UNDERSTANDING THE SELF engaged in a systematic questioning about the

GEC 004
self. To Socrates, and this has become his life-

CHAPTER I long mission, the true task of the philosopher is

to know oneself.
Plato claimed in his dialogs that
THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES
Socrates affirmed that the unexamined life is
This Chapter deals with the fundamental
not worth living. During his trial for allegedly
concepts, theories, and principles relative to
corrupting the minds of the youth and for
the self and identity. It helps the student
impiety, Socrates declared without regret that
understand the construct of the self from
his being indicted was brought about by his
various disciplinal perspectives. Knowledge of
going around Athens engaging men, young
Western and Eastern thought further helps the
and old, to question their presuppositions
student better understand himself/herself.
about themselves and about the world,
particularly about who they are (Plato 2012).
Lesson 1: PHILOSOPHY
Socrates took it upon himself to serve as a
Socrates and Plato “gadfly’’ that disturbed Athenian men from their
Prior the Socrates, slumber and shook them off in order to reach
the Greek thinkers, the truth and wisdom. Most men, in his
sometimes collectively reckoning, were really not fully aware of who
called the Pre-Socrates to they were and the virtues that they were
denote that some of them supposed to attain in order to preserve their
preceded Socrates while others existed around souls for the afterlife. Socrates thought that this
Socrates’s time as well, preoccupied is the worst that can happen to anyone; to live
themselves with the question of the primary but die inside.
substratum, arche that explains the multiplicity
of things in the word. These men like Thales, For Socrates,
Pythagoras, Parmenides, Heraclitus, and every man is
Empedocles, to name a few, were concerned composed of body
with explaining what the world is really made and soul. These
up of, why the world is so, and what explains means that every
the changes that they observe around them. human person is dualistic, that is, he is
Tired of simply conceding to mythological composed of two important aspects of his
accounts propounded by poet-theologians like personhood. For Socrates, this means all
Homer and Hesiod, these men endeavored to individuals have an imperfect, impermanent
finally locate an explanation about the nature of aspect to him, and the body, while maintaining
change, the seeming permanence despite that there is also a soul that is a perfect and
change, and the unity of the world amidst is permanent.
diversity. Plato, Socrates’s student, basically took
After a series of thinkers from all across off from his master and supported the idea that
the ancient Greek world who were disturbed by man is dual nature of body and soul. In
the same issue, a man came out to question addition to what Socrates earlier espoused,
something else. This man was Socrates. Plato added that there are three components of
Unlike the Pre-Socratics, Socrates was more the soul: the rational soul, the spirited soul, and
concerned with another subject, the problem of the appetitive soul. In his magnum opus “The
the self. He was the first philosopher who ever Republic” (Plato 2000), Plato emphasizes that
justice in the human person can only attained if Christian view. Adapting some ideas from
the three parts of the soul are working Aristotle, Aquinas said that indeed, man is
harmoniously with one another. The rational composed of two parts: matter and form.
soul forged by reason and intellect has to Matter, or hyle in Greek, refers to the “common
govern the affairs of the human person, the stuff that makes up everything in the universe.”
spirited part which is in charge of emotions Man’s body is part of this matter. Form on the
should be kept at bay, and the appetitive soul other hand, or morphe in Greek refers to the
in charge of base desires like eating, drinking, “essence of a substance or thing.” It is what
sleeping, and having sex are controlled as well. makes it what it is. In the case of the human
When this ideal state is attained, then the person, the body of the human person is
human person’s soul becomes just and something that he shares even with animals.
virtuous. The cells in man’s body are more or less akin
to the cells of any other living, organic being in
Augustine and Thomas Aquinas the world. However, what makes a human
Augustine’s view of person a human person and not a dog, or a
the human person tiger is his soul, his essence. To Aquinas, just
reflects the entire as in Aristotle, the soul is what animates the
spirit of the medieval body; it is what makes us humans.
world when it comes
RENE DESCARTES
to man. Following the
ancient view of Plato Rene Descartes,
and infusing it with the newfound doctrine of Father of Modern
Christianity, Augustine agreed that man is of a Philosophy conceived
bifurcated nature. An aspect of man dwells in of the human person
the world and is imperfect and continuously as having a body and
yearns to be with the Divine and the other is a mind. In his famous
capable of reaching immortality. treatise, the
The body is bound to die on earth and Meditations of First Philosophy, he claims that
the soul is to anticipate living eternally in a there is so much that we should doubt. He
realm of spiritual bliss in communion with God. says that since much of what we think and
This is because the body can only thrive in the believe is not infallible, they may turn out to be
imperfect, physical reality that is the world, false. One should only believe that which can
whereas the soul can also stay after death in pass the test of Doubt (Descartes 2008). If
an eternal realm with the all-transcendent God. something is as clear and lucid as not to be
The goal of every human person is to attain even doubted, then that is the only time when
this communion and bliss with the divine by one should actually by a proposition. In the
living his life on earth in virtue. end, Descartes though that the only thing that
one cannot doubt is the existence of the self,
Thomas Aquinas, for even if one doubts oneself that only proves
the most eminent that there is a doubting self, a thing that thinks
thirteenth century and therefore, that cannot be doubted. Thus,
scholar and stalwart his famous, cogito ergo sum, “I think therefore,
of the medieval I am.” The fact that one thinks should lead one
philosophy appended to conclude without a trace of doubt that he
something to this exists. The self then for Descartes
is also a combination of two distinct entities, Impressions therefore are vivid because they
the cogito, and the thing that thinks, which is are products of our direct experience with the
the mind, and the extenza or extension of the world. Ideas, on the other hand, are copies of
mind, which is the body. In Descartes’s view, impressions. Because of this, they are not as
the body is nothing else but a machine that is lively and vivid as our impressions. When one
attached to the mind. The Human person has it imagines the feelings of being in love for the
but it is not what makes man a man. If at all, first time, that still is an idea.
that is the mind. Descartes says, “But what What is the self then? Self, according to
then, am I? A thinking thing. It has been said. Hume, is simply “a bundle or collection of
But what is a thinking thing? It is a thing that different perceptions, which succeed each other
doubts, understands (conceives), affirms, with an inconceivable rapidity and are in a
denies, wills, refuses; that imagines also, and perpetual flux and movement.” (Human and
perceives” (Descartes 2008). Steinberg 1992). Men simply want to believe
that there is a unified, coherent self, a soul or
DAVID HUME
mind just like what the previous philosopher
David Hume, a thought. In reality, what one thinks is a unified
Scottish philosopher, self is simply a combination of all experiences
has a very unique with a particular person.
way of looking at
man. As an empiricist IMMANUEL KANT

