LOGIC: PROPOSITIONS AND CONNECTIVES

GENARO T. ARDINA, LPT

 LOGIC

 DEFINITIONS
 The analysis of methods of reasoning (David W. Kueker, 2009)
 The science of correct thinking
 Mathematical Logic- the study of reasoning as used in mathematics
 Mathematical Reasoning- is deductive, that is, it consist of drawing (correct)
conclusions from the given hypotheses.
 LOGIC

 EXAMPLES
 All men are mortal. Luke is a man. Hence, Luke is mortal.
 All dogs like fish. Cyber is a dog. Therefore, Cyber likes fish.

 All monkeys like banana. Tarzan likes banana. Therefore, Tarzan is a monkey. WRONG

 All monkeys like banana. Tarzan is a monkey. Therefore,Tarzan likes banana.

 LOGIC

MATHEMATICALLY,
 PROPOSITIONS AND CONNECTIVES

 PROPOSITION (or statement) is a sentence that is either true or false (without additional
information).
 Here are some examples of statements. They are all true.
 If a circle has radius r, then its area is πr 2 square units.
 Every even number is divisible by 2.
 2∈Z
 N⊆Z
 The set {0,1,2} has three elements.
 Some right triangles are isosceles.
 PROPOSITIONS AND CONNECTIVES

 Here are some additional statements. They are all false.

 All right triangles are isosceles.

 5=2
 2∉R
 Z⊆N
 {0,1,2}∩N = ∅
 PROPOSITIONS AND CONNECTIVES

 Here non-statements are paired with similar statements.

 PROPOSITIONS AND CONNECTIVES
 We will often use the letters P, Q, R and S to stand for specific statements. When more letters are needed we can
use subscripts. Here are more statements, designated with letters.You decide which of them are true and which
are false.
False, when n=4

 In discussing a particular statement, such as “The function f (x) = x 2 is continuous,” it is convenient to just refer
to it as R to avoid having to write or say it many times.
 PROPOSITIONS AND CONNECTIVES

 Statements can contain variables. Here is an example.

 P : If an integer x is a multiple of 6, then x is even.
 This is a sentence that is true. (All multiples of 6 are even, so no matter
which multiple of 6 the integer x happens to be, it is even.)
 Since the sentence P is definitely true, it is a statement. When a sentence
or statement P contains a variable such as x, we sometimes denote it as
P(x) to indicate that it is saying something about x. Thus the above
statement can be denoted as
 P(x) : If an integer x is a multiple of 6, then x is even.
 PRACTICE

 Decide whether or not the following are statements. In the case of a statement, say if
it is true or false, if possible.
 1. Every real number is an even integer. Statement, False
 2. Every even integer is a real number. Statement, True

 3. If x and y are real numbers and 5x = 5y, then x = y. Statement, true

 4. Sets Z and N. Not a statement

 5. Sets Z and N are infinite. Statement, true

PROPOSITIONS AND CONNECTIVES

 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES – are defined by truth tables (but have English Language
counterparts).
LOGIC MATH ENGLISH+

Conjunction ⋀ and
Disjunction ⋁ or
Negation ∽, ¬ not
Conditional →, ⟹ If…then…
Biconditional ↔, ⟺ If and only if
 AND, OR, NOT

 The word “and” can be used to combine two statements to form a new statement.
 Consider for example the following sentence.
 R1 : The number 2 is even and the number 3 is odd.
 We recognize this as a true statement, based on our ingrained understanding of the meaning of the word “and.”
Notice that R1 is made up of two simpler statements:
 P : The number 2 is even.
 Q : The number 3 is odd.

 These are joined together by the word “and” to form the more complex statement R1. The statement R1 asserts
that P and Q are both true. Since both P and Q are in fact true, the statement R1 is also true.
 AND, OR, NOT

 Had one or both of P and Q been false, then R1 would be false. For instance, each of
the following statements is false.
 R2 : The number 1 is even and the number 3 is odd.
 R3 : The number 2 is even and the number 4 is odd.
 R4 : The number 3 is even and the number 2 is odd.
 AND, OR, NOT

 From these examples we see that any two statements P and Q can be combined to
form a new statement “P and Q.” In the spirit of using letters to denote statements,
we now introduce the special symbol ∧ to stand for the word “and.
 AND, OR, NOT

 Statements can also be combined using the word “or.” Consider the following four
statements.
 S1 : The number 2 is even or the number 3 is odd.
 S2 : The number 1 is even or the number 3 is odd.
 S3 : The number 2 is even or the number 4 is odd.
 S4 : The number 3 is even or the number 2 is odd.

