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Research Methodology

Course Overview
This course aims to equip you with the essential skills and knowledge required for
conducting scientific research. It moves beyond the established facts typically taught
in schools and universities and delves into the methodology needed to explore the
unknown.

Course Structure
The course is divided into three main modules:

1. Philosophy of Science: Focuses on the philosophical underpinnings necessary

for understanding the scientific method.
2. Methodology of Science: Covers the practical aspects of conducting research,
including hypothesis formation and testing.
3. Scientific Communication and Ethics: Addresses the importance of
communicating research findings effectively and adhering to ethical standards
in science.

Module 1: Philosophy of Science

This module emphasizes that a scientific philosophical outlook enhances the
probability of success in research. It involves cleansing the mind of unscientific
thought processes and adopting a logical approach to thinking.

Key topics include:

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Subjective versus objective thinking

Idealism and materialism

Causality

Methods of logical thinking:

Inductive logic
Deductive logic
Syllogistic logic

History of the development of ideas and their influence on science.

Module 2: Methodology of Science

This module discusses how research is actually conducted, building on the
philosophical foundation laid in Module 1.

Key topics include:

Forming hypotheses
Scientific measurement: Understanding the general principles involved in
scientific measurement.
Hypothesis testing: Includes an overview of statistical methods.
Theoretical research

Module 3: Scientific Communication and Ethics

This module focuses on effectively communicating research results and adhering to
ethical practices in science.

Key topics include:

Writing scientific papers

Writing Ph.D. theses
Presentation in conferences
Writing grant proposals
Ethics of science: Understanding ethical and unethical practices to avoid
unintentional violations.

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Objective of Science
The primary objective of science is to discover the character, properties, and laws
that govern nature. Scientific research aims to uncover what is not yet known,
building upon existing knowledge to ask further questions.

Methodology of Science
Over time, various approaches have been used to explore the unknown. The
methodology of science has evolved through trials and errors to provide a systematic
way of seeking answers.

Key aspects include:

Philosophical Outlook: A correct philosophical outlook is crucial, though it does

not guarantee success.
Theory of Knowledge: Understanding how we know what we know.

The Role of Questioning

Science begins with questions arising from our experiences of the natural world.
These questions often start with "how," "why," or "which."

Collective vs. Personal Experience

Collective experience, shared by many, forms the basis of scientific investigation,
unlike personal experiences, which can be influenced by individual biases or
hallucinations.

A personal experience: "I have seen this, I have experienced this, I have
felt this", can never become the subject matters of scientific investigation.

Cumulative Pursuit of Knowledge

Science involves the collective and cumulative creation of knowledge:

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Collective: Many individuals collaborate to expand knowledge.

Cumulative: Each generation builds upon the knowledge of previous
generations.
Transpersonalization of Experience: Collective perception leads to conception
and then to knowledge.

Organizing Knowledge
Science requires the organization, crystallization, and systematization of collected
data and information. This involves abstraction and the use of mathematics to extract
universal laws governing material phenomena.

Truth in Science
Truth in science is the correspondence between an idea or statement and objective
reality. This correspondence is achieved incrementally through the contributions of
many scientists.

The Nature of Truth

Truth is actually the correspondence between an idea, a statement, and
the objective reality. If an idea or a statement accurately represents the
character of something in objective reality and it can predict outcomes of
an experiment conducted on that piece of matter then we say that the
idea is true.

Arts vs. Sciences

While social sciences use similar methods to natural sciences, arts subjects like
literature and music often emphasize value judgments, whereas science focuses on
truth judgments. This course primarily focuses on natural sciences due to time
constraints.

The Cycle of Knowledge Creation

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Step Description

Perception Experiencing the world through our senses.

Collective
Shared experiences among a group of people.
Perception
Conception Forming ideas based on collective perceptions.
Organized and systematized information derived from
Knowledge
conceptions.

Key Points to Remember

Science seeks to find truth about nature, addressing questions of "how," "why,"
and "which."
Collective experiences are fundamental to scientific inquiry.
The creation of knowledge is a cumulative and collaborative effort.
Organizing and systematizing information are critical steps in science.
Science strives for truth by incrementally refining our understanding of the
natural world.

The Imperfect Nature of Scientific Truths

Science seeks to uncover the unknown, acknowledging that our knowledge is always
incomplete. Unlike simplistic statements, scientific theories are continually tested and
refined.

Newton's Theory
Newton's theory, encompassing mechanics and gravitation, successfully explained
numerous phenomena. However, it failed to accurately predict the orbit of Mercury.
This discrepancy highlighted the need for more advanced theories.

Maxwell's Theory
Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism also faced limitations when applied to atomic
phenomena, leading to the development of quantum mechanics.

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The Hallmark of Science: Skepticism

Science thrives on doubt and skepticism. No theory is accepted without rigorous
testing, regardless of its originator. This organized skepticism is a defining
characteristic of the scientific method.