who believes that Thinking of the

one can know only “self” as a mere
what comes from the senses and experiences, combination of
Hume argues that the self is nothing like what impressions was
his predecessors thought of it. The self is not problematic for
entity over and beyond the physical body. One Immanuel Kant. Kant
can rightly see here the empiricism that runs recognizes the
through his veins. Empiricism is the school of veracity of Hume’s account that everything
thought that espouses the idea that knowledge starts with the perception and sensation of
can only be possible if it is sensed and impressions. However, Kant thinks that the
experienced. Me can only attain knowledge by things that men perceive around them are not
experiencing. For example, Jack knows that Jill just randomly infused into the human person
is another human person not because he has without an organizing principle that regulates
seen her soul. He knows she is just like him the relationship of all these impressions. To
because he sees her, hears her, and touches Kant, there is necessarily a mind that
her. organizes the impressions that men get from
To David Hume, the self is nothing else the external world. Time and space, for
but a handle of impressions. What are example, are ideas that one cannot find in the
impressions? For David Hume, if one tries to world, but are built in our minds. Kant calls
examine his experiences, he finds that they these the apparatuses of the mind.
can all be categorized into two, impressions Along with the different apparatuses of
and ideas. Impressions are the basic objects or the mind goages the “self.” Without the self,
our experience sensation. They therefore form one cannot organize the different impressions
the core of our thoughts. When one touches an that one gets concerning his existence. Kant
ice cube, the cold sensation is an impression. therefore suggests that is an actively engaged
intelligence in man that synthesizes all Because of these bodies, men are in the world.
knowledge and experience. Thus, the self is Merleau-Ponty dismisses the Cartesian
not just what gives one his personality. In Dualism that has spelled so much devastation
addition, it is also the seat of knowledge in the history of man. For him, the Cartesian
acquisition for all human persons. problem is nothing else but plain
GILBERT RYLE misunderstanding. The living body, his

Gilbert Ryle solves thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all

the mind-body one.

dichotomy that has

Lesson 2. Sociology
been running for a
long time in the The social aspect of the self is explored in
history of thought by many ways, in which social situations influence
blatantly denying the concept of an internal, one’s view of self. The self is not created in
non-physical self. For Ryle, what truly matters isolation, and people are not born with
is the behavior that a person manifests in his perception of oneself as good in sports, make-
day-to-day life. up artistry, dancing, or business. Such
For Ryle, looking for and trying to perceptions are identified through
understand a self as it really exists is like observations, or interactions with other people.
visiting your friend’s university and looking for “Am I beautiful?” “Do my eyebrow look like Liza
the “university.” One can roam around the Soberano na?” These questions can be
campus, visit the library and football field, and answered by looking at those people around.
meet the administrators and faculty and still The self has meaning only within the social
end up not finding the “university.” This is context, and it is wrong to say that the social
because the campus, the people, the systems, situation defines our self-concept and our self-
and the territory all form the university. Ryle esteem. We rely on others to provide a “social
suggests that the “self” is not an entity one can reality”- to help us determine what to think,
locate and analyze but simply the convenient feel, and do (Hardin & Higgins, 1996).
name that people use to refer to all the
behaviors that people make. 1. SOCIOLOGICAL VIEWS OF THE SELF

1.1 The Self as Product of Modern

MERLEAU-PONTY
Society Among Others
Merleau-Ponty is a
With modernization, the self becomes a
phenomenologist who
“delocalized” self which is free to seek its own
asserts that the mind-
identity; defining religion, theological tradition;
body bifurcation that
free from customary constraints hence,
has been going on for
deviating from the traditional way of life.
a long time is a futile
Stability one’s self-identity is no longer based
endeavor and an invalid problem. Unlike Ryle
on pre-given traditional broad definition of the
who simply denies the “self,” Merleau-Ponty
self.
instead says that the mind and body are so
Clifford Geertz (1973) believes that the
intertwined that they cannot be separated from
struggle for one’s individuality is only possible
one another. One cannot find any experience
in modern society where religio-theological
that is not an embodied experience. All
traditions are gradually replaced by rational
experience is embodied. One’s body is his
and scientific calculations; and the intimate
opening toward his existence to the world.
personal affiliations are replaced by urbanized N. Green, self is “digitalized” in cyberspace, a
way of life. Modernization or the destruction of virtual version of who we are. The self is seen
the traditional way of life “delocalizes” the self. on websites or social media- face book, twitter,
This poses certain Instagram, etc.
The following are the manifestation:

1. information technology dislocates the

Problem as: self, thus, self is “digitalized” in

cyberspace
1. The newfound freedom threatens the
2. Global migration produces multicultural
very authenticity of the self (e.g.
identities.
love).
3. Post-modern selves are “pluralized”
2. Alienation (Marx) – human beings
selves
haunted by the very images they
have created Social Construction of the Self
3. Objectification of the body’s (e.g.
Self is not discovered; it is made
medical practice)
through the socialization process. BUT
4. dehumanization of self
individuals are not just hapless victims of
Solution: for the individual to discover the
socialization. The individual is an active
“true” and “authentic” part of himself/herself to
strategizing agent who negotiates for the
realize his/her potentials, there is a need to
definition of himself. (Ikaw ang gumagawa ng
abolish repressive social constraints.
kung ano ka”) self is acquired socially through

