MTC-241 | Computational Geometry

Give any two examples of parallel projection.

Parallel projection is a type of projection where all projection lines are parallel to each other. Here are
two examples:
Orthographic Projection: In this type, the projection lines are perpendicular to the projection plane. It's
like casting a shadow of the object directly onto the plane when the light source is infinitely far away.
Orthographic projections are commonly used in technical drawings to show the true shape and size of
different sides of an object (front view, top view, side view).
Oblique Projection: Here, the projection lines are parallel to each other but are not perpendicular to the
projection plane. They meet the plane at an oblique angle. This type of projection is often used to
create pictorial drawings where one face of the object is shown in its true size and shape, while the
other faces are projected at an angle to give a sense of depth. Cavalier and cabinet projections are
subtypes of oblique projection, differing in the angle and foreshortening of the receding axes.

Define the term solid body transformation.

A solid body transformation (also known as a rigid body transformation or Euclidean transformation) in
Computational Geometry refers to a geometric transformation of a solid object (or a set of points
representing it) in Euclidean space that preserves the distances between any two points of the object.
Essentially, it moves the object without changing its shape or size.
Think of it as picking up a solid object, moving it around (translating or rotating it), and placing it down
in a new location. The object itself doesn't deform, stretch, shrink, or get reflected.

Write types of oblique projection.

Oblique projection is a type of parallel projection where the projection lines are parallel to each other
but are not perpendicular to the projection plane. The angle at which the projection lines meet the
plane is oblique (not 90 degrees).
Types of oblique projection are classified based on the angle and the scaling applied along the
receding axis (the axis that represents depth):
Cavalier Projection: The projection lines make an angle (typically 45 degrees, but can vary) with
the projection plane.
The receding axis is projected at its true length (no foreshortening).
Cabinet Projection:
The projection lines also make an oblique angle with the projection plane (common angles are 45 or
63.4 degrees).
The receding axis is projected at half its true length. This foreshortening by half makes the resulting
image appear more realistic than a Cavalier projection.
Military Projection (or Plan Oblique):
One of the principal faces (usually the top or bottom, hence "plan") of the object is parallel to the
projection plane and is shown in its true shape and size.
The projection of the vertical axis (representing height) is oblique to the projection plane, typically at
a 45-degree angle.

write any two properties of Be'zier curve

- It always passes through the first and last control points.
- Bezier curves has variation-diminishing property. This means it never oscillates widely from its
defining control points.
- Bernstein basis functions are real.
- The curve follows the shape of the defining polygon.
- The curve is invariant under affine transformation.
- The Bezier curve lies entirely within the convex hull of defining polygon.
Write types of all axonometric parallel projections
axonometric projection is a type of orthographic parallel projection used to create a pictorial drawing of
an object, showing it rotated along one or more of its principal axes relative to the viewing plane. In
this type of projection, the projection lines are perpendicular to the projection plane. The key
characteristic of axonometric projections is that they allow viewing of an object from a direction that
reveals more than one face simultaneously, providing a sense of three-dimensionality.
Isometric Projection: All three principal axes of the object are equally foreshortened.
The angles between the projected axes are all equal to 120 degrees.
Dimetric Projection:
Two of the three principal axes are equally foreshortened, while the third is foreshortened to a
different extent.
There are two equal angles between the projected axes, and the third angle is different.
Trimetric Projection:
All three principal axes are foreshortened to different extents.
All three angles between the projected axes are unequal.
Define projection in three dimensional space
projection in three-dimensional space refers to the process of mapping points from a 3D space onto a
2D plane (the projection plane). This mapping is achieved by drawing projection lines from each point
in the 3D object to the projection plane. The intersection of these lines with the plane creates the 2D
projection of the 3D object.
Parallel Projection: In parallel projection, all the projection lines are parallel to each other. This
implies that the viewpoint (the center of projection, if we were thinking about perspective) is
considered to be at infinity.
- Orthographic Projection - Oblique Projection
Perspective Projection
In perspective projection, the projection lines converge at a single point in space called the center of
projection (or viewpoint). This mimics how the human eye and cameras perceive the world, where
objects appear smaller as their distance from the viewer increases.
Perspective projections do not preserve parallelism or the ratios of lengths. However, they do create a
sense of depth and realism.
Define foreshortning factors in projection
foreshortening factors are the ratios by which the lengths of lines or axes of an object appear
shortened when projected onto a 2D plane. This shortening occurs when the lines or axes are not
parallel to the projection plane. The foreshortening factor is essentially the cosine of the angle
between the line (or axis) and the projection plane (or the normal to the projection plane, depending
on the context).
1. Axonometric Projection (a type of orthographic parallel projection):
Isometric Projection: All three principal axes are equally inclined to the projection plane, resulting in
equal foreshortening factors for all three axes. This factor is approximately 32≈0.816, meaning the
projected lengths of the axes are about 81.6% of their true lengths. However, in practice, isometric
drawings are often created without explicitly applying this factor for ease of measurement, accepting
the slight visual distortion.
Dimetric Projection: Two of the principal axes are equally inclined to the projection plane, leading to
two equal foreshortening factors and a third one that is different. The specific values depend on the
chosen angles of inclination.
Trimetric Projection: All three principal axes are inclined at different angles to the projection plane,
resulting in three different foreshortening factors, one for each axis. These factors are determined by
the cosines of the respective angles between each axis and the projection plane.
MTC-231 | Groups and coding theory
Define tearm Groups
In coding theory, groups, particularly abelian groups and especially vector spaces over finite fields
(which are a special type of abelian group), provide a powerful algebraic framework for designing and
analyzing error-correcting codes.
A group code is a type of error-correcting code where the set of codewords forms a subgroup of some
group. The most commonly studied group codes are linear codes, which are subgroups of a vector
space over a finite field (usually F2={0,1} with addition modulo 2, or more generally Fq where q is a
prime power)