Organized skepticism is a system where scientists are skeptical about

everything. It is an organization of scientists involved in some pursuit, but
they share one common thing: they are skeptical about everything.

Incremental Improvement
Science progresses by identifying the failures and inadequacies of existing theories.
This leads to a constant refinement of knowledge, bringing us closer to the truth.

Relative Truth
All scientific truths are relative to the conditions in which they are proposed and
tested. Newton's theory, for instance, is valid under terrestrial conditions and weak
gravity, while Maxwell's laws hold true under specific electromagnetic conditions.

Concrete Truth
Despite their relativity, scientific truths are concrete within their specific contexts.
Newton's theory remains invaluable for engineering applications like bridge building
and rocket design because it is valid under those conditions.

Unique Truth
Science operates on the principle that for every question, there is a unique correct
answer. Competing theories are rigorously tested to eliminate falsehoods and
identify the most accurate explanation.

The Absence of Absolute Truth

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Science abandons the pursuit of absolute truth, recognizing that everything in the
material world is constantly changing. Instead, it focuses on understanding specific
phenomena under specific conditions.

Condition-Specific Laws
Scientific laws are applicable only under specific conditions. Chemistry, for example,
is irrelevant in the extreme conditions of the sun, while biology is meaningful only on
planets with life.

Summary of Truth

Attribute Description

Relative Dependent on the conditions in which it was proposed and tested

Concrete Remains valid and useful within those specific conditions
Unique For every question, there is only one correct answer
Not Always subject to change and refinement; never independent of space,
Absolute time, and specific conditions

Subjective vs. Objective Thinking in Science

Ancient vs. Modern Approaches

Ancient civilizations sought answers through personal realization and deep thinking.
In contrast, modern science relies on observation, experimentation, and objective
verification.

Subjective Thinking
In ancient times, questions were often answered through personal realization. This
led to multiple answers for a single question, with different schools of thought
emerging.

Subjective thinking is a mode of thinking where the person, the subject,

thinks and according to his own personal realization, arrives at an answer.

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The Absence of Verification

A key difference was the lack of emphasis on verifying the correctness of answers.
The ideas of wise men were often accepted without question.

Aristotle's Influence
Aristotle's views on mechanics and physics were highly influential, but often lacked
empirical verification. For example, he asserted that force produces motion and that
heavier bodies fall faster, without rigorous testing.

Challenging the Status Quo

The Renaissance marked a turning point, with figures like Galileo Galilei challenging
established beliefs through observation and experimentation.

Galileo's Experiments
Galileo's experiments at the Leaning Tower of Pisa and his observations of celestial
bodies provided evidence against Aristotelian physics and supported the Copernican
model of the solar system.

Objective Thinking
Galileo's work ushered in an era of objective thinking, where empirical evidence
dictates truth.

Objective thinking is a mode of thinking where the object, the material

objects, they tell us what is truth rather than we think up what is truth.

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The image shows a slide that contrasts Subjective and Objective Thinking in science.
Subjective thinking is based on personal realization while objective thinking says that
physical objects tell us the truth rather than we think up what is truth. The image
also shows Galileo Galilei and how he was crucial to this paradigm shift.

Science's Reliance on Objectivity

Science is founded on objective thinking and actively works to eliminate subjective
biases. This involves developing rigorous procedures to ensure the validity of
scientific results.

Pre-Galilean Science
While objective thinking is central to modern science, valuable discoveries were
made before Galileo through personal realization. Examples include the atomic
theory proposed by Leucippus, Democritus, and Kannada, and Archimedes'
understanding of elementary machines.

Idealism vs. Materialism

Two Philosophical Currents

Philosophical schools of thought can be broadly categorized into materialism and
idealism.

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Materialism
Materialism posits that the world is composed solely of matter.

Idealism
Idealism, on the other hand, suggests the existence of entities beyond matter, such as
ghosts and souls.

Contrasting Views

Aspect Materialism Idealism

Composition Matter and nothing but

Supra-matter entities (e.g., ghosts, soul)
of World matter
Matter is primary; idea is
Idea is primary; matter is secondary (or
Priority secondary (ideas are
matter is an illusion)
products of material brain)
Ideas originate from our minds, which is
Brain's interaction with
what we know things as rather than
Origin of Ideas other material entities,
things having inherent qualities or
nature, and society
properties (e.g. redness of a red cloth)

Materialist Perspective
Materialists argue that ideas originate in the brain, a material entity, through
interactions with the material world.

Idealist Perspective
Idealists propose that ideas are primary, with some suggesting that matter is an
illusion. Bishop Buckley argued that our perception of objects, like an apple, is a
construct of the mind based on sensory experiences. Therefore, the idea of the apple
is primary.

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Counterarguments
Materialists counter that the properties of objects, such as the color of a cloth, are
determined by their physical properties, independent of our perception.

