Computer Architecture

Lecture 1
Fundamental Concepts
What is Computer Architecture?

◼ The science and art of designing, selecting, and

interconnecting hardware components and designing the
hardware/software interface to create a computing system
that meets functional, performance, energy consumption,
cost, and other specific goals.

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Why Study Computer
Architecture?

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Why Study Computer Architecture?
◼ Enable better systems: make computers faster, cheaper,
smaller, more reliable, …
❑ By exploiting advances and changes in underlying technology/circuits

◼ Enable new applications

❑ Life-like 3D visualization 20 years ago?
❑ Virtual reality?

◼ Enable better solutions to problems

❑ Software innovation is built into trends and changes in computer architecture
◼ > 50% performance improvement per year has enabled this innovation

◼ Understand why computers work the way they do

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Computer Architecture Today
◼ Today is a very exciting time to study computer architecture

◼ Industry is in a large paradigm shift (to multi-core and

beyond) – many different potential system designs possible

◼ Many difficult problems motivating and caused by the shift

❑ Power/energy constraints
❑ Complexity of design → multi-core?
❑ Difficulties in technology scaling → new technologies?
❑ Memory
❑ Reliability
❑ Programmability

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What is A Computer?
Three key components in computer system

◼ Computation
◼ Communication
◼ Storage (memory)

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What is A Computer?
◼ We will cover all three components

Processing
control Memory
(sequencing) (program I/O System
and data)
datapath

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What is a Computer System?

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Levels of Representation

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 Levels of Abstraction
Graphical Interface
Application
Programming Application
Libraries
Operating System
System Programming
Programming Language
Assembler Language
Instruction Set Architecture - “Machine Language”
Processor IO System
Firmware Microprogramming

Computer Design Datapath and Control

Digital Design
Logic Design
Circuit Design Circuits and devices
Fabrication Semiconductors
Materials
 Computer Organization
◼ Capabilities & Performance Characteristics of
Principal Functional Units
(e.g., Registers, ALU, Shifters, Memory Management, etc.
◼ Ways in which these components are interconnected
❑ Datapath - nature of information flows and connection of
functional units
❑ Control - logic and means by which such information flow is
controlled

“Hardware” designer’s view includes logic and firmware

 This Course Focuses on General Purpose Processors
Unified main memory
◼ A general-purpose
• For both programs & data
computer system
❑ Uses a programmable Busses & controllers to connect
processor, memory, IO devices
processor
❑ Can run “any” application
❑ Potentially optimized for Processor
some class of applications Input
Control
Memory

Datapath
Output
Bus Structures

❑ A group of lines that serves a connecting path for several

devices is called a bus.
❑ In addition to the lines that carry the data, the bus must
have lines for address and control purposes
❑ The simplest way to interconnect functional units is to use a
single bus, as shown below

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Today, “Computers” are Connected Processors
Proc

Caches
Busses

adapters
Memory

Controllers

Disks
I/O Devices:
Displays Networks
Keyboards

◼ All have interfaces &

organizations
What does a computer architect do?
Drivers Work Products
Business, product management, marketing

Measurement and Evaluation

Translates business and technology drives

into efficient systems for computing tasks.
What is A Computer?
◼ Input/Output (I/O) devices– These allow you to send
information to the computer or get information from the
computer.

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Memory Words

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What is A Computer?
◼ Central Processing Unit– CPU or Processor for short. The brain
of a computer. Approximately 1.5 in X 1.5 in. Does all the
computation/work for the computer.

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What is A Computer?
◼ Memory– Although memory is technically any form of electronic
storage, it is used most often to identify fast, temporary forms of
storage. Accessing the hard drive for information takes time.
When the information is kept in memory, the CPU can access it
much more quickly.

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Connection between processor and Main
Memory

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What is A Computer?
◼ Random Access Memory– RAM. Where information is stored
temporarily when a program is run. Information is automatically
pulled into memory, we cannot control this. RAM is cleared
automatically when the computer is shutdown or rebooted. RAM
is volatile (non-permanent).

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What is A Computer?
◼ Read Only Memory– ROM. More permanent than RAM. Data
stored in these chips is nonvolatile -- it is not lost when power is
removed. Data stored in these chips is either unchangeable or
requires a special operation to change. The BIOS is stored in the
CMOS, read-only memory.