 In mathematics, the assertion “P or Q” is always understood to mean that one or

both of P and Q is true. Thus statements S1, S2, S3 are all true, while S4 is false.
 AND, OR, NOT

 The symbol ∨ is used to stand for the word “or.” So if P and Q are statements, P ∨Q
represents the statement “P or Q.” Here is the truth table.
 AND, OR, NOT
In mathematics we never use the
word “or” in such a sense. For us “or”
It is important to be means exactly what is stated in the
aware that the meaning For example, suppose a
this means that either table for ∨. Thus P ∨Q being true
of “or” expressed in university official makes
you pay your tuition means one or both of P and Q is true.
the following threat:
the above table differs or you will be If we ever need to express the fact
You pay your tuition or
from the way it is often you will be withdrawn withdrawn from that exactly one of P and Q is true,
used in everyday school, but not both. we use one of the following
from school.
conversation. constructions:
P or Q, but not both.
Either P or Q.
Exactly one of P or Q.
 AND, OR, NOT

 If the university official were a mathematician, he might have qualified his

statement in one of the following ways.
 Pay your tuition or you will be withdrawn from school, but not both.
 Either you pay your tuition or you will be withdrawn from school.
 NOT (~), (¬)

 we mention another way of obtaining new statements from old ones.

 Given any statement P, we can form the new statement “It is not true that P.”
 For example, consider the following statement.
 The number 2 is even. This statement is true.
 Now change it by inserting the words “It is not true that” at the beginning:
 It is not true that the number 2 is even.
 This new statement is false.
 AND, OR, NOT

 We use the symbol ∼ to stand for the words “It’s not true that,” so ∼ P means “It’s
not true that P.” We can read ∼ P simply as “not P.” Unlike ∧ and ∨, which combine
two statements, the symbol ∼ just alters a single statement. Thus its truth table has
just two lines, one for each possible value of P.
 AND, OR, NOT

 The statement ∼ P is called the negation of P.

 The negation of a specific statement can be expressed in numerous ways.
 Consider P : The number 2 is even.
 Here are several ways of expressing its negation.
 ∼ P : It’s not true that the number 2 is even.
 ∼ P : It is false that the number 2 is even.
 ∼ P : The number 2 is not even.
 PRACTICE

 Express each statement or open sentence in one of the forms P ∧Q, P ∨Q, or ∼ P. Be
sure to also state exactly what statements P and Q stand for.
 1. There is a quiz scheduled for Wednesday or Friday.
 2.The number x equals zero, but the number y does not.
 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

 There is yet another way to combine two statements. Suppose we have in mind a specific integer a.
 Consider the following statement about a.
 R : If the integer a is a multiple of 6, then a is divisible by 2.
 We immediately spot this as a true statement based on our knowledge of integers and the meanings
of the words “if” and “then.” If integer a is a multiple of 6, then a is even, so therefore a is divisible by 2.
Notice that R is built up from two simpler statements:
 P : The integer a is a multiple of 6.
 Q : The integer a is divisible by 2.
 R : If P, then Q.
 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

 Think of P ⇒ Q as a promise that whenever P is true, Q will be true also. There is only one way this promise can
be broken (i.e., be false), namely if P is true but Q is false. So the truth table for the promise P ⇒ Q is as follows:

 Perhaps you are bothered by how P ⇒ Q is true in the last two lines.
 Here is an example to explain it.
 Suppose your professor makes this promise: If you pass the final exam, then you will pass the course.
 Your professor is making the promise (You pass the exam) ⇒ (You pass the course).
 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

 There are four possible scenarios, depending on whether or not you passed the exam and whether or not you
passed the course. These scenarios are tallied in the following table.
MORE EXAMPLE