1.2 Self as Necessary fiction language, like symbols. We construct

ourselves based on our social roles through
Self for Nietzsche is the sum of
socialization agents – family, school,
individual’s action, thoughts and feelings. Self
community, etc.
is nothing more than a metaphor, a
representation of something abstract; symbolic. 1.4 Rewriting the Self as an Artistic
It is possible for us to remember something Creation
even if we have not experienced it. Self has Nietzsche states that the unity of the self is not
continuity even if it is only in memory i.e., either pre-given but accomplished through conscious
heard or witnesses which did not happen to effort – transforming the self through a
you. A true given self is not what unites these beautiful work of art. Individuals must fashion,
experiences, but it is presumed unity of these care for, and cultivate themselves. We can
experiences that gave rise to a concept of the recreate ourselves to get hold of the present,
self. forgive the past, and plan the future.
Rorty: contingencies of selfhood –
1.3 Post-modern View of the Self
conceal the “ugly” reinterpreting the overall
Self is a narrative, a text written and aesthetic contours of the self. This does not
rewritten. Self is a story. It is dynamic. Self is a mean that by rewriting the narrative of herself
product of modern discourse that is historically she will discover something deep about
and socially imprisoned by what is acceptable herself… redescribing oneself is just a way of
by norms, etc. self in post modernity is reinterpreting and redescribing one’s past.
complicated by electronic mediated virtual
interaction of cyber self-such as change in 1.5 Self Creation and Collective Identity
appearance (in the cyberspace). According to
 Memories (photographs, video) play interaction theory, and one of the founders of
significant role in creating the self and identity. social psychology.
Memory and forgetting are most important Mead’s theory of the self maintains that
in recreating a person’s identity. Such the conception a person holds of
memories of the past include pain, triumph, himself/herself in his/her mind emerges from
etc. Such experiences of the past can be social interaction with others. This is, in effect,
linked with social transformation. a theory and argument against biological
Another important aspect of this view of determinism because it holds that the self is
self is that creation is formed within “imagined neither initially there at birth nor necessarily at
communities”. We obtain their nature from the beginning of social interaction but is
cultural traditions embodied in various social constructed and re-constructed in the process
institutions. These are preserved in a collective of social experience and activity.
narrative which becomes the reservoir for the The self, according to Mead, is made of
project of self-creation. Self-creation along two components: the “I” and the “me”. The
cultural lines must be done in maximum “me” represents the expectations and attitudes
cultural recognition of differences among and of others (the “generalized other”) organized
between individual and cultural groups. into a social self. The individual defines his or
her behavior concerning the generalized
1.6 Self Creation and the struggle for
attitude of the social group(s) he/she occupies.
cultural recognition
When the individual can view himself or herself
This is a challenge of self-identity amidst
from the standpoint of the generalized other,
recognition of racial and ethnic identities. Self-
self-consciousness in the full sense of the term
creation is necessarily grounded on collective
is attained. From this standpoint, the
solidarities. We create ourselves by struggling
generalized other (internalized in the “me”) is
with cultural hassles then owning the created
the major instrument of social control, for it is
self. We hide the ugly part of our cultural
the mechanism by which the community
nature. We learn to adjust.
exercises control over the conduct of its
Beyond Self Creation
members.
The quest or search for self-identity is a The “I” is the response to the “me”, or
product of modern society but this is the persons individually. It is the essence of
complicated by the socio-cultural sensibilities agency in human action. So, in effect, the “me”
of postmodernity, new information technologies is the self as object, while the “I” is the self as
and globalization, reconfiguring we as to subject (Crossman, 2017).
gender, sex, ethnicity, and creating one’s style, In other words, the “I” is the responses
signature. of an individual to the attitudes of others while
Yet the project of self-creation is the “me” is the organized set of attitudes of
embedded within imagined communities. The others which an individual assumes. The “me”
self constantly lives in this paradox: to pursue is the accumulated understanding of the
self-creation pre-given, not willfully chosen “generalized other,” i.e. how one thinks one’s
socialcircumstances. group perceives oneself. The “I” is the
individual’s impulses. The “I” is self as subject;
2. Mead’s Theory of Self
the “me” is self as object. The “I” is the knower,
George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) is an the “me” is the known. The mind, or stream of
American sociologist best known as a founder thought, is the self-reflective movements of the
of American pragmatism, a pioneer of symbolic interaction between the “I” and the “me” these
dynamics go beyond selfhood in a narrow rules in organized games like patintero or
sense and form the basis of a theory of human basketball (Rath,2016). Playing a game with
cognition. For Mead the thinking process is the children of this age is far easier to just go will
internalized dialogue between the “I” and the any “rules” they come up with during the
“me” course of the game than trying to enforce any
Understood as a combination of the “I” “rules” upon them. Playing the never-ending
and the “me”, Mead’s self proves to be Chinese garter with girls still does not have one
noticeably entwined within a sociological specific set of rules the same as the last time
existence. For Mead, existence in a community played, and yet they still play the game while
comes before individual consciousness. First adhering to these rules. During this stage,
one must participate in the different social children play “pretend” as the significant other.
positions within society and only subsequently This means that when they play “bahay-
can one use that experience to take the bayan”, they pretend to be the mommy or the
perspective of others and become self- daddy that they know.
conscious (Boundless, 2016).
Stage 3: The Game Stage
2.1 Mead’s Three Stages of Development of
The third stage is the game stage, which
Self
is from about seven onwards. In this stage,
Stage 1: The Preparatory Stage children can begin to understand and adhere to
The first stage is the preparatory stage. the rules of games. They can begin to play
The preparatory stage starts from the time we more formalized games because they begin to
are born until we are about age two. In this understand other people’s perspectives- or the
stage, children mimic those around them. This perspective of the generalized other. In this
is why parents of young children typically do stage, when children play “pretend” they may
not want you to use foul language around them still play “bahay-bayan” but are pretending to
(Rath,2016). If a two-year-old child can “read” be a mommy or a daddy independent of the
what he or she has most likely done is one that resides in their home. The generalized
memorize the book that had been read to him other refers to the viewpoint of the social group
or her. In a noontime TV show, Vic Sotto, Allan at large. The child begins taking this
K., and Jose Manalo use quite a foul language perspective into account during this stage
like “bwisit” “bastos” “siraulo” and so is the (Rath 2016).
language of a child who hears them. Does he
2.2 The Looking-Glass Self: Our Sense of
or she have an idea of what he/she is saying or
Self is Influence by Others ‘Views of Us
doing? No. He/She is mimicking. He/She is in
the preparatory stage. If he/she had been an The concept of the looking–glass self-
older child, the scenes in the segments of the states that part of how we see ourselves
show would cease to have any humor. It works comes from our perception of how others see
because he/she doesn’t understand the us (Cooley, 1902).
meaning behind his/her words, actions, or tone According to the American sociologist
of voice. Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929), the
degree of personal insecurity you display in
Stage 2: The Play Stage social situations is determined by what you