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What is A Computer?
◼ Hard Drive– Where you store information permanently most
frequently. This is also nonvolatile.

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What is A Computer?
◼ Motherboard – A circuit board that allows the CPU to interact
with other parts of the computer.

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What is A Computer?
Ports – Means of connecting peripheral devices to your computer.
◼ Serial Port – Often used to connect an older mice, older external modems,
older digital cameras, etc to the computer. The serial port has been replaced by
USB in most cases. 9-pin connector. Small and short, often gray in color.
Transmits data at 19 Kb/s.
◼ Monitor Ports – Used to connect a monitor to the computer. PCs usually use a
VGA (Video Graphics Array) analog connector (also known as a D-Sub
connector) that has 15 pins in three rows. Typically blue in color.

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What is A Computer?
Ports – Means of connecting peripheral devices to your computer.
◼ Parallel Port – Most often used to connect a printer to the computer. 25-pin
connector. Long and skinny, often pink in color. Transmits data at 50-100
Kb/s.
◼ USB Port – Universal Serial Bus. Now used to connect almost all peripheral
devices to the computer. USB 1.1 transmits data at 1.5 Mb/s at low speed, 12
Mb/s at full speed. USB 2.0 transmits data at 480 Mb/s.

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What is A Computer?
Ports – Means of connecting peripheral devices to your computer.
◼ PS/2 Port- sometimes called a mouse port, was developed by IBM. It is used
to connect a computer mouse or keyboard. Most computers come with two
PS/2 ports.
◼ Ethernet Port– This port is used for networking and fast internet connections.
Data moves through them at speeds of either 10 megabits or 100 megabits or 1
gigabit (1,000 megabits) depending on what speed the network card in the
computer supports. Little monitor lights on these devices flicker when in use.

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What is A Computer?
Power Supply – Gives your computer power by converting
alternating current (AC) supplied by the wall connection to direct
current (DC).

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What is A Computer?
Expansion Cards – Used to add/improve functionality to the
computer.
Sound Card – Used to input and output sound under program
control. Sound cards provide better sound quality than the built in
sound control provided with most computers.
Graphics Card – Used to convert the logical representation of an
image to a signal that can be used as input for a monitor.
Network Card – Used to provide a computer connection over a
network. Transmit data at 10/100/1000 Mb/s.

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What is A Computer?
CD ROM – A device used to read CD-ROMs. If capable of writing
to the CD-ROM, then they are usually referred to as a ‘burner’ or
CD-RW.
DVD ROM – A device that is used to read DVDs/CDs. If capable of
writing to the DVD, then it is often referred to as a DVD-burner or a
DVD-RW.
Floppy Drive – A device that is used to read/write to floppy
diskettes.

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What is A Computer?
Fan – Keeps your computer cool. If the inside of your computer
becomes too hot, then the computer can overheat and damage parts.
Heatsink – Used to disperse the heat that is produced inside the
computer by the CPU and other parts by increasing surface area.

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What is A Computer?
The little parts– Capacitors – store energy, Resistors – allows a
current through, Transistors – a valve which allows currents to be
turned on or off.
Case – (Tower if standing upright.) What your motherboard, CPU,
etc is contained in.

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Comprehension Questions
1. What are the 3 main components of a computer?
2. Name 3 input devices. Name 3 output devices.
3. What is the brain of the computer?
4. Explain the difference between memory and your hard
drive.
5. What are the similarities and differences between
RAM, ROM, and hard drives?
6. Describe each of the different ports.
8. What gives your computer power?

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Memory

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Memory Organization and Addressing
◼ You can envision memory as a matrix of bits. Each row,
implemented by a register, has a length typically equivalent
to the word size of the machine. Each register (more
commonly referred to as a memory location) has a unique
address; memory addresses usually start at zero and
progress upward.

◼ An address is almost always represented by an unsigned

integer, 4-bits is a nibble, and 8- bits is a byte.
◼ Normally, memory is byte-addressable which means that
each individual byte has a unique address. Some machines
may have a word size that is larger than a single byte.
◼ For example, a computer might handle 32-bit words (which
means it can manipulate 32 bits at a time through various
instructions), but still employ a byte-addressable architecture.