Materialism vs. Idealism

The central difference between materialism and idealism lies in their view of the
existence of matter and its relationship to our consciousness.

Materialism: Asserts that matter exists independently of our consciousness.

The existence of objects, like an apple, is not contingent on whether we
perceive them or not.
Idealism: Proposes that matter exists within our consciousness. The existence
of the apple is dependent on our perception of it. If we do not perceive it, it does
not exist.

Materialism posits that the material world, including the universe and its
contents, exists independently of our consciousness.

Clarification of Materialism
In common usage, "materialism" is sometimes used to describe a lifestyle focused on
acquiring possessions. However, in philosophy, materialism is a serious school of
thought. Materialists believe that the universe consists solely of material objects that
exist independently of our consciousness. Science aims to understand these objects.

Philosophical Understanding of Matter

The philosophical meaning of "matter" differs slightly from the physics definition. To
understand it, we can look at how we generalize concepts.

For example, mangoes, bananas, pears, cherries, and grapes are different, but they
share a common trait: they are all fruits. The concept of "fruit" is an abstraction of the
human mind. While a generic "fruit" does not exist, the concept is clear. Similarly, we
abstract common properties from diverse things.

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Cats, leopards, giraffes, rhinoceroses, rats, and hippopotamuses look different, but
we recognize their commonality and classify them as mammals. The word "mammal"
is a construction of the human mind, representing the commonness abstracted from
these animals.

In this sense, "matter" refers to everything that exists independently of our

consciousness. Galaxies, planets, tigers, humans, air, and radiation are all different,
but they share this property. Even though physics textbooks might distinguish
between "matter" (having mass) and "radiation" (not having mass), philosophically,
radiation is also matter because it exists independently of our consciousness.

Matter and Sensory Perception

We know matter exists because it influences our senses. We see, touch, feel, and
taste an apple. X-rays, which we cannot directly perceive, can be detected with
instruments that convert them into a form our senses can understand.
Microorganisms, invisible to the naked eye, become visible with a microscope, which
extends our sense organs.

Distant stars and galaxies, not visible without aid, are detectable through telescopes.
Even if we haven't perceived certain galaxies or dark matter yet, the idea is that any
piece of matter has the potential to influence our senses.

Matter is defined as anything that has the ability to influence our senses,
directly or indirectly through instruments.

Gravitational waves, only recently detected, were pursued because theory predicted
their existence, implying they are matter and thus, theoretically detectable.

Science and Materialism

Science is rooted in materialism. It assumes the material world is composed of
matter, which is accessible to our senses and subject to scientific investigation. We
can detect matter, find its properties, and develop theories about it.

Implications for Science

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Science operates on the position of materialism, not idealism. Through scientific

learning, we internalize the concept that the world consists of matter, without any
supra-material elements.

Matter is defined as things that exist independent of our consciousness

and can imprint on our senses directly or through sensitive instruments.

This enables us to test developed theories. The discovery of the Higgs boson, after
50 years, demonstrates the confidence that if something exists, it must be detectable.
There may be currently unknown phenomena, but nothing is inherently unknowable.

Because of this philosophical foundation, science addresses questions like the origin
of life or the solar system by seeking material processes, without resorting to divine
intervention or supernatural explanations.

Causality
Causality is a central doctrine in science. It describes the principle that every event
has a cause, which science seeks to identify.

Historical Development of Causality

Throughout history, defining the cause of an event has been controversial. However,
significant progress has been made over millennia to understand and identify causes.

Rudimentary Understanding
Even in ancient times, humans had basic ideas about causality necessary for survival
and early developments.

Tigers cause death, so people avoided them.

Seeds cause trees, leading to agriculture.

These intuitive notions of causality were essential for daily life.

Aristotle's Four Causes

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The first refined ideas of causality appeared in the writings of Aristotle, who
suggested examining the cause of any event from four angles, using the example of a
marble statue:

Cause Description Example

Material The material from which something is made. The marble of the
Cause Without the material, the thing could not exist. statue.
Formal The idea or form of the thing in the mind of the The sculptor's idea of
Cause creator before it was made. the statue's final form.
Efficient The agent that brings about the thing. Without
The sculptor.
Cause the agent, the thing would not be made.
The purpose or objective for which the thing is The purpose the statue
Final
made. Understanding the ultimate goal helps serves, its end
Cause
determine the cause. objective.

Medieval Period
During the medieval period, heavily influenced by Christianity, the final cause
became paramount. People sought to see God's hand in all events.

‍Renaissance
During the Renaissance, scientists investigated natural phenomena without the
preconceptions of earlier belief systems. Galileo rejected the final cause, focusing on
the material and efficient causes. He considered the formal cause part of the efficient
cause, stating that causes are what something is made of and who made it.

Enlightenment
The Enlightenment saw the first significant philosophical work on causality from
David Hume. He aimed to define causality with testable conditions.

Precedence: A must precede B.