From about age two to six, children are believe other people think of you. Cooley’s

in the play stage. During the play stage concept of the looking-glass self-states that a

children play pretend and do not adhere to the person’s self grows out of a person’s social
interactions with others. Our view of ourselves situations, those who self-label may come to
comes from the contemplation of personal experience internalized prejudice, which
qualities and impressions of how others occurs when individuals turn prejudice directed
perceive us. How we see ourselves does not toward them by others onto themselves.
come from who we are, but rather from how we Internalized adjustment in members of various
believe others see us (Isaksen,2013). groups, including sexual minorities
Sometimes, the influence of other (Carter,2012) and racial minorities (Szymanski
people’s appraisals of ourselves on our self- & Obiri, 2011).
concepts may be so strong that we end up In other cases, labels used by wider
eternalizing them. For example, we are often society to describe people negatively can be
labeled in particularly ways by others, perhaps positively reclaimed by those being labeled.
informally in terms of our ethnic background, or Galinsky and colleagues (2013) explored this
more formally in terms of a physical or use of self-labeling by, members of oppressed
psychological diagnosis. The labeling bias groups to reclaim derogatory terms, including
occurs when we are labeled, and other’s views “queer” and “bitch” used by dominant groups.
and expectations of us are affected by that After self-labeling, minority group members
labeling (Fox & Stinnett, 1996). For example, if evaluated these terms less negatively, reported
a teacher knows that a child has been feeling more powerful, and were also perceived
diagnosed with a particular psychological by observers as more powerful. Overall, these
disorder, that teacher may have different results indicate that individuals who incorporate
expectations and explanations of the child’s a formerly negative label into their self-concept
behavior than he or she would if not aware of in order to reclaim it can sometimes undermine
that label. Where things get really interesting the stigma attached to the label.
for our present discussion is when those
expectations start to become self-fulfilling 2.3 Social Comparison Theory: Our Sense
prophecies, and our self-concept and even our of Self Is Influenced by Comparison with
Others.
behavior start to align with them. For example,
when children are labeled in special education Self-concept and self-esteem are also

context, these labels can then impact their self- heavily influenced by the process of social

esteem (Taylor, Hume, & Welsh, 2012). comparison (Buunk & Gibbons, 2007; Van

If we are repeatedly labeled and Lange, 2008). Social comparison occurs when

evaluated by others, then self-labeling may we learn about our abilities and skills, about

occur which happens when we adopt others’ the appropriates and validity of our opinions,

labels explicitly into our self-concepts. The and about our relative social status by

effects of this self-labeling on our self-esteem comparing our own attitudes, beliefs, and

appear to depend very much on the nature of behaviors with those of others. These

the labels. Labels used in relation to diagnosis comparisons can be with people who we know

of psychological disorder can be detrimental to and interact with, with those whom we read

people who then internalize them. For about or see on TV, or with anyone else we

example, Moses (2009) found that adolescents view as important. However, the most

who self-labeled according to diagnoses they meaningful comparisons we make tend to be

had received were found to have higher levels with those we see as similar to ourselves

of self-stigma in their self-concepts compared (Festinger, 1954).

with those who described their challenges in Social comparison occurs primarily on

non-pathological terms. In these types of dimensions on which there is no correct

answer or objective benchmark and thus on How does anthropology explain human
which we can rely only on the beliefs of others nature? What is the anthropological concept of
for information. Answers to questions such as the self? The self is both a biological and
“what should I wear to the interview?” or what cultural entity. The traditional anthropological
kind of music should I have at my wedding?” understanding of the self is that self is animal
are frequently determined at least in part by species which underwent the process of
using the behavior of others as a basis of biological evolution and has shared
comparison. We also use social comparison to characteristics with other living animals, the
help us determine our skills or abilities – how hominids, in particular. The self is believed to
good we are at performing a task or doing a have evolved from apes some 33milion years
job, for example. When students ask their ago and in the evolutionary process the self-
teacher for the class average on an exam, they traced his/her origin from hominid species
are also seeking to use social comparison to “homo sapiens”. Since the self has better
evaluate their performance. development in terms of brain within billion
neurons, and adaptation to the environment for
Lesson 3. Anthropology survival, the self develops a culture resulting in
behavioral changes. The self is a living animal
This section deals with the Anthropological
but superior to other animals due to certain
perspective of understanding the self.
factors, namely: a.) physical aspects (self as
Anthropology is generally defined as the study
the only animal with a larger brain capacity
of humankind in all times and places. There
making him/her a rational animal; the only
are many branches of anthropology: this
animal that can stand straight allowing him/her
includes archeology, primatology, cultural
to have better mobility in doing things, etc.,:
anthropology, linguistic anthropology and many
can cooperate with others in a systematic
other applied anthropologies. This section,
manner in larger cooperation; and invents new
however, will only deal with the modern trends
things for survival.)
in anthropology, especially in understanding
humankind in relation to their culture. Let us  2 Important concepts of
begin our study with the recognition of our own Anthropology
unique cultural practice.
Culture is traditionally defined as systems of
Anthropology human behavior and thought. This covers all

Anthropology is a study of all the customs, traditions and capabilities of humans

aspects of human condition. This includes as they function in society. In other words,

human history, the present human condition, cultures are those complex structures of

and even future possibilities. It also examines knowledge, beliefs, arts, religion, morals, law,

biology, interactions in society, language and language, traditional practice and all other

especially culture (Kottak, 2009). Anthropology aspects needed by humans to function in

explores the interconnectedness and society. Culture is symbolic. When our

interdependence of human cultural ancestors learned to use tools and symbols to

experiences in all places and ages. This kind of originate meaning of significant events in life

broad and holistic perspective of and in society, those tools and symbols

anthropological inquiry equips the became an integral part of the culture. The

anthropologists the ascendancy in explaining burial sites, ancestral homes, landmarks of