◼ In this situation, when a word uses multiple bytes, the byte with
the lowest address determines the address of the entire word.

◼ It is also possible that a computer might be word-addressable,

which means each word (not necessarily each byte) has its own
address, but most current machines are byte-addressable (even
though they have 32-bit or larger words).

◼ A memory address is typically stored in a single machine word

Internal Memory
◼ Semiconductor Memory
◼ It is all a random access memory.
◼ The main element of semiconductor memory is cell as
shown in figure Cell properties
◼ They exhibit two states 0 or 1.
◼ Capable of being written into.
◼ Capable of being read from.
Semiconductor Memory
◼ RAM
❑ Misnamed as all semiconductor memory is random access
❑ Read/Write
❑ Volatile
❑ Temporary storage
❑ Static or dynamic
Dynamic RAM
◼ Bits stored as charge in capacitors
◼ Charges leak
◼ Need refreshing even when powered
◼ Simpler construction
◼ Smaller per bit
◼ Less expensive
◼ Need refresh circuits
◼ Slower
◼ Main memory
◼ Essentially analogue
❑ Level of charge determines value
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
DRAM
◼ Build on the idea of charging a capacitor
◼ DRAM Operation
◼ Address line active when bit read or written
❑ Transistor switch closed (current flows)
◼ Write
❑ Voltage to bit line

◼ High for 1 low for 0

❑ Then signal address line
◼ Transfers charge to capacitor
◼ Read
❑ Address line selected

◼ transistor turns on
❑ Charge from capacitor fed via bit line to
sense amplifier
❑ Compares with reference value to determine 0
or 1
⚫Capacitor charge must be restored
Static RAM Operation
◼ Transistor arrangement gives stable logic state
◼ State 1
❑ C1 high, C2 low
❑ T1 T4 off, T2 T3 on
◼ State 0
❑ C2 high, C1 low
❑ T2 T3 off, T1 T4 on
◼ Address line transistors T5 T6 is switch
◼ Write – apply value to B & compliment to B
◼ Read – value is on line B
Address line transistors T5 T6 is switch
Write – apply value to B & compliment to B
Read – value is on line.
Static RAM
◼ Bits stored as on/off switches
◼ No charges to leak
◼ No refreshing needed when powered
◼ More complex construction
◼ Larger per bit
◼ More expensive
◼ Does not need refresh circuits
◼ Faster
◼ Cache
◼ Digital
❑ Uses flip-flops
SRAM v DRAM
◼ Both volatile
❑ Power needed to preserve data
◼ Dynamic cell
❑ Simpler to build, smaller
❑ More dense
❑ Less expensive
❑ Needs refresh
❑ Larger memory units
◼ Static
❑ Faster
❑ Cache
 Comparison between DRAM and SRAM

DRAM SRAM

Simpler to build, Larger than DRAM

smaller
More dense Faster

Less expensive More expensive

Needs refresh Doesn't need refresh

Larger memory units Smaller memory units

(Main Memory) (Cache)
ROM (Read Only Memory)
◼ The programming here is by hardware
◼ Non-volatile
Types of ROM
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
◼ Programmed for once using special equipment, and never erased.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

◼ Programmable and erased using ultra violet.
◼ Erased as a whole.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

◼ Programmable and erased using electrical shots.
◼ Erased byte by byte
◼ Can erase a part without another

Flash memory
◼ Programmable and erased using electrical shots.
◼ Erased block by block
◼ Erased so quick (in a flash).
Chip organization
◼ The question is how to put the memory on a chip…… ??
◼ If we have a memory of 2n location with 32-bits each,
so, it can be represented by one of two means:-
1- Put it in the form of a
matrix with 2n rows and
32 columns.
→But this architecture
is not suitable because
the length is much more
than its width.
Memory Words

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Use a group of blocks each will represent a bit, then we need
32 blocks.
◼Each block contains 2n bits represented as square matrix: 2n/2
rows and 2n/2 columns.
◼The size will be smaller than the first solution.