Contiguity: A and B must not be widely separated in space and time.
Constant Conjunction: A and B always occur together. Whenever A happens, B
must happen.

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Hume's criteria provided testable conditions to define causality, marking a step

toward testability and materialism. However, these criteria had flaws.

Criticism of Hume's Criteria

Immanuel Kant critiqued Hume's precedence requirement, saying that it's not that A
must precede B, but rather B cannot precede A. The effect cannot come before the
cause.

The tide being caused by the moon's attraction violates contiguity. Also, mosquito
bites causing malaria violate constant conjunction, as not everyone bitten gets
malaria due to differing immune responses.

Hume considered causality a mental construct. Kant argued that there is a physical
causal connection between A and B. A actually causes B.

John Stuart Mill

After Kant, John Stuart Mill proposed criteria to design experiments and test
causality.

1. Method of Concomitant Variation: If two variables, A and B, show that

whenever A increases, B either increases or decreases monotonously, there is a
causal connection.
2. Method of Agreement: If event B happens in multiple situations with different
preceding conditions, but one factor, A, is common to all situations, A might be
the cause of B.
3. Method of Difference: (To be Continued)

Methods of Difference and Residue

Method of Difference
The method of difference involves observing when an event B happens in one case
and does not happen in another. The conditions before the event B are nearly the
same, differing only in one aspect, A.

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If A is present, B happens.
If A is absent, B does not happen.
Therefore, A is considered the cause of B.

Method of Residue
The method of residue is applicable when multiple factors precede an event, and
prior research has identified the effects of some of these factors, but not all.

Factors P, Q, R, and S exist before event B.

Prior research indicates the effects of P, Q, and S, none of which explain B.
R's effect is unknown.
Since B happened, and it's not caused by P, Q, or S, R is likely the cause of B.

Examples of Applying Causality in Science

Ohm's Law
Georg Ohm investigated the relationship between voltage and current in a wire. He
varied the voltage and measured the corresponding current, discovering that as
voltage increased, so did the current. This is now known as Ohm’s Law.

Voltage (V) increase leads to current (I) increase.

He concluded voltage causes current.

However, the relationship is not unidirectional, applying current also results in a

voltage. This demonstrates the method of concomitant variation, where changes in
one factor correlate with changes in another.

Discovery of Radioactivity

Wilhelm Rontgen and X-rays

Wilhelm Rontgen discovered X-rays, which doctors quickly used to see bones. This
discovery intrigued Henri Becquerel, who thought X-ray emission was like
phosphorescence

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Phosphorescence: Certain materials absorb sunlight energy and emit

radiation later, becoming luminescent.

Becquerel experimented with potassium uranyl sulphate, a phosphorescent material.

Becquerel's Experiment
Initially, Becquerel exposed the material to sunlight, then used it to expose a
photographic plate, which turned black, indicating radiation emission. Cloudy days
prevented further experiments, and he stored the material in a drawer. A week later,
he tested the stored material and was surprised to find it still exposed the
photographic plate.

Method of Agreement
Becquerel then experimented, sometimes exposing the material to sunlight and
sometimes not, but in both cases, the photographic plate was exposed. This followed
the method of agreement, where the same outcome occurs despite different
conditions, agreeing only on the presence of potassium uranyl sulphate. He
concluded that potassium uranyl sulphate causes the exposure, radiating
independently of sunlight.

Marie Curie's Research

Marie Curie investigated what caused radioactivity.

Method of Difference
Curie tested different compounds containing potassium, uranium, and sulphate,
finding that only uranium compounds were radioactive. This aligns with the method
of difference, where the presence or absence of uranium determined the outcome.

Method of Concomitant Variation

Curie prepared uranium compounds with varying uranium content and measured
their radioactivity, finding that the amount of radioactivity was proportional to the
amount of uranium present. This aligns with the method of concomitant variation.

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Method of Residues
Curie analyzed the radioactivity of pitchblende and found it higher than what could
be accounted for by its uranium and thorium content. This led her to propose that a
residual radioactive substance was present, leading to the discovery of polonium and
radium.

Importance of Mill's Logic

Mill’s methods, termed as methods of operational causality, have greatly benefited
science by providing a structured approach to identifying causes.

Modern Perspectives on Causality

Revisions to Earlier Concepts

Effect cannot precede the cause: Acknowledges that cause and effect can be
nearly simultaneous.
Law of Contiguity Abandoned: Cause and effect do not need to be physically
adjacent.
Constant Conjunction: Replaced by statistical testing to address scenarios
where constant conjunction doesn't apply.

Uniqueness of Cause
A significant development in understanding causality is the principle that cause is
unique.

All contributing factors are considered part of the overall cause, which is the
immediate antecedent of the effect.
Scientists seek the single true cause by eliminating incorrect hypotheses.

Material Basis of Causality

Science requires that causes be found in material processes and phenomena,
rejecting explanations based on magic or supernatural forces.