human nature (Havilland, et. Al., 2014). significant and historical events, the rituals,
customary actions and even some natural
phenomena are all part of one’s culture. In the both the biological and environmental aspects
words of Greetz, C, (1973), culture is “a of the person. The genetic component plays a
historically transmitted patterns of meanings significant role in the culture development of an
embodied in symbols, a system of inherited individual. Anthropologists even suggest that
conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by the genes of the person living in a particular
means of which men communicate, community are already a necessary
perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about component for the enculturation of the person.
their attitudes towards life”. The “embodiment In the same way, environmental exposure is
in symbols” of cultural elements describes both also a vital component in the creation of the
an attitude of our body to incorporate cultural self. Some anthropologists claim that
techniques and social devices, and creative environmental exposure starts soon after birth.
vocation to invent and incorporate new and However contemporary anthropologists
different expressive operative ways. (Thomas suggest that environmental exposure starts
Csordas, 1999). Culture, therefore, is learned during conception. The child inside the
and is very much integrated in one’s customs mother’s womb already hears the language,
and beliefs. It is engrained in the patterns and tastes the food and feels the mother’s emotion.
systems of one’s life. Hence, if culture These experiences then are solidified as soon
considers all aspects and elements of the self, as the child is born.
people must be on guard that culture can be The growing year of the child is very
adaptive or maladaptive. On the one hand, crucial in anthropological perspective. This is
communities shall continue to assess whether the time when the child develops the
the practices rituals and customary actions are psychological construct of dependency or
still relevant and still beneficial to the independence. In many western cultures where
development of the community. Adaptive independence is the cultural emphasis, the
culture shall continue to manifest the key child is usually provided with a room and is
central values that the individual and the trained to be independent by giving less
community want to demonstrate. On the other physical contact from parents or carers. On the
hand, communities may also try to get rid of contrary, in most part of Asia and Africa,
the cultural practices that will only extinguish Children are reared in close contact with
the identity and goodwill of the community. parents, especially the mother, thus developing
the sense of dependence on significant others
Enculturation is the transmission of culture
and the immediate community (like family).
from one generation to the next. Unlike
These rearing practices are the key to
biological hereditary transmission, cultural
the development of the neuromotor functions of
transmission is done through observation, use
the child and this neuromotor circuitry is
of language, adaptation to environment, rituals,
fundamental in the formation of self-
and formal and informal education. Every
awareness.
member of the community will then distinguish
themselves from other communities because of Self-awareness
the differences in the way people do things in Anthropology defines self-awareness as “that
their lives. which permits one to assume responsibility for
one’s own conduct, to learn how to react to
The Self and Person in Contemporary
Anthropology others, and to assume a variety of roles”
(Haviland, 2003). It has been observed that a
The anthropological self takes a holistic
child starts to conceptualize self-awareness at
dimension of the individual person. It considers
age two. However, studies also show that self- behavioral conditions. The four environmental
awareness is conceptualized much earlier by orientations are: object orientation, spatial
children sleeping with parents and re exposed orientation, temporal orientation and normative
to a variety of stimuli like touch and the like. orientation.
Stimulations is maximized when the child is in Object orientation positions the self in
close contact with the mother or carer and all relation to the surrounding objects. The self
the other members of the family. This develops should be able to act responsively to the
the neural circuitry or hard wiring of the brain cultural objects around. Take for example the
faster than with the children with less T’boli, an indigenous group from South
stimulation. This is particularly advantageous Cotabato. They learn to respect the trees, the
for us Filipinos because most of the time our lakes, the falls and animals of the forest. They
cultural practice is to sleep with our parents believe in the spirit of the forest hence they
until at least school age. consider the woods as a holy ground where no
Following the faster process of leaf shall be turned as one walks through.
enculturation and self-awareness is the Spatial orientation provides the self with
importance of attachment of positive values to personal space in relation to other people or
oneself. The child must be able to get the things, in our earlier example, the individualistic
culturally correct values necessary for adult society where independences is of utmost
life. Parents, immediate family and the importance, personal space is also
community play a vital role in the development emphasized.
of the child’s values. What the child observes Whereas in the communal society
from what the adults are doing or thinking will where interdependence is strongly developed,
more likely be adapted and imitated by the personal space is more likely lessened. It is
child. However, in the continued process of however important to note that the self must be
self-awareness, the child will eventually able to keep personal space. It would be
develop his or her own identity. This identity is deviant behavior to any community when a
further intensified by a practice common to all person intrudes into the personal space of the
cultures – the naming ritual. other.
Naming individualizes a person. It gives Temporal orientation endows the self
a person his/her own unique traits, with the sense of time. Time is truly relevant to
experiences, personality, identity and status. cultural communities. In Filipino philosophy,
The latter, however, gives the person’s name time is seen as spherical (unlike the western
its place as a member of the group. The concepts of time as linear), where life-events
person’s name is also a symbol of one’s status are repeated but may not be necessarily the
in the community. It either gives you honor or same. Routinary activities are not considered a
stigma. The person’s name is at the same time repetition of previous activity because these
a project in progress. The self that bears the activities will be done at the “feel of time.” This
name continues to establish an identity of the is particularly true in the rural communities
name in the community. where only the self or very few people are
involved. In urban communities where time is
Self and Behavior Environment
of the essence, and where the western linear
In order to strengthen the identity of the
concept of time is practiced, the self must be
self, one must be able to grasp the different
able to adjust to this temporal orientation.
behavioral orientations. These are concepts
The last example is better explained in
that will help situate the self in different
normative. Normative orientation provides the
self with the grasp of accepted norms in the multiplicity of thoughts, beliefs, convictions,
community. Being on time is a generally and practice. Hence, this is exactly the
accepted norm in communal activities. In contribution of anthropology to the postmodern
communities where punctuality is considered a era. There is now the breakdown of grand
value, being on time is already a charitable narratives that subdue the small voices in the
gesture. Likewise, normative orientation is at peripheries. In other words, the anthropological
the same time providing the self an idea of movements at this time are already geared
behaviors which are not acceptable in the toward recognizing the power of culture in
community. The self at a very early age must influencing little gaps and interstices, meaning
have known that killing stealing; hunting others intervening spaces the power of people. It is
and the like are behaviors that should be only when the self recognizes the power of
avoided. culture constituted by every system that we
The Self Embedded in Culture can have an effective shaping of social reality.

