1.

Short Note on Any two internal noise, channel capacity and data rate, Token passing
Protocol, reservation protocol, Bus topology, switych networking device.
Internal Noise
Thermal Noise: Generated by the random motion of electrons in a conductor, it affects all
electronic devices and is present in all frequencies.

Shot Noise: Occurs due to the discrete nature of electric charge and is significant in
semiconductor devices like diodes and transistors.

Channel Capacity and Data Rate

Channel Capacity: The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a
communication channel without errors.

Data Rate: The speed at which data is transmitted, usually measured in bits per second (bps).

Token Passing Protocol

Concept: A token circulates in a network, allowing the device holding the token to transmit
data.

Use: Ensures orderly network access and collision-free communication (e.g., Token Ring
network).

Reservation Protocol
Concept: Resources are reserved in advance for a communication session.

Use: Ensures guaranteed bandwidth and quality of service for applications (e.g., in circuit-
switched networks like traditional telephony).

Bus Topology
Description: All devices are connected to a single central cable, known as the bus.

Advantage: Easy to implement and extend.

Disadvantage: A failure in the central cable can disable the entire network.

Switch Networking Device

Function: Connects multiple devices within a network and uses MAC addresses to forward
data to the correct destination.

Advantage: Reduces network collisions and improves overall network performance.

2. Short note on : Asynchronous communication, synchronous communication, controlled

access protocol: Reservation, wavelength division multiplexing, full duplex communication,
LAN, Switch a network device.
Asynchronous Communication:

Concept: Data is transmitted without a common clock signal, using start and stop bits to
synchronize.
Use: Common in serial communications like RS-232.

Synchronous Communication:

Concept: Data is transmitted with a common clock signal, ensuring synchronized

transmission.

Use: Used in protocols like I²C and SPI for precise data transfer.

Controlled Access Protocol: Reservation:

Concept: Resources are reserved in advance for a communication session.

Benefit: Ensures guaranteed bandwidth and quality of service.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):

Concept: Multiple signals are transmitted simultaneously on different wavelengths over a

single fiber optic cable.

Use: Enhances the capacity of optical communication systems.

Full Duplex Communication:

Concept: Data transmission can occur simultaneously in both directions.

Use: Used in modern communication systems like Ethernet for efficient data exchange.

LAN (Local Area Network):

Concept: A network that connects devices within a limited geographical area, such as a
building.

Benefit: Enables high-speed data transfer and resource sharing among connected devices.

Switch (Networking Device):

Function: Connects multiple devices in a network and forwards data based on MAC
addresses.

Benefit: Reduces network collisions and improves performance.

3.Difference between synchronous and asynchronous communication

Synchronous Communication:

Clock Signal: Requires a shared clock signal for synchronization.

 Data Transfer: Continuous and steady stream of data.

Speed: Typically faster due to synchronized timing.

Examples: I²C, SPI.

Usage: Suitable for high-speed data transfer.

Asynchronous Communication:

Clock Signal: No shared clock signal; uses start and stop bits.

Data Transfer: Data is sent in packets, with gaps between them.

Speed: Generally
Example : RS-232, UART
Usage : Suitable for lower-speed, simpler communication

3. Explain concept of TDM.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Concept: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting multiple signals over
a single communication channel by dividing the time into separate slots. Each signal is
allocated a specific time slot, during which it can send its data. This process happens so
quickly that it appears as if the signals are transmitted simultaneously.

Types of TDM:

Synchronous TDM:

Fixed Time Slots: Each source is assigned a fixed time slot, even if it has no data to transmit.

Efficiency: Less efficient as unused slots are wasted.

Example: Traditional telephone systems.

Asynchronous (or Statistical) TDM:

Dynamic Time Slots: Time slots are allocated based on the demand or data availability.

Efficiency: More efficient as slots are used only when there is data to send.

Example: Modern data communication systems.

Advantages:

Efficient Utilization of Bandwidth: Maximizes the use of available bandwidth.

