Q1-1

Theory

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Permanent magnets (10 points)

Strong permanent magnets are made from NdFeB alloy which obeys a very wide hysteresis loop so that
the magnetization 𝐽 can be assumed to be constant over a wide range of applications; in what follows,
2
we assume that 𝐽 ≡ 1.5 T/𝜇0 , where 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 N/A , and the magnetization of all the permanent
magnets is homogeneous. Magnetization is defined as the volume density of the magnetic dipole moment
of the matter.
Hint 1. The following equality might be useful:

∞
1 𝜋4
∑ = .
𝑛=1
𝑛4 90

Hint 2.The magnetic field created by a spherical magnet is identical to that of a point dipole. The magnetic
fields created by magnets of other shapes become equivalent to a point dipole fields only at distances
much larger than their diameter.
Hint 3. Electric and magnetic fields of electric and magnetic point dipoles as functions of coordinates and
of the corresponding dipole moment are similar, i.e. one can be obtained from the other by multiplying
it by a constant factor.
Hint 4. The induced field due to a boundary condition can always be replaced by some configuration of
field sources outside the given boundaries.

Part A. Interaction of magnets (4.5 points)

When the distance to a magnet is much larger than its size, the magnetic field created by it can be
approximated with the magnetic field of its dipole moment 𝑚,⃗

𝜇
𝐵⃗ = 0 3 (2𝑚⃗ ∥ − 𝑚⃗ ⟂ ).
4𝜋𝑟

Here 𝑟 = |𝑟|,⃗ and we have decomposed the dipole moment into components parallel and perpendicular
to the radius vector 𝑟 ⃗ drawn from the dipole to the observation point, 𝑚⃗ = 𝑚⃗ ⟂ + 𝑚⃗ ∥ .

A.1 Find the magnitude of the interaction force between two coaxially placed cylin- 0.6pt
drical magnets of diameter 𝑑 = 20 mm and thickness ℎ = 2 mm, magnetized
parallel to their axis, if the distance between the centres of the magnets is
𝐿 = 20 cm. You may assume that 𝐿 ≫ 𝑑, ℎ.

A.2 At distances much larger than ℎ2 , the field created by the magnet from task A.1 0.4pt
is the same as that created by a circular current 𝐼. Find 𝐼.
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Theory

English (Official)

A.3 Find the interaction force between the magnets for the setup of task A.1 if in- 1.0pt
stead 𝐿 = 5 mm. You may assume that 𝑑 ≫ 𝐿 ≫ ℎ.

A.4 Identical spherical magnets of diameter 𝛿 = 5 mm, bound together by magnetic 1.0pt
attraction, form a chain. What is the maximal length 𝑙 for such a chain which
does not break under its own weight when hanging beneath the topmost mag-
net? The density of NdFeB magnets 𝜌 = 7500 kg/m3 .

A.5 Consider the chain from part A.4. Obtain an expression for the magnitude of 1.5pt
the magnetic 𝐵-field at such a point 𝑃 which is at distance 𝑟 from one of the
chain's endpoint 𝑂, and the angle between the chain and the line 𝑂𝑃 is 𝜃 (cf.
figure below), assuming that 𝑙 ≫ 𝑟 and 𝑟 sin 𝜃 ≫ 𝛿
... ...

Part B. Interaction with ferromagnets (3.5 points)

Now we assume that in addition to the permanent magnets we have also plates made from a ferromag-
netic material, similar to what is used in transformer cores. In the situations we're concerned with, it can
be considered to have a constant but very large relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 ∼ 105 .
Hint 5. Large permeability means that magnetic field lines near the outside surface of an object made of
the material are nearly perpendicular to the surface. This is similar to the behavior of electric field lines
near the outside surface of a conductor.
 Q1-3
Theory

English (Official)

B.1 A spherical magnet from part A.4 is at a distance 𝑠 = 𝛿 from a thick infinite 1.0pt
ferromagnetic plate (see the answer sheet). The magnetization of the sphere is
oriented perpendicular to the plate. Sketch the field lines in the cross-section
shown in the answer sheet. In that figure, three points (denoted as 1, 2, and 3)
are marked; you need to show field lines passing through each of these points
in their full length, i.e. as much as fits into the figure.

B.2 Now the spherical magnet is brought into direct contact with the plate. Which 1.0pt
direction is taken by the magnetization vector of the spherical magnet at a sta-
ble equilibrium and what is the normal force between the plate and the magnet?
Mark the correct direction(s) with a tick in the corresponding box in the answer
sheet. Incorrect ticks will reduce your score.