When the self is able to distinguish what This can be illustrated by a few

is acceptable behavior and what is not, it only examples. One perhaps is the attitude of some

follows that the self is already able to recognize indigenous peoples (IP), especially the IP

the differences between self and the other. students enrolled in big universities where they

This ability to manage the differences between do not want to be recognized as IP or they do

selves is what makes them self-embedded in not want to be identified as IP. This may only

culture. Psychological anthropologists mean that these students are not proud of their

recognize the thin line that distinguishes the cultural identity. Eventually, this may lead to

cultural self and the “actual self.” The latter cultural degradation.

includes all the feelings, thoughts, experiences, Cultural degradation or more horribly

biological and psychological constitutions, cultural genocide means the loss of a particular

language and memory. However, the actual culture due to assimilation or loss of interest.

self is also being shaped by all these same Assimilation happens when a dominant culture,

elements and more. Therefore, what remains the Ilocano culture for example, is

in this distinction is the solid identity of the self overshadowing the inferior culture, meaning

in relation to everything else. the culture possessed by lesser population

The claim of the self as embedded in culture living within the Ilocano communities the

can only be embraced when the self inferior culture will eventually lose its identity.

recognizes its relation to everything else. The As a results, we will not be surprised when

complexity of cultural identities of peoples, children do not know anymore how to speak

things, and events shall be recognized and their own indigenous dialect or perform the

respected by the self. The individual self must rituals that were used to be performed by the

remain reflexive of the similarities and unique elders or play traditional instruments that were

differences of everything around it. This shows played by the indigenous musicians, or to cook

that the self should not maintain the the indigenous delicacies prepared by

individualistic, independent and autonomous traditional chefs to mention a few.

entity but that the self should be able to In a larger scale, culture is also lost

maintain his or her solid culturally reflexive through continued violence, genocide, inability

identity in relation to everything and everyone to respect traditions, religions, beliefs, and the

else. cultural community’s sense of pride, which are

Anthropology recognizes the movement largely the results of globalization. For many

of this understanding towards plurality and decades, the Moros of Mindanao, for example,
have continuously strived for the recognition of organization or affiliations he/she engaged in.
their cultural identity and self-realization. seemingly, the “self” is one of the most heavily
However, history tells us that both the Moros researched areas in social and personality
and the dominant culture living in Mindanao psychology, where concepts are introduced
are constantly victimized by the unending that beyond our physical attributes, lies our
violence perpetrated by various groups. In the psychological identity. Questions of “Who am
end, many of the cultural landmarks, meaning I?” or “what am I beyond my looks?” are
the identity of the people, are either prejudiced thoughts of many that continuously search for
or lost forever. a deeper sense of self which can be traced
A very obvious example of cultural back from some time of human history.
degradation is that brought about by excessive “Drawing on caves suggests that sometime
exposure to media in various forms. Television during the dawn of history, human beings
for instance influences language, traditions, began to give serious thought to their
beliefs, knowledge and even personalities. In nonphysical selves. With the advent of written
judging beauty for, media proposes the history, writers would describe this awareness
following criteria. of self in terms of spirit, psyche, or soul.”
 Face must be beautiful and unpimpled (Pajares & Schunck, 2002)
 Hair must be black and silky From ancient to current times, the
 Skin color must be fair and flawless
concept of the self is always an interesting
 The body must be slim and toned, etc.
subject for many as it is very personal that it
“Culture is also not a force or usual agent in
talks about interpersonal properties. In
the world, but a context in which people live out
oxfordbibliographies.com (2-13), it is
their lives. “(Clifford Geertz, 1973)
mentioned that whatever stance one adopts
In conclusion, Anthropology liberates
regarding the self’s ontological status, there is
the self from the fallacies of dominant ideas. In
little doubt that the many phenomena of which
this most liberating science, the self is no
the self is a predicate-self-knowledge, self-
longer seen as an entity with innate ideas,
awareness, self-esteem, self-enhancement,
ready to face the world, and as if programmed
self-regulations, self-deception, self-
to respond to the demands of time. Likewise,
presentation to name just a few, are
the self is not seen as a “blank slate” ready to
indispensable research areas.
encode all the details of everyday experiences,
so that it becomes limited only to what is
THE SELF AS A COGNITIVE
written on that slate. In anthropology, the self is CONSTRUCTIONS
recognized as (1) biologically attuned to
respond to his or her environment (2) variably Cognitive construction is a cognitive

self-aware of the mechanism of the elements approach that focuses on the mental

of culture working within the self and (3) self- processes rather than the observable behavior.

reflexive of the uniqueness and differences of This approach will assist individuals in

all other selves and everything else around. assimilating new information to their existing
knowledge and will enable them to make the
Lesson 4. PSYCHOLOGY appropriate modification to their existing
intellectual framework to accommodate their
The Psychology of self focuses on the
new information.
representation of an individual based on
his/her experiences. These experiences are
William James and the Me-Self, I-Self
either from the home, school and other groups,
 With the initiative of Wilhelm Wundt, the
father of Scientific, Psychology, Scientific Global versus Differentiated Models
methods in studying what Aguirre et al. (2011)
There had been postulation that oneself
mentioned as “phenomenon of the
may be fragmented into different parts and
consciousness”, urged interest in further
different selves which may be in conflict need
studies of the self and its role in human
regulation from each other. Although W. James
behavior. It is in this time that “William James”
gave a very interesting perspective on the self
classic distinction between the self as knower
and was even among the first writers to coin
(or pure ego) and the self as known (or the
the ‘Self-Esteem’, other theories emerged to
empirical self) provides a useful scheme within
study on the selfhood as an integrated part of
which to view the multitudinous aspects of self-
one’s psyche. In the past 30 years, self-esteem
functioning (oxfordbibliographies.com,2013).
has become deeply embedded in popular
W. James suggested that “the self of “Me”,
culture (Brown & Marchall, 2006). It is a
being as it were duplex” is composed of “partly
person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of
object and partly subject.” As a consequence,
self-worth.
he differentiated between the self as knower,
Global self-esteem (a.k.a. Feelings of Self-
or the “I” and the self as known, or “Me”. He
esteem), is a personality variable that
referred to the “I” as pure ego and suggested
represents the way people generally feel about
that this component of self is consciousness
themselves. It is relatively enduring across time
itself. The “Me”, on the other hand, is one of
and situations. According to researchers (e.g.
the many things that the I may be conscious of,
Crocker & Park, 2004; Crocker &Wolfe, 2001),
and it consists of three components, one
Global self-esteem is a decision people make
physical or material, one social, and one
about their worth as a person.
spiritual (Pajares & Schunck, 2002).
State Self-esteem (a.k.a. Feelings of Self-
Material Self- consists of things that belong
worth), refers to temporary feelings or
to us or that we belong to. Things like
momentary emotional reaction to positive and
family, clothes, our body, and money are
negative events where we feel good or bad
some of what make up our material selves.
about ourselves during these situations or