Note that each simple

proposition is listed first,
and all possible
combinations of truth
values are listed.
Each parenthesized
subformula is listed, and
then the final column
contains the truth values
for the entire compound
statement.
 ABBREVIATED TRUTH TABLE
 Now, let’s do the same examples using abbreviated truth tables. There are two important things to remember
here. First, an abbreviated truth table contains exactly the same information as any other truth table; only the
bookkeeping is different. Second, in any single row of the abbreviated truth table, every occurrence of a
propositional letter receives the same truth value. We mark the column for the main connective with bold type.
This column corresponds to the last column of a standard truth table.
 Build an abbreviated truth table for 𝑝 → (𝑞 ⋁ 𝑟)
 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

 In mathematics, whenever we encounter the construction “If P, then Q,” it means exactly what the truth table for
⇒ expresses. Of course there are other grammatical constructions that also mean P ⇒ Q. Here is a summary of
the main ones. The meaning of each is encapsulated by the table for ⇒.
 BICONDITIONAL

 It is important to understand that P ⇒ Q is not the same as Q ⇒ P.

 To see why, suppose that a is some integer and consider the statements
 (a is a multiple of 6) ⇒ (a is divisible by 2), True
 (a is divisible by 2) ⇒ (a is a multiple of 6). False, when a =2 and 4
 The conditional statement Q ⇒ P is called the converse of P ⇒ Q, so a conditional
statement and its converse express entirely different things.
 BICONDITIONAL

 But sometimes, if P and Q are just the right statements, it can happen that P ⇒ Q
and Q ⇒ P are both necessarily true.
 For example, consider the statements
 (a is even) ⇒ (a is divisible by 2),
 (a is divisible by 2) ⇒ (a is even).
BICONDITIONAL

 The truth table for ⇔ is shown below. Notice that in the first and last rows, both P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P are true
(according to the truth table for ⇒), so (P ⇒ Q)∧(Q ⇒ P) is true, and hence P ⇔ Q is true. However, in the
middle two rows one of P ⇒ Q or Q ⇒ P is false, so (P ⇒ Q)∧(Q ⇒ P) is false, making P ⇔ Q false.
 Not surprisingly, there are many ways of saying P ⇔ Q in English. The following constructions all mean P ⇔ Q:
 TRUTH TABLES FOR STATEMENTS

 For example, suppose we want to convey that one or the other of P and Q is true but they are not both true. No
single symbol expresses this, but we could combine them as
 (P ∨Q)∧ ∼ (P ∧Q),
 which literally means:
 P or Q is true, and it is not the case that both P and Q are true.
 TRUTH TABLES FOR STATEMENTS

 Making a truth table for P ⇔ (Q ∨R) entails a line for each T/F combination for the three statements P, Q and R.
The eight possible combinations are tallied in the first three columns of the following table.
 TRUTH TABLES FOR STATEMENTS

 Sometimes books will leave out more parentheses than you might like. In
a pinch, you can assume that connectives are evaluated in the following
order ¬, ∧, ∨, →, ↔, with like connectives evaluated from left to right.
For example, the formula b∧a → b → c∨¬d should be parenthesized as
((b∧a) → b) → (c∨(¬d)).
 EXERCISE

 Write a truth table for the logical statements in problems 1–9:

 1. P ∨(Q ⇒ R)
 2. (Q ∨ R) ⇔ (R ∧Q)
 3. ∼ (P ⇒ Q)
 4. ∼ (P ∨Q)∨(∼ P)
 5. (P∧ ∼ P)∨Q
 6. (P∧ ∼ P)∧Q 7. (P∧ ∼ P) ⇒ Q
 8. P ∨(Q∧ ∼ R)
 9. ∼ (∼ P∨ ∼ Q)
 TRANSLATION

 Given a key listing the meanings of the propositional symbols, we can translate symbolized statements into English
sentences.
 Example. Given the interpretations below, translate each of the following sentences into English.
 a means “Fritz likes trout.”
 b means “Waldo is tiny.”
 c means “Violins don’t melt.”
 (a)Translate: (a ∨ b) → c
 Solution: If Fritz likes trout or Waldo is tiny, then violins don’t melt.
 (b)Translate: a ↔ c
 Solution: Fritz likes trout if and only if violins don’t melt.
 Alternate solution: Fritz liking trout is a necessary and sufficient condition for the non-melting of violins.
 TRANSLATION

 Translate: ¬(b ∧ c)
 Solution: It is not the case that both Waldo is tiny and violins don’t melt.
 Alternate solution: Waldo isn’t tiny or violins melt.
 TRANSLATION