Cost-effective: Reduces the need for multiple physical channels.

 Disadvantages:

Synchronization Required: Precise timing is necessary to ensure accurate data transmission.

Latency: Potential delays due to the time slot allocation process.

4. Explain OSI midel in brief.

OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection)
The OSI Model is a conceptual framework used to understand and implement network
protocols in seven layers, each with distinct functions.

Physical Layer: Handles the physical connection between devices and the transmission of raw
data bits over a medium.

Data Link Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer between two directly connected nodes,
addressing errors and frame synchronization.

Network Layer: Manages routing of data packets between devices across multiple networks.

Transport Layer: Provides reliable data transfer, error correction, and flow control.

Session Layer: Manages and controls the connections (sessions) between computers.

Presentation Layer: Ensures data is in a usable format, handling encryption, compression,

and translation.

Application Layer: Provides network services directly to end-user applications.

This model helps standardize networking protocols and improve interoperability between
different systems.

5. Explain simplex and half duplex transmission modes of communication system.

Simplex Transmission Mode
Simplex is a mode where data transmission is unidirectional. Information flows in one
direction only, from the transmitter to the receiver, without any means for the receiver to
send data back.

Example:

Television Broadcasts: The television station sends signals to viewers but doesn't receive any
data from the viewers.

Keyboard to Computer: Data flows from the keyboard to the computer without any return
data path.

Characteristics:
 One-Way Communication: The transmitter sends data to the receiver, but the receiver
cannot send data back.

Use Case: Suitable for applications where only one-way data transfer is required.

Half Duplex Transmission Mode

Half Duplex allows data transmission in both directions, but not simultaneously. Only one
party can transmit at a time while the other party receives. After the transmission is
complete, the roles can switch.

Example:

Walkie-Talkies: One person speaks while the other listens. When the first person finishes, the
other can respond.

CB Radio: Users take turns to communicate over the same frequency.

Characteristics:

Two-Way Communication: Data can flow in both directions, but not at the same time.

Efficiency: More efficient than simplex for applications where two-way communication is
necessary, but simultaneous transmission is not required.

6. Any Five Features of FDMA.

Features of FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
Bandwidth Allocation: Each user is assigned a unique frequency band within the available
spectrum.

Simultaneous Transmission: Multiple users can transmit data at the same time, as long as
they use different frequency bands.

Fixed Frequency Assignment: Each user's assigned frequency band is fixed and does not
change over time.

Low Interference: Minimal interference between users due to the separation of frequency
bands.

Simple Implementation: Straightforward to implement with established technology, making

it cost-effective.
7.Describe in brief LAN and WAN.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Scope: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects devices within a limited
geographical area, such as a single building, office, or campus.

Features:

High Speed: LANs typically offer high data transfer rates, ranging from 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps.

Low Latency: Due to the short distances between devices, LANs experience minimal delay in
communication.

Resource Sharing: Allows sharing of resources like printers, files, and internet connections
among connected devices.

Example: A network within a corporate office where computers, printers, and other devices
are connected.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Scope: A Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a large geographical area, often connecting
multiple cities, regions, or even countries.

Features:

Large Coverage: WANs can span vast distances, making them suitable for global
communications.

Varied Speeds: Typically slower than LANs due to the longer distances, with speeds ranging
from 1 Mbps to 100 Mbps.

Internet Backbone: WANs often serve as the backbone for the internet and large
organizational networks.

Example: The internet itself, or a corporate network connecting different branch offices
across cities or countries.

7. What is the need of modulation.

Modulation is a fundamental process in communication systems, where a message signal
(information) is superimposed onto a carrier wave for transmission. This process is essential
for several reasons:

Efficient Transmission: Modulation allows the transmission of signals over long distances by
shifting the signal to a higher frequency. Higher frequency signals can travel further and are
less susceptible to attenuation and interference.
 Frequency Multiplexing: Multiple signals can be transmitted simultaneously over the same
communication channel using different carrier frequencies. This is known as Frequency
Division Multiplexing (FDM), which maximizes the use of available bandwidth.