Social Self – our social selves are who we experiences.

are in a given social situation. For James, Domain Specific-self-esteem (a.k.a. Self-

people change how they act depending on evaluations) is focused on how people

the social situation that they are in. James evaluate their values, abilities and attributes.

believed that people had as many social This is making distinctions or differentiation on

selves as they had social situations they how good or bad people are in specific

participated in. physical attributes, abilities and personal

characteristics.
Spiritual Self – is who we are out core.
The spiritual self is more concrete or Real and Ideal Self Concepts
permanent than the other two selves. The The self as the regulating center of an
spiritual self is our subjective and most individual’s personality and self-=processes
intimate self. Aspects of an individual’s under the guess of id, and superego
spiritual self-include things like his/her functioning (Pajares & Schunck, 2002), rocked
personality, core values, and conscience psychology as the biggest breakthrough
that do not typically change throughout a understanding the psychological self. From this
lifetime. milestone, prominent psychologists followed
with their own perspective of the self to contest other hand, the Ideal Self revolves around
the roles and function of ego as the self. These goals and ambitions in life, is dynamic, the
were the landmarks of Contemporary idealized image that we have developed over
Psychology and the understanding of the time. This is what our parents have taught us
internal process of man. A group of to consider: what we admire in others, what our
psychologists called for renewed attention to society promotes, what we think are in our best
inner experience, internal processes, and self- interest.
constructs. This perspective asserts the overall A wide gap between the ideal and the real
dignity and worth of human beings and their self indicates incongruence and an unhealthy
capacity for self-realization (Hall, Lindzey, & personality (Feist et al., 2013). If the way that I
Manosevitz, 1997) am (the real self) is aligned with the way that I
want to be (the ideal self), then I will feel a
Karen Horney with her feminine sense of mental well-being or peace of mind. If
psychology, established that a person has an the way that I am is not aligned with how I want
‘ideal self’ ‘actual self’ and the ‘real self’. She to be, the incongruence, or lack of alignment,
believed that everyone experiences basic will result in mental distress or anxiety. The
anxiety through which we experience conflict greater the level of incongruence between the
and strive to cope and employ tension ideal self and self, the greater is the level of
reduction approaches. Hall, et al. (1997) resulting distress.
mentioned that Horney believed people
develop a number of strategies to cope with Multiple versus Unified Selves

basic anxiety. Because people feel inferior, an Postmodern psychology contends that man
idealized self-image – an imaginary picture of has an identity that shifts and morphs in
the self as the possessor of unlimited powers different social situation and in response to
and superlative qualities, is developed. On the different stimuli, as Kenneth Gergen argues
other hand, the actual self, the person one is that having a flexible sense of self in different
in everyday life, is often despised because it context is more socially adaptable than force
fails to fulfill the requirements of the idealized oneself to stick one self-concept
image. Underlying both the idealized self and (ctsites.uga.edu, 2016, danielcw).
actual self is the real self, which is revealed Theories believed that there is no one
only as a person begins to shed the various answer to the question, “Who am I?” as one
techniques developed to deal with basic person can undergo several transitions in his
anxiety and to find ways of resolving conflicts. life and create multiple versions of himself.
The real self is not an entity but a ‘force’ that However, there is still the contention of the
impels growth and self-realization. importance of mental well-being, maintaining a
unified, centralized, coherent self.
Carl Rogers with his Person-Centered
Multiple Selves, according to K. Gergen,
Theory, establish a concept of self, involving
are the capacities we carry within us from
the Real Self (a.k.a. Self-concept) and Ideal
multiple relationships. These are not
Self includes all those aspects of one’s being
‘discovered’ but ‘created’ in our relationships
and one’s experience that are perceived in
with other people.
awareness (through not always accurately) by
the individual (Feist, Feist& Roberts, 2013). It
Unified Selves, as strongly pointed out in
is the part of ourselves where we feel, think,
Traditional Psychology emphasizes that well-
look and act involving our self-image. On the
being when our personality dynamics are
congruent, cohesive and consistent. It is psychological health. An adequate theory of
understood that a person is essentially personality, according to G. Allport must allow
connected with selfhood and identity. In a for proactive behavior (Feist et al., 2013).
healthy person the ego remains at the helm of
Agent Self – the agent self is known as the
the mind, coherent and organized, staying at
executive function that allows for actions. This
the center (ctlsites.uga.edu,2016, danielcw).
is how we, as individuals, make choices and
True versus False Selves utilize our control in situations and actions. The
agent self-resides over everything that involves
Donald W. Winnicott distinguish what he
decision making, self-control, taking charge in
called the ‘true self’ from the “false self” in the
situations, and actively responding. A person
human personality, considering the true self as
might desire to eat unhealthy foods, however, it
based on a sense of being in the experiencing
his/her agent self that allows that person to
body and the false as necessary defensive
choose to avoid eating them and make a
organization, a survival kit, a caretaker sele,
healthier food choice (Baumeister, & Bushman
the means by which a threatened person has
2011).
managed to survive (Klein,1994).

Human agency is not a thing but an active

True Self has a sense of integrity, of
process of exploring, manipulating and
connected wholeness that harks to the early
influencing the environment in order to attain
stage. False Self is used when the person has
outcomes. According to Albert Bandura, the
to comply with external rules, such as being
core features of human agency are
polite or otherwise following social codes. The
Intentionally (acts a person performs
false self constantly seeks to anticipate
intentionally) forethought (setting goals,
demands of others in order to maintain the
anticipation of outcomes of actions, selection of
relationship. The Healthy False Self is
behavior to produce desired and avoiding
functional, can be fits in but through a feeling
undesirable ones), self-reactiveness
that it has betrayed its true self. The
(monitoring progress towards fulfilling choices),
Unhealthy False Self fits in but through a
and self-reflectiveness (examination of own
feeling of forced compliance rather than loving
functioning, evaluation of the effect of other
adaptation (chancgingminds.org 2016). False
people’s action on them). These lead to self-
Selves, as in investigation by Heins Kohut
efficacy, the belief that they are capable of
(1971), can lead towards narcissistic
performing actions that will produce a desire
personality, which identify external factors at
effect (Feist, et al., 2013).
the cost of one’s own autonomous creativity.