 We can reverse the process of our previous examples, and translate English into our symbolic language.
 Be sure to include a key to explain the translation.
 Example.
 Translate: If Fritz is the king of France, then Bert eats trout.
 Solution:
 Let k denote “Fritz is the king of France.”
 Let b denote “Bert eats trout.”
 The sentence “If Fritz is the king of France, then Bert eats trout”
 translates as
 k → b.
 COMMON SENSE AND TRUTH

Sometimes we can use In situations where we can assign

In other cases, we lack
common sense to assign a truth values to some (or all) of
sufficient information to
truth value to a proposition. the proposition letters, we can
reasonably assign truth
For example, 2 + 2 = 4 is often determine the truth value
values.
true, and 2 + 2 = 5 is false. of associated compound
For example, the
Note that these truth statements. The process involves
statement “Waldo has a
values are actually looking at appropriate lines in
trout in his hat” is neither
assumptions based on prior the truth table of the compound
obviously true nor
experience, but they are statement. Here are some
obviously false.
still pretty reasonable. examples.
 EXAMPLE

 Given the information below, and using common sense where applicable, try to assign truth values to the following
compound statements.
 a means “2 = 5.” (We’ll assume this is F.)
 b means “7 is an odd prime.” (We’ll assume this is T.)
 c means “Waldo is the milkman’s pet trout.” (We won’t assume any truth value here.)
 (a) a ∧ b
 Solution: F ∧ T is F, so a ∧ b is false.
 (b) a ∨ b
 Solution: F ∨ T is T, so a ∨ b is true.
 (c) b ∨ c
 (d) a ↔ c
 EXERCISE

 1.) Given the interpretations below, translate each of the following sentences into English. p means “2 + 2 = 5.” q means
“3 is prime.”
 (a) Translate: p → q
 (b) Translate: (¬p) ∨ q
 (c) Translate: ¬(p ∨ q)
 2.) Given the interpretations below, translate each of the following sentences into English. d means “Waldo wears a hat.”
m means “All milkmen like trout.” w means “4 + 8 = 32.” z means “2 6= 5.”
 (a) Translate: d → (m ∨ w)
 (b) Translate: z ↔ w
 (c) Translate: z ∧ (w → z)
 (d) Translate: ¬(¬d ∧ z)
 EXERCISE

 3.) Given the information below, and using common sense where applicable, try to assign truth values to the
following compound statements.
 p means “2 6= 5.”
 q means “7 is an integer multiple of 2.”
 r means “Fritz is a tap-dancing investment banker.”
 (a) p ∨ q
 (b) p ∧ r
 (c) q → r
 (d) r → (q → r)
 TAUTOLOGIES, CONTRADICTION, CONTINGENCY

 Some compound propositions are true (or false) just because of their structure.
 In mathematics, a tautology is a compound proposition which is always true. That is, a formula is a tautology if and
only if the last column of its truth table contains only Ts
 Here is a simple example:
 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

 The next example is very common in mathematics. We consider the implication P ⇒ Q and the contrapositive
¬Q ⇒ ¬P. It turns out that these two are equivalent, i.e. the statement (P ⇒ Q) ⇐⇒ (¬Q ⇒ ¬P) is a tautology.
 TAUTOLOGIES, CONTRADICTION, CONTINGENCY

 In mathematics, a contradiction is a compound proposition which is always false. That

is, a formula is a contradiction if and only if the last column of its truth table contains
only Fs.
 TAUTOLOGIES, CONTRADICTION, CONTINGENCY

 A contingency is a compound proposition which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction. That is, a formula is a
contingency if and only if the last column of its truth table contains both Ts and Fs.
 Show that p → q is a contingency.
 Solution:
 We’ll show that the main connective column in the truth table for p → q contains at least one T and at least one
F.
 EXERCISE

 1. Show that a → (b → a) is a tautology.

 2. Show that (a → (b → c)) → ((a → b) → (a → c)) is a tautology.
 3. Show that (¬b → ¬a) → ((¬b → a) → b) is a tautology.
 4. Show that p ↔ (p → ¬p) is a contradiction.
 5. Show that p ∧ p is a contingency.
 EXERCISE