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Inductive Logic

Definition
Inductive logic involves reasoning from particular instances to general principles.

Inductive Logic: Going from the particular to the general.

Example
Observing clouds repeatedly preceding rain leads to the general conclusion that
cloudy skies may result in rain.

Importance of Inductive Logic

Inductive inferences are fundamental to human understanding and action. For
example, observing seeds germinating into plants led to the generalization that
seeds grow into plants, which formed the basis of agriculture. Francis Bacon
emphasized inductive logic for understanding nature by collecting data and
extracting general principles.

Inductive Sciences
In the 19th century, many sciences were termed ‘inductive sciences’ due to their
reliance on this approach. It facilitated classifications such as animals (reptiles,
mammals, etc.) and chemicals (acids, alkaline substances, etc.).

Examples of Inductive Inferences

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Inference Description

All insects have six

Generalization based on examining a sample of insects.
legs
Copper turns green in Conclusion drawn from repeated observations of copper
vinegar reacting with vinegar.
Planets have elliptical Kepler's observation of five planets led to the generalized
orbits idea that all planets follow elliptical paths.
Volcanoes near plate Observation that volcanoes are typically located near tectonic
boundaries plate boundaries.

Criticisms of Inductive Inferences

Philosophers note that inductive inferences can be unreliable. A single
counterexample can invalidate a general conclusion. For instance, the inference that
"all insects have six legs" would be disproven by finding an insect with a different
number of legs.

Inductive Logic: From Observation to

Generalization
Philosophers have pointed out that inductive logic is not entirely trustworthy, as
generalizing from a limited set of observations can lead to incorrect conclusions.
However, science often relies on inductive logic as the only available method.

Ecological Niches
Field biologists observed that in ecological spaces like the African savannah,
different grazing animals such as zebras, wildebeest, and Thomson's gazelles
coexist. By studying the differences in their niches (diet, predators, diseases), they
concluded that each species occupies a single, unique niche.

This conclusion, drawn from studying a few species, became a guiding principle for
further research. When similar species are found in the same area, scientists look for
niche differences, furthering our understanding of how different animals share the
same space.

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Measuring Stellar Distances

Determining the distance to stars is fundamental in astronomy. Here's how
astronomers have tackled this challenge:

1. Parallax Method:

Uses the angle between the lines joining each eye to an object to gauge
distance
For farther objects like the moon, the distance between two observation
points (e.g., Calcutta and Delhi) is used to create a larger parallax angle.
For nearby stars, the diameter of Earth's orbit around the sun serves as
the baseline for measuring parallax.

2. Cepheid Variable Stars:

Some stars pulsate regularly with a fixed period, known as Cepheid

variables.

Henrietta Leavitt discovered a direct linear relationship between the

period of oscillation and the absolute luminosity of Cepheid variables.

Absolute luminosity is the amount of light that a star emits.

This relationship allows astronomers to measure distances to farther stars

by measuring the easily observable periodicity, inferring absolute
luminosity, and then determining distance.

Edwin Hubble used Cepheid variables in the Andromeda galaxy to

measure its distance, proving it was outside our galaxy.

Hubble then established a relationship between galaxies' recession

velocity and distance, leading to Hubble's law, a cornerstone of modern
cosmology.

The Importance of Inductive Inferences

The story of Cepheid variables illustrates how science relies on inductive inferences.
Henrietta Leavitt's observations of a few stars led to a general law applicable to all
Cepheid variables, which became a powerful tool in astronomy.

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While inductive inferences are essential, scientists must remain aware of their
potential fallibility. If a counter-example is found, the initial inference may need
revision.

Stating Inductive Inferences

There are two ways to state inductive inferences scientifically:

1. Probabilistic Inductive Reasoning:

Expresses conclusions with a high degree of confidence, acknowledging
the possibility of error.
Example: "With a high degree of confidence, all insects have six legs."
2. Deterministic Inductive Reasoning:
States conclusions as true until a counter-example is found.
Example: "Until we find an insect with a number of legs other than six, we
conclude that all insects have six legs."

Without inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning cannot work.

Deductive Logic: From General Principles to

Specific Cases
Deductive logic involves applying general premises to specific situations to infer
conclusions.

Aristotelian Logic
Aristotle structured the ways of doing deductive logic, and his work, along with
contributions from later logicians, provides a structured framework for applying
deductive logic.

If-Then Structures
Deductive logic often uses "if-then" structures: "If A, then B." This general premise is
applied to a particular situation.

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For example: "If copper is dipped in vinegar, then it turns green." If a piece of copper
is dipped in vinegar, we can conclude that it will turn green.

Modus Ponens
The line of logic we have followed is called modus ponens, and it is a correct logical
structure.

If A, then B
A is true
Therefore, B is true

However, other lines of logic are incorrect. For example, if B is true, there is no reason
to believe that A is true. Another incorrect line of logic is that if not A is true, we
cannot conclude that not B is true.