Antenna Size: For efficient radiation and reception of signals, the size of the antenna should
be proportional to the wavelength of the signal. Modulating to higher frequencies reduces
the required antenna size, making it more practical.

Noise Reduction: Modulating a signal to a higher frequency band can help minimize the
effects of noise and interference, which are typically more prevalent at lower frequencies.

Bandwidth Utilization: Modulation helps in utilizing the available bandwidth efficiently.

Different modulation schemes (such as AM, FM, and QAM) enable more data to be
transmitted within the same bandwidth.

9.Difference between FDM and TDM.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

Principle: Multiple signals are transmitted simultaneously, each occupying a unique

frequency band.

Frequency Bands: Each signal uses a different frequency, and all frequencies are transmitted
together.

Applications: Used in radio and TV broadcasting, cable TV, and long-distance telephone lines.

Interference: Requires careful frequency management to avoid interference.

Continuous Transmission: All channels are transmitted simultaneously.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

Principle: Multiple signals are transmitted sequentially, each occupying a unique time slot.

Time Slots: Each signal uses the entire bandwidth, but only for its assigned time slot.

Applications: Used in digital telephony, satellite communication, and data transmission

networks.

Synchronization: Requires precise synchronization to ensure accurate time slot allocation.

Sequential Transmission: Channels are transmitted one after another in time slots.

8. Explain the concept of FSK

Advantages:

Noise Resilience: FSK is relatively robust against signal noise and interference, making it
suitable for noisy environments.
Simple Demodulation: Can be demodulated using simple hardware, like band-pass filters,
making it cost-effective.

Applications:

Data Communication: Used in modems for dial-up connections and in radio transmission
systems.

Telemetry: Employed in various telemetry systems where reliable data transmission is

essential.

Example: Imagine you want to transmit the binary sequence 1010:

Binary 1: Transmitted using frequency f1.

12. Explain Bus and star topology in brief.

Bus Topology
Concept: All devices connect to a single central cable (bus).

Pros: Simple, cost-effective, easy to implement and extend.

Cons: Single point of failure, limited bandwidth, collisions.

Star Topology
Concept: All devices connect to a central hub or switch.

Pros: Easy troubleshooting, high performance, scalable.

Cons: Central point of failure, higher setup cost.

These topologies define how devices are interconnected in a network, with bus topology
offering simplicity and star topology providing better performance and management.

12. Explain Bus and star topology in brief.

Bus Topology
Concept: All devices connect to a single central cable (bus).

Pros: Simple, cost-effective, easy to implement and extend.

Cons: Single point of failure, limited bandwidth, collisions.

Star Topology
Concept: All devices connect to a central hub or switch.

Pros: Easy troubleshooting, high performance, scalable.

Cons: Central point of failure, higher setup cost.

These topologies define how devices are interconnected in a network, with bus topology
offering simplicity and star topology providing better performance and management.

13. Explain PCM modulator with block diagram.

PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) Modulator
A Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) modulator converts an analog signal into a digital signal by
following these key steps:

1. Sampling: The analog signal is sampled at regular intervals. The sampling rate must be at
least twice the highest frequency component of the analog signal (according to the Nyquist
Theorem) to accurately reconstruct the original signal.

2. Quantization: Each sampled value is rounded off to the nearest value within a finite set of
discrete levels. This step introduces quantization error, but the signal becomes easier to
encode.

3. Encoding: The quantized values are then converted into binary form (digital code). This
binary representation is what gets transmitted or stored.
[ Analog Signal ] --> [ Sampler ] --> [ Quantizer ] --> [ Encoder ] --> [ Digital Signal ]

Block Diagram of PCM Modulator

Input Analog Signal: The original analog signal to be modulated.

Sampler: Samples the analog signal at regular intervals.

Quantizer: Converts the sampled values into discrete levels.