B.3 Now a magnet from part A.1 is placed between two thick circular ferromagnetic 1.5pt
plates of diameter 𝐷 = 2𝑑 so that the flat faces of the magnet are pressed
against the plates and all three discs are coaxial. Find the magnetic force 𝐹
acting on each plate. Hint: You may neglect the magnetic field both outside the
ferromagnetic plates and outside the gap between them.

Part C. (Anti)ferromagnetic order (2 points)

The magnetic properties of materials are due to the magnetic dipole moments of electrons and atomic
nuclei. If the dipole moments orient themselves parallel to each other, the field created by them is magni-
fied — these are ferromagnetic materials. On the other hand, if for each dipole moment there is another
antiparallel dipole moment nearby, the fields cancel out — these are anti-ferromagnetic materials.
In what follows, we consider a very large number of spherical magnets of part A.4, arranged at the nodes
of a two-dimensional lattice; see real photos of stable equilibrium configurations below. Assume that
all the magnetization vectors lie in the plane of the figure. Consider in your calculations only nearest-
neighbour interactions (on the figure of C.1, each magnet has four nearest neighbours, and on the figure
of C.2 — six).
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Theory

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C.1 Show the magnetization directions of the magnets in the figure below. You 0.8pt
are not required to prove that the configuration you suggested is the only pos-
sibility. You still need to justify that the configuration you suggested is indeed
stable. Find the energy needed to pull one magnet out of this lattice from some-
where in the middle of the lattice, assuming the other magnets are kept sta-
tionary. Does this configuration correspond to the order of ferromagnetic or
antiferromagnetic materials?

C.2 Answer the same questions as in task C.1 for the configuration shown in the 1.2pt
figure below.
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James Webb Space Telescope (12 points)

This is a question on the physics of the James Webb Space Telescope. Light from a star strikes the primary
mirror, with an area of 𝐴mirror = 25 m2 , and reflects off of a secondary mirror. The focal length of the
system is 𝑓 = 130 m. The light is focused into the ISIM (Integrated Science Instrument Module), which
contains the CCD (charged-coupled device) cameras.

Image Credit: NASA

Part A. Imaging a Star (1.8 points)

The nearest Red Giant is 89 light-years distant, has a temperature of 𝑇star = 3600 K, and a diameter of
𝑑𝑜 = 1.7 × 1011 m.

A.1 Calculate the diameter of a focused image of the star on the CCD camera imag- 0.4pt
ing surface.

A.2 Estimate the diameter of a diffraction central maximum on the CCD camera 0.4pt
imaging surface. Assume a wavelength of 𝜆 = 800 nm, which is the strongest
intensity wavelength from the red giant star.

A.3 If the CCD is not cooled and can lose heat only by radiating from the top of 1.0pt
the imaging surface, what would be the equilibrium temperature of the CCD at
the location of the image of the red giant star? Assume the CCD surface is a
blackbody. Provide a formula and a numerical estimate.

Part B. Counting Photons (1.8 points)

The absorption of a photon by the CCD camera leads to the emission of an electron within the apparatus.
This occurs only if the photon has sufficient energy to excite an electron across an energy gap Δ𝐸𝑔 .
Assume that every photon with sufficient energy succeeds. There is also leakage of electrons across the
gap caused by the temperature of the CCD camera; this is the dark current 𝑖𝑑 and is measured in the
 Q2-2
Theory

English (Official)

number of electrons per second. It is a function of temperature according to

𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖0 𝑒−|Δ𝐸𝑔 |/6𝑘𝐵 𝑇 . (1)

where 𝑖0 is a constant.

The graph shows how dark current varies with temperature. The units for dark current, e− /s
should be thought of as counting a number of electrons per second.

B.1 From the dark current graph, provide an order of magnitude estimate for the 0.4pt
temperature of a distant source of thermal photons that would just be capable
of exciting an electron on the pixel.

The electrons are collected in a capacitor, and after an exposure time 𝜏 , the electrons are counted. There
are three main sources of uncertainty in the process: a fixed uncertainty in the counting process called
read out noise; a Poisson distribution error associated with the dark current, and a Poisson distribution
error associated with the detected incoming photons. Poisson distribution errors are equal to the square
root of the number of counts associated with a process. The measured photon count is equal to the
number of electrons in the capacitor, minus the number of electrons associated with the dark current.