Modus Tollens
If not B is true then not A is a possible conclusion.

This is called modus tollens.

If A, then B
Not B is true
Therefore, not A is true

Chains of Reasoning
Deductive logic can involve a chain of reasoning where one conclusion leads to
another. Multiple premises can lead to a conclusion through a series of steps, each
justified by valid reasoning (modus ponens or modus tollens).

For example, the connection between cutting trees and climate change involves
multiple steps:

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1. Cutting trees allows more light to reach the ground.

2. Light heats the air in contact with the ground.
3. Warm air rises, driving away clouds.
4. Reduced cloud cover leads to less rain.
5. Ultimately, cutting trees contributes to climate change.

Probabilistic Deductive Logic: Accounting for

Uncertainty

In many situations, conclusions are probabilistic rather than absolute. For example,
"99.99% of humans have their heart on the left side of the chest."

Probabilistic Modus Ponens

In probabilistic deductive logic, the structure is:

If A, then B with probability p

A is true
Therefore, B is true with probability p

For example, if adult male sparrows have a body weight between m1 and m2 with
95% confidence, and a biologist catches a new adult male sparrow, she can infer with
95% confidence that its body weight will lie between m1 and m2.

Probabilistic Modus Tollens

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However, modus tollens does not work in the probabilistic sense. If "If A, then B with
probability p" and "not B" is true, we cannot conclude "not A" because there is a
probability that B could be false even if A is true.

Premises and Conclusions

In scenarios with multiple premises that lead to conflicting conclusions, we must
determine the stronger statement to guide our decision-making.

For example, consider a patient, Venu, with both a severe heart blockage and
haemophilia:

Premise 1: If a patient has more than 95% heart blockage, perform surgery.
Premise 2: Venu has greater than 95% heart blockage.
Premise 3: If a patient has haemophilia, an operation cannot be performed.
Premise 4: Venu has haemophilia.

Here, the conclusion from premises 1 and 2 (surgery) contradicts the conclusion from
premises 3 and 4 (no surgery). Haemophilia is the stronger condition because
operating on a patient with haemophilia would certainly result in death.

We can formalize this line of logic:

1. If A, then B.
2. If C, then not B.
3. A is true.
4. C is true.
5. Premise 2 is stronger than premise 1.

Conclusion: Not B (because premise 2 is stronger).

Situations like these are often encountered in sciences, especially when considering
the ethics of science. A scientist may face the dilemma of using their knowledge to
further their career in a way that could be unethical.

Ethics in Science
The ethics of science dictate that knowledge obtained through public resources
should be used for the welfare and upliftment of society. This principle should
override personal career advancement.

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However, the existence of food adulterants and biological weapons indicates a failure
to apply this logic. This is an example of defeasible deductive reasoning.

Syllogistic Logic
Syllogistic logic, largely attributed to Aristotle, provides a grammatical structure for
deductive logic. This structure distinguishes between correct and incorrect logical
forms. The basic structure includes:

1. Major premise: A general statement.

2. Minor premise: A specific situation.
3. Conclusion: Derived from the major and minor premises.

For instance:

Major premise: All mammals have hot blood.

Minor premise: Leopards are mammals.
Conclusion: Leopards have hot blood.

In deductive logic, prior inductive inference is necessary. Inductive logic is considered

prior because deductive logic requires inductively obtained premises.

Structure of Statements
In the major premise, "mammal" is the subject, and "hot blood" is the predicate. In the
minor premise, "leopard" is the subject, and "mammal" is the predicate. The subject
of the minor premise comes first, followed by the predicate of the major premise in
the conclusion. The "middle term" (subject of the major premise and the predicate of
the minor premise) is eliminated in the conclusion.

Four Possible Structures

Aristotle identified four possible structures for these statements:

1. All a are b.
2. No a is b.
3. Some a are b.
4. Some a are not b.

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These structures can be abbreviated using Greek letters:

All a are b → aAb

No a is b → aEb
Some a are b → aIb
Some a are not b → aOb

Example:

Major premise: All spin-half particles are fermions.

Minor premise: All electrons are spin-half particles.
Conclusion: All electrons are fermions.

The middle term, "spin-half particles," is eliminated.

Another example from Aristotle:

All men are mortal.

Greeks are men.
Therefore, Greeks are mortal.

Syllogistic deductions can form a series where the predicate of one statement
becomes the subject of the next, linking the subject of the last statement to the
predicate of the first.

Example:

All lions are big cats.

All big cats are predators.
All predators are carnivores.
Conclusion: All lions are carnivores.

With the four types (A, I, E, and O), there are 256 combinations, but only 24 lead to
valid reasoning.

Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams can be used to determine valid reasoning.

For a premise aIb (some):

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This image depicts the standard way to represent premises with Venn diagrams.
With "Some a are b", there is an overlap in the Venn diagram.

Premise: aIb
Conclusion: Some b are a.