MTC-231 | Groups and coding theory

State and prove Euclids Lemma
If a prime number p divides the product of two integers a and b (i.e., p∣ ab), then p must divide a or p
must divide b (or both).
Proof -
Assume p is a prime number and p∣ ab. We want to show that p∣ a or p∣ b.
Case 1: p∣ a.
If p divides a, then the lemma is true.
Case 2: p∤ a (i.e., p does not divide a).
Since p is prime and p does not divide a, the greatest common divisor of p and a must be 1, i.e.,
gcd(p,a)=1.
By Bezout's Identity, if gcd(p,a)=1, then there exist integers x and y such that:
px+ay=1
Now, multiply both sides of this equation by b:
b(px+ay)=b(1)pbx+aby=bp(bx)+(ab)y=b
We are given that p∣ ab, which means there exists an integer k such that ab=pk. Substituting this into
the equation above:
p(bx)+(pk)y=b
p(bx+ky)=b
Since bx+ky is an integer, this equation shows that p divides b (i.e., p∣ b).
Therefore, in either case (whether p∣ a or p∤ a), we have shown that p∣ a or p∣ b. This completes the
proof of Euclid's Lemma
State whether the following statement is true or false
Union of two subgroup is subgroup, justify
false
Let H and K be two subgroups of a group G. For their union H∪K to be a subgroup, it must satisfy the
subgroup criteria, which include closure under the group operation. That is, for any two elements
a,b∈ H∪K, their product a⋅ b (where ⋅ is the group operation in G) must also be in H∪K.
Consider the group (Z,+), the group of integers under addition.
Let H=2Z={…,−4,−2,0,2,4,…} be the subgroup of even integers.
Let K=3Z={…,−6,−3,0,3,6,…} be the subgroup of integers that are multiples of 3.
Now, let's consider the union of these two subgroups:
H∪K={…,−6,−4,−3,−2,0,2,3,4,6,…}
Take two elements from this union:
a=2∈ H∪K (since 2∈ H)
b=3∈ H∪K (since 3∈ K)
If H∪K were a subgroup, then their sum under the group operation of Z (which is addition) must also
be in H∪K.
a+b=2+3=5
Now, let's check if 5 is in H∪K.
5 is not an even integer, so 5∈ /H.
5 is not a multiple of 3, so 5∈ /K.
Therefore, 5∈ /H∪K.
Since we found two elements in H∪K whose sum is not in H∪K, the union H∪K is not closed under the
group operation (addition in this case). Hence, H∪K is not a subgroup of Z.

State whether the following statement is true or false

Every cycle group is an abelian group, justify
true.
Let G be a cyclic group. By definition, this means that there exists an element a∈ G (called a generator)
such that every element x in G can be written as some integer power of a. That is, for any x∈ G, there
exists an integer m such that x=am.
Now, let's take any two arbitrary elements x and y from G. Since G is cyclic with generator a, we can
write these elements as:
x=am for some integer m
y=an for some integer n
To show that G is abelian, we need to show that x⋅ y=y⋅ x, where ⋅ is the group operation in G. Let's
compute both products:
x⋅ y=am⋅ an
By the properties of exponents in a group (which follow from the associativity of the group operation),
we have:
am⋅ an=am+n
Now, let's compute y⋅ x:
y⋅ x=an⋅ am
Similarly, by the properties of exponents:
an⋅ am=an+m
Since the addition of integers is commutative (m+n=n+m), we have:
am+n=an+m
Therefore, we can conclude that:
x⋅ y=am+n=an+m=y⋅ x
Since this holds for any two arbitrary elements x and y in G, the group G is abelian.