B.2 Write an expression for the total count uncertainty 𝜎𝑡 , if there is a readout noise 0.4pt
𝜎𝑟 , a dark current 𝑖𝑑 , an incoming photon rate 𝑝, and an exposure time 𝜏 .

For remaining questions in this part assume the exposure time is 𝜏 = 104 s and the read out noise is a
fixed 𝜎𝑟 = 14.

B.3 Assume an operating temperature of 𝑇p = 7.5 K. Calculate the minimum photon 0.5pt
rate 𝑝 so that the photon count is ten times the count uncertainty.
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Theory

English (Official)

B.4 Assuming all photons are just capable of exciting an electron across the band 0.5pt
gap, what is the intensity of the source of photons found in B.3 on the primary
mirror? Express your answer in W/m2

Part C. Passive Cooling (4.4 points)

An infrared CCD camera must be kept at a low temperature. The first tool is a shield to protect from the
sun's radiation.
The sun-shield consists of five separated reflective layers in thin sheets (black); radiant energy (gray) from
the sun is incident on the first sheet on left, and some energy escapes between every pair of sheets.

Schematic of energy flow: the vertical lines (black) are the sheets, the flow of energy (gray) is
from the left to the right, however, between sheets, some energy flows up and out into space.

On the left is a simple model of two adjacent sheets 1 and 2 separated by a distance ℎ. The
sheets are not connected, and the perimeter is open to space. Assume the sheets are parallel.
Thermal radiation can be exchanged between the sheets, and thermal radiation can escape
through the perimeter gap. On the right, the perimeter gap has been shaded to help visualize.
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Theory

English (Official)

Assume the following simplifications:

• Sheets are square, each with area 𝐴sheet = 200 m2 .
• Sheets are parallel and separated by ℎ = 25 cm along the perimeter.
• Sheets have constant emissivity 𝜖 ≪ 1. Assume that all reflections off of sheet surfaces are diffuse.
• Sheets are thin with temperature on the front and back surfaces equal and uniform.
• The fraction of radiant flux emitted by a sheet that is absorbed by the adjacent sheet is 𝛼 ≤ 1. This
means that if sheet 1 in the figure above emits an amount of heat 𝑄1 toward sheet 2 then sheet 2
will absorb an amount 𝛼𝑄1 from sheet 1.
• The amount of radiant flux ejected out of the perimeter gap between two sheets is approximated
as 𝛽𝑄12 where 𝛼𝑄12 is the net flux between the two sheets. The fraction 𝛽 < 1. This is equivalent
to saying that the heat loss to space between two sheets is proportional to the net heat exchange
between the sheets. This is a rough approximation for this problem.
• Background temperature of space is negligible.

C.1 Derive expressions for the equilibrium temperatures of the first sheet and fifth 2.4pt
sheet in terms of the incident solar radiation intensity 𝐼0 , the constants 𝛼 and
𝛽, and any necessary physical constants. To simplify your expression, you may
define additional constants in terms of 𝛼 and 𝛽, etc.

C.2 Derive numerical estimates for 𝛼 and 𝛽 from the information about the sheet 1.6pt
geometry assuming an emissivity 𝜖 = 0.05. You are encouraged to consider the
rectangular box model of the sheets above, where the perimeter area effec-
tively acts as a perfect absorber of radiant energy.

C.3 Numerically determine the temperatures of sheet 1 and sheet 5. The solar in- 0.4pt
tensity is 𝐼0 = 1360 W/m2 .

Part D. Cryo-cooler (4 points)

The last stage of the cooling system directly cools the CCD camera. A closed cycle refrigeration system
has a supply pipe line feeding helium gas at constant pressure 𝑃1 moving through a sponge like porous
plug into a pipe with constant pressure 𝑃2 . The pipe carries the gas to cool the CCD. The helium gas then
passes through a pump before returning to the supply line.

Helium gas supplied on the left at well defined pressure 𝑃1 and temperature 𝑇1 is forced through the
plug to well defined pressure 𝑃2 and temperature 𝑇2 , where it is carried away on the right.
As the gas moves through the porous plug, viscous friction with the narrow walls of the channels in the
sponge becomes an important effect; however, no heat is transferred to or from the gas during the
 Q2-5
Theory

English (Official)

process. The bulk speed of the gas in region 2 is only marginally greater than the bulk speed in region
1.
Helium is not an ideal gas, but does remain in a gaseous state throughout this process.