If the given premises are aIb and bIc, you can conclude that aIb, bIa, bIc, and cIb are
true, but there is no guaranteed conclusion about the relationship between a and c.

Syllogistic Logic and Venn Diagrams

Syllogistic logic involves deduction based on a major and minor premise, with
conclusions drawn by relating the subject of the minor premise and the predicate of
the major premise.

For example:

Major premise: All mortals die.

Minor premise: All men are mortals.
Conclusion: All men die.

"Mortal" is the middle term that gets eliminated.

Examples using Venn Diagrams

Here are a few examples of how to use Venn diagrams to solve syllogisms:

Premise: aIb and bIc (some a are b, some b are c)

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If you draw this out, A and B overlap, B and C overlap. Possible deductions include:
some b are a, some c are b, but no specific relationship between a and c.

Premise: aAb (all a are b)

If this is the case, A is enclosed in B. Conclusions: some a are b, some b are a.

Premise: aIb and bAc (some a are b, all b are c)

A and B have an overlap, all b are c. Conclusions: some b are a, all b are c, some b are
c, some c are b. Between a and c: some a are c, some c are a.

Premise: aAb and bIc (all a are b, some b are c)

A is enclosed in B, C has an overlap with B. Conclusions: some b are a, some b are c,

some c are b, no conclusion on relation between a and c.

Premise: aAb and bEc (all a are b, no b are c)

A is enclosed in B, C is separate and does not overlap with B. Conclusions: some a

are b, some b are a. Between b and c: no b is c, some b are not c, some c are not b.
Between a and c: no a is c, some a are not c, some c is not a, no c is a.

Premise: aIb and aEc (some a are b, no a is c)

Some animals are herbivores, and so there will be two blobs with an overlap
between each other: animals (a), herbivores (h) and then some rodents are
herbivores, so rodents will have overlap with herbivores and some mice are rodents,
so the mice will have overlap with rodents.

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The image depicts another visualization of how to create a Venn Diagram with circles.
It follows the statement in the transcript of "Statements given are ‘some animals are
herbivores’ then, ‘some rodents are herbivores’, then ‘some mice are rodents’."

Conclusions: between a and b: some b are a, between a and c: some a are not c, some
c are not a, no c is a, some a are not c, some c are not a. Between b and c: some c are
not b, some b are not c.

Validity vs. Truth

It's essential to distinguish between logical validity and truth. A statement can be
logically valid without being true, and vice versa. This distinction is crucial in science
because premises are not always directly testable.

Deductive logic is applied by starting from premises and deriving conclusions

that can be tested.
If the tested conclusion is false, the starting premises are also false.
However, if the tested conclusion is true, it does not guarantee the starting
premises are true.

A true conclusion can be derived from false premises.

Example of True Conclusion from False Premises

All dinosaurs are mammals. (False) All cats are dinosaurs. (False) Therefore, all cats
are mammals. (True)

Scientific Implications
A false conclusion implies false premises.
A true conclusion does not imply true premises.

Pitfalls in Applying Logic

Be cautious when applying logic, as factually true statements might mislead one into
thinking the logical structure is correct.

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Example of Correct Statements with Flawed Logic

All particles with integer-valued spin are bosons. (True) Electrons do not have
integer-valued spin. (True) Therefore, electrons are not bosons. (True, but the logic is
flawed)

The image below depicts an instructor explaining syllogistic logic on a chalkboard:

In this image, the professor is explaining the rules and structures for syllogistic logic.
This serves as a visual aid for understanding the relationships and rules discussed in
the lecture.

This is not necessarily true, because placing the electron-blob in a venn diagram can
be valid whether or not it is inside the boson category.

To illustrate the fallacy, consider:

All insects are living organisms. (True) Tigers are not insects. (True) Therefore, tigers
are not living organisms. (False)

Summary
If premises and conclusion are factually correct, do not assume the logical
structure is also correct.
A true conclusion does not mean the premises are true.
A wrong premise can lead to a valid conclusion, and a correct premise can lead
to a wrong conclusion if the derivation is incorrect.

Aristotle's Valid Logical Structures

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Aristotle demonstrated valid logical structures, highlighting that only some

possibilities are valid.

Structure AAA
Form: Middle Term-A-Predicate, Subject-A-Middle Term leads to Subject-A-
Predicate (MAP + SAM = SAP)
Example:
All men are mortal.
All Greeks are men.
Therefore, all Greeks are mortal.
Here, "men" is the middle term, "mortal" is the predicate, and "Greeks" is
the subject.

Structure EAE
Form: Middle Term-E-Predicate, Subject-A-Middle Term leads to Subject-E-
Predicate
Example:
No reptiles have fur.
All snakes are reptiles.
Therefore, no snakes have fur.
Here, "reptile" is the middle term, "fur" is the predicate, and "snakes" is
the subject.