Encoder: Converts the quantized levels into binary code.

Output Digital Signal: The final digital representation of the original analog signal.

14. Explain with block diagram of electronic communication system.

An electronic communication system enables the transfer of information between two or
more places using electronic signals. Here's a short overview of its main components:

Information Source: The origin of the message or data.

Transmitter: Converts the message into a signal suitable for transmission.

Channel: The medium through which the signal travels (e.g., air, cable).

Receiver: Converts the received signal back into a usable form.

Destination: The endpoint where the message is received and understood.

[ Information Source ] --> [ Transmitter ] --> [ Channel ] --> [ Receiver ] --> [ Destination ]
his system is essential for applications like telecommunication, broadcasting, and data
transmission, ensuring efficient and accurate delivery of information
15. Explain QPSK modulator.
[9:37 AM, 12/14/2024] Sriniwas Jagave: QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) Modulator
Concept: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a type of digital modulation technique
used to transmit data by changing (modulating) the phase of a carrier wave. QPSK modulates
the phase of the carrier wave in four distinct positions, corresponding to four unique binary
symbols.

How It Works:

Bit Pairing: QPSK groups incoming data bits into pairs (00, 01, 10, and 11).

Phase Shifting: Each bit pair is assigned one of four phase shifts: 0°, 90°, 180°, or 270°.

Signal Mapping: The carrier wave's phase is adjusted according to the assigned phase shift
for each bit pair.

Advantages:

Higher Data Rate: QPSK can transmit twice the data rate compared to Binary Phase Shift
Keying (BPSK) within the same bandwidth.

Bandwidth Efficiency: It uses bandwidth more efficiently by encoding two bits per symbol.
[ Input Data ] --> [ Serial-to-Parallel Converter ] --> [ Phase Mapping ] --> [ Modulator ] -->
[ QPSK Signal ]

16. Five features of FDMA.

Five Features of FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
Unique Frequency Bands: Each user is assigned a specific frequency band within the
available spectrum.

Simultaneous Transmission: Multiple users can transmit simultaneously, each using their
unique frequency band.

Fixed Frequency Allocation: Frequency bands are fixed and dedicated to specific users or
channels.

Interference Management: Proper frequency planning minimizes interference between

users.

Continuous Transmission: Users can continuously transmit their data without waiting for
time slots or synchronization.

These features make FDMA a fundamental technique in communication systems, especially

in traditional radio and TV broadcasting

17. What is networking devices? Explain router and hub

Networking Devices
Networking devices are hardware components used to connect computers, printers, and
other devices to a network, allowing them to communicate and share resources. Common
networking devices include routers, switches, hubs, and access points.

Router:

Function: Routes data between different networks and directs traffic efficiently.

Use: Connects multiple networks (e.g., a home network to the internet).

Feature: Provides IP address assignment, firewall security, and network traffic management.

Hub:

Function: Connects multiple devices in a network, allowing them to communicate.

Use: Operates at the physical layer, transmitting data to all connected devices.

Feature: Simple and cost-effective, but less efficient due to potential data collisions

18.Short Note on : Modulation Index, DSSS, ring topology, CSMA protocol, types of noise
Modulation Index:

Concept: A measure of the extent of modulation applied to a carrier signal.

Use: Indicates the ratio of the modulating signal's amplitude to the carrier signal's amplitude.

Example: For AM, it determines the depth of modulation, affecting signal strength and
bandwidth.

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum):

Concept: A modulation technique that spreads the signal over a wide frequency band by
multiplying it with a pseudorandom noise sequence.

Benefit: Provides high resistance to interference and eavesdropping.

Application: Used in GPS, Wi-Fi (802.11b), and other secure communication systems.

Ring Topology:

Concept: A network configuration where each device is connected to two other devices,
forming a circular path for data transmission.

Advantages: Simple to install, good for small networks. Disadvantages: A break in the ring
can disrupt the entire network.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) Protocol:

Concept: A network protocol that listens for a carrier signal before trying to transmit data.