Self-Efficacy lies in the center Bandura’s

The Self as Proactive and Agentic
Social Cognitive Theory. It is the measure of
Social Cognitive Theory takes an agentic
one’s ability to complete goals. People with
view of personality, meaning that humans have
high self-efficacy often are eager to accept
the capacity to exercise control over their own
challenges because they believe they can
lives. People are self-regulating, proactive,
overcome them, while people with low self-
self-reflective, and self-organizing and they
efficacy may avoid challenges, or believe
have the power to influence their own actions
experiences are more challenging than they
to produce desired consequences. People
are (appsychtextbk.wikispaces.com,2014).
consciously act on their environment in a
Let us move further as we continue
manner that permits growth toward
examining other perspectives of the self.
 family or the community; it is part of the

Lesson 5: The Self in Western universe, one of the forms and manifestations
of the Tao (Ho 1995). The ideal self is
and Eastern Thoughts
selflessness, but this is not forgetting about the
self, it is living a balanced- life with society and
In this lesson, we will look at religious beliefs nature, being open and accepting to change,
and political philosophies that greatly forgetting about prejudices and egocentric
influenced the mindset of each nation or ideas and thinking about equality as well as
culture. Since almost all the theories about the complementary among humans as well as
self, which were discussed in the previous other beings (Ho 1995). In this way, you will be
lessons, also came from Western scientific able to act spontaneously because you will not
research, we will highlight the Eastern thoughts be restricted by some legalistic standards but
in these lessons. because you are in harmony with everything.

First is Confucianism. Confucianism The third belief is Buddhism. There are

can be seen as a code of ethical conduct, of various groups who have adopted Buddhism;
how one should properly act according to their thus, you may find differences in their
relationship with other people; thus, it is also teachings with our discussion but more likely,
focused on having a harmonious social life (Ho their core concepts remained the same. the
1995). Therefore, the identity and Self-concept self is seen as an illusion, born out of
of the individual are interwoven with the identity ignorance, of trying to hold and control things,
and status of his/her community or culture, or human-centered needs; thus, the self is also
sharing its pride as well as its failures the source of all these sufferings (Ho 1995). It
(Ho1995). Self-cultivations is seen as the is, therefore, our quest to forget about the self,
ultimate purpose of life but the characteristics forget the cravings of the self, break the
of a chun-tzu, a man of virtue or noble attachments you have with the world, and to
character, is still embedded in his social renounce the self which is the cause of all
relationship (Ho 1995). The cultivated self in suffering and in doing so, attain the state of
Confucianism is what some scholars call a Nirvana (Ho 1995). The self or the individual is
“subdued self” wherein personal needs are not the focus of the abovementioned Asian or
repressed (subdued) for the good of May, Eastern philosophies or beliefs. Even with
making Confucian society also hierarchal for extended discussions about how the self
the purpose of maintaining order and balance should work, Confucianism and Taoism still
in society (Ho 1995). situate the self within a bigger context. In
striving to become a better person, one does
Second philosophy is Taoism is living in
not create a self above other people or nature
the way of the Tao or the universe. However,
but a self that is beneficial to his community as
Taoism rejects having one definition of what
well as in order and harmony with everything
the Tao is, and one can only state clues of
else. As for Buddhism, the self, with all its
what it is as they adopt a free-flowing, relative,
connections and selfish ideas, is taken not just
unitary, as well as paradoxical view of almost
out of the center of the picture, but from the
everything. Taoism rejects the hierarchy and
whole picture entirely. As previously discussed,
strictness brought by Confucianism and would
the Western perspective does not discount the
prefer a simple lifestyle and its teachings thus
role of environment and society in the
aim to describe how to attain that life (Ho
formation of the self, but focus is always
1995). The self is not just an extension of the
looking toward the self. You compare yourself things, hoping that the other person would
in order to be better; you create associations “feel” what they really want to say (Qingxue
and bask in the glory of that for your self- 2003).
esteem; you primary in developing yourself.
Westerners also emphasize more on the
One can also describe that the Western value of equality even if they see that the
though looks at the world in dualities wherein individual can rise above everything else.
you are distinct from the other person, the Because everyone is on their own in the
creator is separate from the object he created, competition, one can say that they also
in which the self is distinguished and promote ideals that create “fair” competition
acknowledge (Wolter 2012). On the other and protect the individual. Asians with their
hand, the Eastern perspective sees the other collectivistic culture, put more emphasis on
person as part of yourself as well as the things hierarchy as the culture wants to keep things in
you may create, a drama in which everyone is harmony and order (Qingxue 2003). For
interconnected with their specific roles Wolter example, Westerners would most likely call
2012). Several studies showed that Americans, their bosses, parents, or other seniors by their
for example, talk more about their personal first name. The boss can also be approached
attributes when describing themselves while head-on when conflicts or problems about him
Asians in general talk about their social roles or arise. For Asians, we have respectful terms for
the social situations that invoked certain traits our seniors and a lot of workers do not dare go
that they deem positive for their selves against the high-ranking officials (Qingxue
(Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011). 2003).
Evaluation of the self also differs as Americans
It must be emphasized, however, that
would highlight their personal achievements
these are general commonalities among
while Asians would rather keep a low profile as
Western cultures as compared to Asian or
promoting the self can be seen as boastfulness
Oriental cultures. In the case of the Philippines,
that disrupt social relationship (Gleitman,
we can also consider the colonization
Gross, and Reisberg 2011).
experience for differences and similarities with
The western culture is what we would our Asian neighbors. We might also find
call an individualistic culture since their focus is variation among provinces and regions due to
on the person. Asian culture, on the other geographical conditions.
hand, is called a collectivistic culture as the
With the social media, migration, and
group and social relations that is given more
intermarriages, variety between the Western
importance than individual needs and wants.
and Asian perceptions may either be blurred or
By valuing the individual, western may highlighted. Whereas conflict is inevitable in
seem to have loose associations or even diversity, peace is also possible through the
loyalty to their groups. Competition is the name understanding of where each of us is coming
of the game, and they are more likely from.
straightforward and forceful in their
communication as well as decision- making.
Eastern or oriental people look after the
welfare of their groups and values cooperation.
They would also be more compromising, and
they tend to go around the bush in explaining