D.1 Consider a mole of gas that passes from left to right through the plug. 1.0pt
Complete the table in your answer sheet by writing '>' or '<' to identify the quan-
tity that must be greater, '=' to identify quantities that must be equal, or '?' if it
is not possible to know which is greater or equal without more information.

D.2 Identify a conserved quantity constructed from 𝑈 (internal energy), 𝑃 (pres- 0.6pt
sure), and 𝑉 (volume) as a mole of gas moves through the plug; show work on
how you derived this conserved quantity.

Your answer sheets have graphs of internal energy per mass against volume per mass for helium with
isotherms and lines of constant entropy.

D.3 Assuming that 𝑉2 = 0.100 m3 /kg and 𝑇2 = 7.5 K, use the graph to find a nu- 1.4pt
merical value for the conserved quantity that you found in Part D.2. Show the
construction on the graph!

D.4 Find the maximum possible temperature for 𝑇1 . Show the construction on the 0.8pt
graph!

D.5 Assuming your value for the maximum 𝑇1 found in D.4, find a numerical value 0.2pt
for 𝑃1 .
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English (Official)

Scaling laws (8 points)

Scaling laws describe the functional relationship between two physical quantities that scale with each
other over a significant interval. This functional relationship can be a power law, but there are other
possibilities, too. Oftentimes, exact expressions are beyond reach, but scaling laws can still be derived.

Part A. Spaghetto (2.0 points)

A.1 A spaghetto straw of diameter 𝑑 is being balanced horizontally from its middle. 2.0pt
If 𝑑 = 1 mm, the straw breaks under its own weight once its length reaches
𝑙 = 50 cm. What is the maximum length 𝑙′ of the straw of diameter 𝑑′ = 1 cm
before it breaks under its own weight?

Part B. Sand castle (2.0 points)

B.1 The average grain volume of coarse-grained sand is 10 times as large as that 2.0pt
of fine-grained sand. Wet fine-grained sand and wet coarse-grained sand have
both optimal water content (i.e. assuming the maximal strength of the con-
structions from it) and are used to build two cylinders of exactly the same shape
and size. The strength of each cylinder is tested by pressing it between two par-
allel plates. The cylinder made of coarse-grained sand gets destroyed once the
force applied to press the plates reaches 𝐹c = 10 N. How large is the force 𝐹f
needed to destroy the cylinder made of fine-grained sand? You may ignore the
effects of gravity.
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English (Official)

Part C. Interstellar travel (2.0 points)

C.1 The spaceship of an interstellar expedition travels at a constant magnitude of 2.0pt

the proper acceleration 𝑔 = 10 m/s2 , i.e., this is the acceleration of the space-
ship in the inertial frame of reference where it is instantaneously at rest. The
passengers must be able to return to Earth within their remaining expected life-
time of 50 years. The maximum distance from Earth reached by the spaceship
is 𝑑. If the acceleration is increased to 𝑔′ = 15 m/s2 , the spaceship can reach a
farther distance 𝑑′ . What is the ratio 𝑑′ /𝑑?

Hint 1. You may wish to use the relativistic velocity addition formula, however,
there are also other approaches.
Hint 2. You may need to deal with hyperbolic functions defined as follows:
cosh 𝑥 = 21 (e𝑥 + e−𝑥 ), sinh 𝑥 = 12 (e𝑥 − e−𝑥 ), tanh 𝑥 = ee𝑥 −e
+e−𝑥 .
𝑥 −𝑥

Hint 3. Depending on your approach, you may need one or more of these in-
d𝑥 √ d𝑥
tegrals: ∫ 1−𝑥 2 = atanh 𝑥 + 𝐶, ∫
1+𝑥2
= asinh 𝑥 + 𝐶, ∫ sinh 𝑥d𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 + 𝐶,
where asinh 𝑥 and atanh 𝑥 are the inverse functions of the respective hyperbolic
functions.

Part D. That sinking feeling (2.0 points)

D.1 A solid wooden ball of radius 𝑟0 is floating in the water. Ignoring frictional ef- 2.0pt
fects, the frequency of small oscillations would be 𝜔0 , but because of viscous
friction, after being displaced vertically, the frequency of decaying oscillations
is actually 0.99 𝜔0 . What is the minimum radius 𝑟min of a wooden ball floating in
water that undergos small oscillations when displaced? Hint: the viscous drag
force acting on a given body is proportional to its speed relative to the bulk
of the fluid, and to the viscosity 𝜂 of the fluid it is moving in. The unit of the
viscosity is kg/(m ⋅ s).