 Classify each of the following formulas as a tautology, a contradiction, or a contingency. Provide enough of the
truth table for the formula to justify your answer. (For tautologies and contradictions, you need the whole table.
For contingencies you can get by with just two cleverly selected rows.)
 (a) (p ∧ q) → p
 (b) p → (p ∨ q)
 (c) (p ∨ q) → (p ∧ q)
 (d) p ↔ ¬p
 (e) p → (¬p → (q ∧ ¬q))
 (f) (p → q) ∨ (q → p)
 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

 Two formulas, A and B, are logically equivalent if and only if A ↔ B is a tautology

 Example. Show that p → q is logically equivalent to ¬q → ¬p.
 Solution: We’ll verify that the main connective column in the truth table for the
biconditional constructed from these two formulas contains only Ts.
 EXERCISE

 1. Show that ¬p ∧ ¬q is logically equivalent to ¬(p ∨ q).

 2. Show that p ∧ q is logically equivalent to ¬(¬p ∨ ¬q).
 3. Show that p is logically equivalent to ¬¬p.
 4. Show that p ∨ (q → (s ∧ ¬¬t)) is logically equivalent to p ∨ (q → (s ∧ t)).
 CONTRAPOSITIVES AND CONVERSES

 Mathematicians are often concerned with conditional statements. Given an

implication, there are two related formulas which occur so often that they have
special names.
 The contrapositive of the conditional P → Q is ¬Q → ¬P.
 Example. The contrapositive of a → (b ∨ c) is ¬(b ∨ c) → ¬a.
 Theorem (Contrapositive Theorem). Every conditional formula is logically equivalent
to its contrapositive.
PROOF
 Any conditional formula will have the form P → Q. We’ll show that this is logically equivalent to ¬Q
→ ¬P by checking the truth table for the biconditional statement built from these formulas. We’re
looking for all Ts in the main connective column

 The main connective column is all Ts, so the biconditional is a tautology and the formulas are logically
equivalent.
 CONTRAPOSITIVES AND CONVERSES

 Definition. The converse of the conditional P → Q is Q → P.

 Example. The converse of a → (b ∨ c) is (b ∨ c) → a.
 To prove a biconditional like p ↔ q, a mathematician often proves p → q and proves the converse, q
→ p.
 Neither of these steps can be skipped, because a conditional and its converse may not be logically
equivalent.
 For example, you can easily show that a → b is not logically equivalent to its converse. Some bizarre
formulas, like a → a for example, are logically equivalent to their converses, but that’s just a fluke.
 To summarize this , a conditional is always logically equivalent to its contrapositive. A conditional may
or may not be logically equivalent to its converse.
 EXERCISE

 1. Write the contrapositives of the following.

 (a) p → q
 (b) (p ∨ r) → q
 (c) (a ∧ b) → (c ∨ d)
 (d) If Waldo likes trout, then Elmer is a sailor.
 (e) If 0 6= 1, then 4 is a prime.
 (f) If tap-dancing is foolish, then I want to be a fool.
 EXERCISE

 2. Write the converses of the following.

 (a) p → q
 (b) (p ∨ r) → q
 (c) (a ∧ b) → (c ∨ d)
 (d) If Waldo likes trout, then Elmer is a sailor.
 (e) If 0 6= 1, then 4 is a prime.
 (f) If tap-dancing is foolish, then I want to be a fool.
 3. Show that a → b is not logically equivalent to its converse.
 4. Show that a → a is logically equivalent to its converse
 ANALYSIS OF ARGUMENTS

 We see examples of informal arguments every day. In newspaper editorials, court cases, and advertising, people
give lists of reasons and try to convince us of a conclusion.
 Here’s a formal version of the process. An argument is a list of premises which taken all together supposedly
imply a conclusion.
 For example,

We say that an argument (like the one above) is logically

valid if and only if (P1 ∧ P2 ∧ P3 ∧ ... ∧ Pn) → Pn+1 is a
tautology. Note that the conclusion of a logically valid
argument is not necessarily true. Logical validity ensures
only that if all the premises are true, then the conclusion is
true.

Is an argument
EXAMPLE

 Show that the following argument is logically valid.

p
p→ 𝑞
q
EXERCISE
 EXERCISE

 3. Is the following argument logically valid?

If today is Sunday, then tomorrow is Monday.
Today is not Sunday.
-----------------------------------------------------
Tomorrow is not Monday.
 EXERCISE

 4. Is the following argument logically valid?

When it rains, I wear a hat.
It never rains
-----------------------------------
I never wear a hat.