Types:

CSMA/CD (Collision Detection): Used in Ethernet networks to detect and handle data
collisions.

CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance): Used in Wi-Fi networks to avoid data collisions.

Benefit: Reduces the likelihood of data collisions in a shared network.

Types of Noise:

Thermal Noise: Random noise generated by the thermal motion of electrons.

Shot Noise: Arises from the discrete nature of electric charge, significant in semiconductor
devices.

Intermodulation Noise: Caused by the mixing of two or more signals, creating additional
frequencies.

Crosstalk: Unwanted coupling between signal paths, causing interference.

Impulse Noise: Sudden, short bursts of noise caused by external disturbances like lightning

19,. noe On : MAN, Gateways, Network Cables, electronic spectrum.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

Scope: Covers a larger geographical area than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, typically a city
or a large campus.

Features: High-speed connectivity, connecting multiple LANs within a metropolitan area.

Use: Commonly used for connecting corporate offices, universities, and government
buildings within a city.

Gateways:

Function: Acts as a bridge between different networks, often using different protocols.

Features: Converts data formats, protocols, or addresses to enable communication between

networks.

Use: Essential for connecting different network architectures (e.g., a local network to the
internet).
Network Cables:

Types:

Twisted Pair: Commonly used in LANs (e.g., Cat5, Cat6).

Coaxial: Used in cable television and early computer networks.

Fiber Optic: Transmits data using light signals, providing high-speed and long-distance
communication.

Features: Different cables offer varying levels of speed, distance, and resistance to
interference.

Electromagnetic Spectrum:

Concept: The range of all types of electromagnetic radiation.

Components: Includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and
gamma rays.

Use in Communication

20. what is channel capacity? explain Shannon theorem in brief.

Channel Capacity
Channel Capacity is the maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a
communication channel without error. It depends on the bandwidth of the channel and the
noise present in the communication system.
Formula : c = blog2 (1 + S / N)
Shannon's Theorem
Shannon's Theorem (also known as the Shannon-Hartley Theorem) provides a way to
calculate the channel capacity.
Explanation:

The theorem states that the capacity of a communication channel is determined by its
bandwidth and the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N).

It establishes the maximum theoretical data transmission rate for a channel with a given
bandwidth and noise level.

21. What are error handling codes? explain in detail hamming code.
Error Handling Codes
Error handling codes are techniques used in digital communication systems to detect and
correct errors in transmitted data. These codes ensure that the received data is accurate and
reliable, despite the presence of noise and other disturbances during transmission.

Hamming Code
Concept: Hamming code is a type of error-correcting code that can detect and correct single-
bit errors. It uses redundant bits, which are strategically placed within the data bits to enable
error detection and correction.

How It Works:

Parity Bits: Hamming code adds parity bits to the original data bits. The number of parity bits
(r) is determined based on the number of data bits (d) such that
2𝑟≥𝑟+𝑑+1
Placement: Parity bits are placed in positions that are powers of 2 (e.g., 1, 2, 4, 8).

Calculation: Each parity bit is calculated based on specific positions in the data to ensure
even parity (or odd parity, depending on the requirement).

22. Explain QAM, state its limitations and applications

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Concept: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a digital modulation technique that
combines both amplitude modulation (AM) and phase modulation (PM). It conveys data by
changing the amplitude and phase of a carrier wave in response to the digital signal being
transmitted.
Applications:

Telecommunications: Widely used in digital telephony and cellular networks due to its high
data rate capabilities.

Broadband Internet: Utilized in cable modems and DSL for high-speed internet connections.

Wi-Fi: Employed in wireless communication standards (e.g., 802.11) to enhance data

transmission efficiency.

Limitations:

Noise Sensitivity: Higher-order QAM (e.g., 64-QAM, 256-QAM) is more sensitive to noise and
interference, requiring a higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for accurate data transmission.

Complexity: Implementing QAM with higher modulation orders is more complex,

necessitating advanced signal processing and error correction techniques.

