams, paints etc.

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Bitumen Emulsion
A liquid product in which a substantial amount of bitumen is dispersed in a finely divided
droplets in an aqueous medium containing an emulsifier and a stabilizer (IS 334, 2002)

Components
• Bitumen – Dispersed phase
• Water – Continuous phase
• Emulsifier – Surfactant
• Acid/Base
• Additives

Mechanical Energy – Shear (colloid mill)

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Composition of Bitumen Emulsion

Water • Bitumen = 40-70%

• Water = 30-50%
• Emulsifier = 0.2-4%
Bitumen
• Additives = 0-5%

Emulsifier
Additives

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Why Use Bitumen Emulsion ?
• Ease of handling and storage
• Safety
• Low fumes, low volatiles (VOC)
• Save energy
• Low cost in-place/on-site techniques
• Easily mixed with latex or cement
 Composite binders
• Water dilutable
 Accurate dosing
• Deferred set

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Classification of Bitumen Emulsion
Based on sign of the charge on the droplets and reactivity
Emulsion type Property
Cationic (C) Positively charged droplets
Anionic Negatively charged droplets
Rapid Setting (RS) Set quickly in contact with clean aggregates of low-surface area
Medium Setting (MS) Set sufficiently less quickly; Can be mixed with aggregates of low surface area
Slow Setting (SS) Mix with reactive aggregates of high surface area
Quick Setting (QS) Intermediate in reactivity between MS and SS

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Classification of Bitumen Emulsion
Based on viscosity and residue properties
Emulsion type Property
Number Emulsion viscosity (1 – low viscosity)
Text Residue properties (h – hard asphalt residue)

Based on modifications, if any

Emulsion type Property
P or LM Polymer-modified or latex-modified asphalt emulsion
S High solvent content
AEP and PEP Asphalt Emulsion Prime and Penetrating Emulsion Prime
ERA Recycling Agent Emulsion

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Classification of Bitumen Emulsion

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Bitumen Emulsion Testing
Sampling Marking
• From Drums or Barrels • Indication of the source of
 Roll container – To and fro : 2-3 min manufacture
• Drawing emulsion sample • Month and year of manufacture
 Within 24 h after delivery • Type/Grade
 Testing within 7 days from the date • Batch Number
of drawing. • Date of expiry

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Tests on Bitumen Emulsion
Tests on Bitumen Emulsion Tests on Bitumen Emulsion Residue
• Residue by evaporation or distillation • Penetration 25°C/100g/5 sec
• Residue on 600 micron IS Sieve • Ductility 27°C/cm
• Viscosity by Saybolt Furol Viscometer • Solubility in trichloroethylene
• Coagulation of emulsion at low
temperature
Coagulation at low temperature: Applicable
• Storage stability, after 24 hours/5 days when ambient temperature < 15°C
• Particle charge Solubility: Determined on distillation residue
• Coating ability and water resistance at 360°C
• Stability to mixing with cement

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 Cationic Emulsion – IS 8887, 2018
S. Grade of Emulsion
Characteristics
No. RS-1 RS-2 MS SS-1 SS-2
1. Residue on 600 micron sieve, % by mass, max. 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
2. Viscosity by Saybolt Furol Viscometer, seconds
a) at 25°C --- --- --- 20-100 30-150
b) at 50°C 20-100 100-300 50-300 --- ---
3. Coagulation of emulsion at low temperature Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
4. Storage stability after 24 h, %, max. 2 1 1 2 2
5. Particle charge Positive Positive Positive --- Positive
6. Coating ability and water resistance
a) Coating, dry aggregate --- --- Good --- ---
b) Coating, after spraying --- --- Fair --- ---
c) Coating, wet aggregate --- --- Fair --- ---
d) Coating, after spraying --- --- Fair --- ---
7. Stability to mixing with cement, % coagulation, max. --- --- --- --- 2

(contd.)
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 Cationic Emulsion – IS 8887, 2018
S. Grade of Emulsion
Characteristics
No. RS-1 RS-2 MS SS-1 SS-2
8. Miscibility with water No No No No
Immiscible
coagulation coagulation coagulation coagulation
9. Residue by evaporation, %, min. 60 67 65 --- 60
10. Tests on residue
a) Penetration 25°C/100g/5 sec 80-150 80-150 60-150 --- 60-120
b) Ductility 27°C/cm, min. 50 50 50 --- 50
c) Solubility in trichloroethylene, % by mass, min. 98 98 98 98 98
11. Distillation, % volume of distillate recovered at 360°C at
a) 190°C --- --- --- 20-55 ---
b) 225°C --- --- --- 30-75 ---
c) 260°C --- --- --- 40-90 ---
d) 316°C --- --- --- 60-100 ---
e) Residue at 360°C, %, min. --- --- --- 50 ---
12. Water content, % by mass, max. --- --- --- 20 ---

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 Anionic Emulsion – IS 3117, 2004
S. Grade of Emulsion
Characteristics
No. RS MS SS
1. Viscosity at 25°C by Saybolt Furol Viscometer, seconds 20-100 20-100 20-100
2. Residue by evaporation, % by mass, min. 65 65 57
3. Storage stability after 5 days, %, max. 3 3 3
4. Demulsibility, 35 ml of 0.02 N CaCl, %, min. 60 --- ---
5. Miscibility in water, coagulation in 2 hour --- Nil ---
6. Modified miscibility with water (difference of bitumen content), max. --- --- 4.5
7. Stability to mixing with cement, %, max. --- --- 2.0
8. Coating ability and water resistance
a) Coating, dry aggregate --- Good ---
b) Coating, after spraying --- Fair ---
c) Coating, wet aggregate --- Fair ---
d) Coating, after spraying --- Fair ---
9. Sieve test, % by mass, max. 0.10 0.10 0.5
10. Particle charge Negative Negative Negative
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Cutback Bitumen
Petroleum bitumen whose viscosity is
reduced by the addition of a cutback solvent
derived from petroleum

Curing process
Solvent from the bituminous material will
evaporate and the bitumen will bind the
aggregate

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Classification of Cutback Bitumen
Rapid Curing (RC) Used with aggregates
RC-70 ; RC-250 ;
Blend of bitumen with a having nothing passing
2.36 mm sieve RC-800 ; RC-3000
naphtha type distillate

Medium Curing (MC) Used with aggregates MC-30 ; MC-70 ;

Cutback
Blend of bitumen with a having < 40% passing MC-250 ; MC-800 ;
Bitumen 2.36 mm sieve
kerosene type distillate MC-3000

Slow Curing (SC) Used with aggregates

SC-70 ; SC-250 ;
Blend of bitumen with a having > 20% passing
2.36 mm sieve SC-800 ; SC-3000
light oil type distillate

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Composition of Cutback Bitumen

Note: Grading is based on viscosity at 60°C

107
Specification Limits – IS 217

108
Specification Limits – IS 217

109
Specification Limits – IS 217

110