Bit 1 Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 32

1 2n/2
Bit 1 1 Bit
32

Bit 1 2n/2
Bit
Total bits in the square = 2n 32
 32 blocks

Bit 32
Bit 3
Bit 2
Bit 1

Bit1 Bit2 Bit3 Bit32

Bits are collected each from each block

Example:
◼ A 16-Mbit DRAM ( 4 Mbits each 4 bits word) can be
organized so that 4-bits are read or written at a time
◼ So logically the memory array is organized as 4 square
arrays of 2048 (2 Kbits) by 2048 (2 Kbits) elements.
◼ The elements of the array are connected by both horizontal
(row) and vertical (columns) lines.
◼ We need 22 bits address (4 Mbits = 222 bits)
◼ In this configuration, there are only 11-address lines(A0-
A10), half the number you would expects for 2048 by 2048
array.
◼ We will enter it 11 bits by 11 bits.
 4 blocks
Each 2048 X 2048

Bit 4
Bit 3
Bit 2
Bit 1

Bit1 Bit2 Bit3 Bit4

The four Bits are collected each from

its corresponding block
 Row
Bit 1
Decoder
Row Address

Column Decoder

Repeat in parallel for

the rest of the 3 bits

Column Address
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 RAM Chips
◼ A RAM chip is faster when communicating with CPU than dealing
with Auxiliary devices directly.
◼ If the memory needed for the computer is larger than the
capacity of one RAM chip, we combine a number of chips to form
required memory size.
◼ If we have many RAM chips, we must choose to access one of
them
◼ We use control inputs to select the chip only when needed.

Chip select 1 CS1

Chip select 2 8-bit data bus
CS2
Read (RD) RD 128 x 8
(128 byte)
Write (WR) WR RAM
7-bit address AD7

128 = 27 Address = 7 bits

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8 = 1 byte of data
 RAM chip function table
Memory
CS1 CS2 RD WR State of data bus
function

0 0 X X Inhibit High-impedance

0 1 X X Inhibit High-impedance

1 0 0 0 Inhibit High-impedance

1 0 0 1 Write Input data to RAM

Output data from

1 0 1 X Read
RAM

1 1 X X Inhibit High-impedance

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 ROM Chips
◼ A ROM chip is organized externally in a similar manner. ROM can
only read, the data bus can only be in an output mode.
◼ For the same–size chip, it is possible to have more bits of ROM than
of RAM, because the internal binary cells in ROM occupy less space
than in RAM.
◼ For this reason, the diagram specifies a 512-byte ROM, while the
RAM has only 128 bytes.
◼ address lines = 9 bits (512 = 29)
◼ The two chip select inputs must be CS1=1 and CS2= 0 for the unit
to operate.
◼ Otherwise, the data bus is in a high-impedance state.

Chip select 1 CS1

8-bit data bus
Chip select 2 CS2 512 X 8
(512-byte)
ROM
9-bit address AD9

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Practical Example : How CPU deal with RAM and
ROM
Assume that a computer system has:
◼ 512 bytes of RAM (we use 4 blocks of RAM of the same type
128X8)
◼ 512 bytes of ROM (single block).

16 bits address bus

6 bits not used 1 bit 2 bits 7 bits address

RAM (0) or
ROM (1) access
RAM chip select
Or the rest of ROM chip address

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 bits 8 - 9

2 X 4 Decoder

RAM 1 RAM 2 RAM 3 RAM 4

CS1 CS1 CS1 CS1

We use a decoder to select one of the 4

RAM chips using bits 8 – 9 by connecting
the output to CS1 of the RAM Chip
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 CPU
Address bus
16 - 11 10 9 8 7-1 RD WR Data bus

Decoder

3 2 1 0 CS1
CS2
RD 128 x 8 Data
WR RAM
AD7
CS1
CS2
RD 128 x 8 Data
WR RAM
AD7
CS1
CS2
RD 128 x 8 Data
WR RAM
AD7
CS1
CS2
RD 128 x 8 Data
WR RAM
AD7
CS1
CS2
512 x 8 Data 75
AD9 ROM
(0000 0000 0000 0000)2 = (0000)16
(0000 0000 0111 1111)2 = (007F)16
(0000 0000 1000 0000)2 = (0080)16
(0000 0000 1111 1111)2 = (00FF)16
(0000 0001 0000 0000)2 = (0100)16
(0000 0001 0111 1111)2 = (017F)16 76
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