Power Efficiency: Less power-efficient compared to some other modulation schemes, which
can be a drawback in battery-powered devices.

25.What is multiplexing? explain with block diagram.

Multiplexing
Concept: Multiplexing is a technique used in telecommunications and computer networks to
combine multiple signals or data streams into one signal over a shared medium. This
improves the efficiency of the communication channel by allowing the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals.
Types of Multiplexing:

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Uses different frequency bands for each signal.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Allocates different time slots for each signal.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): Uses different wavelengths (colors) of light for
each signal, mainly in fiber optic communications.
[ Input 1 ] -->
[ Input 2 ] -->
[ Input 3 ] --> [ MUX ] --> [ Shared Medium ] --> [ DEMUX ] --> [ Output 1 ]
[ Input n ] --> --> [ Output 2 ]
--> [ Output 3 ]
--> [ Output n ]

This diagram illustrates the basic process of multiplexing, where multiple input signals are
combined, transmitted over a shared medium, and then separated back into their original
form. Multiplexing is crucial for efficient utilization of communication channels and is widely
used in various applications.

24. Difference between ALOHA and CSMA.

ALOHA:

Type: Random access protocol.

Method: Transmits data whenever there is data to send. It does not check if the channel is
free before transmission.

Collision Handling: If a collision occurs (i.e., two nodes transmit at the same time), the data is
re-sent after a random time interval.

Variants: Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA.

Efficiency: Lower efficiency due to higher chances of collision.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access):

Type: Channel access protocol.

Method: Nodes listen to the channel before transmitting. If the channel is free, the node
transmits data; if the channel is busy, it waits.

Collision Handling: Reduces the likelihood of collisions by sensing the carrier before
transmitting.

Variants: CSMA/CD (Collision Detection) and CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance).

Efficiency
25.Difference between FDMA , TDMA , CDMA
DMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):

Principle: Divides the available frequency band into multiple channels, each assigned to a
different user.

Method: Each user transmits on a unique frequency band simultaneously.

Example: Traditional radio and TV broadcasting, some early cellular networks.

Advantages: Simple to implement, minimal interference if frequencies are well-separated.

Disadvantages: Inefficient use of spectrum if the assigned frequency bands are not fully
utilized.

TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access):

Principle: Divides time into slots and allocates each slot to a different user.

Method: Users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using the same
frequency but in different time slots.

Example: GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) networks.

Advantages: Efficient use of the frequency spectrum, easy synchronization.

Disadvantages: Requires precise timing and synchronization, delays due to slot waiting time.

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access):

Principle: Uses unique spreading codes for each user to spread their signals over the entire
available bandwidth.

Method: All users transmit simultaneously over the same frequency band, with each user's
signal distinguished by a unique code.

Example: 3G cellular networks like CDMA2000 and WCDMA.

Advantages: High capacity and robustness against interference, flexible use of spectrum.

Disadvantages: Complex implementation, higher power consumption, potential for code

collisions.

26.What is TCP/IP? Explain Its working with proper diagram.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
Concept: TCP/IP is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices
on the internet. It defines how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed,
and received.
Working of TCP/IP
Layers:

Application Layer: Provides various network services to applications (e.g., HTTP for web
browsing, FTP for file transfer).

Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer between devices (e.g., TCP for connection-
oriented communication, UDP for connectionless communication).

Internet Layer: Handles logical addressing and routing (e.g., IP for addressing and routing
packets).

Network Interface Layer: Deals with the physical transmission of data over the network
medium (e.g., Ethernet for wired communication, Wi-Fi for wireless).
+--------------------+
| Application Layer | <-- Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS
+--------------------+
| Transport Layer | <-- Protocols: TCP, UDP
+--------------------+
| Internet Layer | <-- Protocols: IP, ICMP, ARP
+--------------------+
| Network Interface | <-- Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi
+--------------------+
| Physical Medium | <-- Cable, Radio Waves
+--------------------+