Structure AII
Form: A + I leads to I
Example:
All tigers have retractable claws.
Some mammals are tigers.
Therefore, some mammals have retractable claws.
Here, "tigers" is the middle term, "retractable claws" is the predicate, and
"mammals" is the subject.

Structure OAO

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Example:
Some cats have no tail.
All mammals are cats.
Therefore, some mammals have no tail.

Structure EIO
Example:
No metal is an insulator.
Some elements are metals.
Therefore, some elements are not insulators.

Necessity vs. Possibility

When evaluating logical arguments, it's crucial to differentiate between necessity
and possibility.

Example 1
Premises:

Some animals are herbivores.

Some rodents are herbivores.

Conclusion: Some animals are rodents. (Incorrect)

It's possible, but not a necessary conclusion based on the premises.

Example 2
Premises: (Same as above)

Possibility Statement: Some mice being herbivores is a possibility. (True)

The premises do not rule out an overlap between mice and herbivores.

Example 3

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Premises: (Same as above)

Possibility Statement: The possibility that some mice are animals. (False)

No conclusion can be drawn about the overlap between mice and animals
from the given premises.

Example 4
Premises: Some animals are herbivores.

Possibility Statement: All herbivores being animals is a possibility. (True)

It is possible for the herbivore blob to be completely inside the animal

blob, consistent with the premise.

Historical Development of Thoughts

Hunting-Gathering Society
Time Period: From 40,000 years ago, three-fourths of human history was spent
in this society.

Characteristics:

Nomadic Lifestyle: People moved in search of food.

No Division of Labor: Everyone participated in all activities.
No Personal Property: Everything was communal.

Primitive Materialism:

The mode of thinking was based on material things around them,

like animals, trees, mountains, and rivers.

People were constantly interacting with and struggling against natural

forces.
Fear of natural phenomena (thunder, rain) led to attempts to please these
forces.
Chanting, painting faces, and dancing were aimed at preventing harm
from natural forces.

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Advent of Agriculture
Time Period: Started around 10,000 years ago.
Transformation of Social Structure:
Settled Life: Led to villages and settlements.
Class Division: Control of food grains and land led to some people
subjugating others.
Slavery: Defeated clans were forced to work on the land.
Kings and Kingdoms: Clan chiefs expanded territories, leading to the
birth of kingdoms.
Stable Society: Slaves, slave owners, aristocrats, and kings emerged.

Developments Due to Agriculture

Development Description

Exchange and Trade Need for exchange of goods between different regions.
Kings acted as intermediaries, leading to the creation of money
Money
as a guarantee of exchange.
Invention of the wheel and carts for transporting large volumes
Transportation
of goods.
Needed for cooking grains, leading to fire burning and earthen
Pottery
pot making.
Kilns used for pottery led to the discovery of copper, tin, and
Metallurgy
zinc mixing to make bronze.
Iron ore available on the surface led to iron formation through
Iron Age
reducing atmospheres.
Larger numbers and fractional numbers were conceived for
Mathematics
counting and measuring land.
Accountancy and Kings and nobles needed to keep track of property, leading to
Writing accountancy and the start of writing.
Geometry Storing grains in granaries required geometric understanding.

Greek Civilization

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Location: Islands and coastal areas of modern-day Turkey (adjoining Greece).

Refinement of Knowledge:
Slave-owning society allowed some people free time to think.
Culling of knowledge from earlier civilizations in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and
India.
Early Philosophers:
Thales: Believed everything is made of water.
Anaximenes: Believed everything is made of air.
Empedocles: Believed everything is made of earth, water, air, and fire.
Materialistic Thinking: The basis of their thinking was material things (air,
water, fire, earth).

The Pythagoreans
Pythagoras is famous for the Pythagorean theorem, which was known to ancient
Egyptians, Indians (Sulvashutras), and Chinese. However, Pythagoras contributed
significantly to mathematics by discovering irrational numbers.

He led a secret group of mathematicians who assigned mystic qualities to numbers

(e.g., 10 as a perfect number). They believed heavenly bodies must total 10, and to
reach this, they imagined a "counter-earth" that's never seen from the northern
hemisphere.

They also believed in ideal geometrical shapes, with the circle being an ideal shape
that heavenly bodies should follow as spheres.

Greek Civilization Phases

Greek civilization is divided into:

1. Ionian Phase
2. Athenian Phase: The center of activity moved to Athens, with philosophers like
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
3. Hellenistic Period: After Alexander's death, his empire split, and learning
shifted to Alexandria.

Plato's Idealism
Plato adopted the Pythagorean idea of ideal shapes and numbers, extending it to
everything. He posited that:

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Ideal forms (e.g., a perfect rose, an ideal society) are more real and
powerful than their imperfect, existing counterparts.

This concept influenced later thinking, leading to numerous belief systems without
verification.

Materialism vs. Idealism in Ancient Greece

While Plato's idealism gained traction, some Greeks pursued hard science.
Aristarchus and Hipparchus studied astronomy, while Archimedes worked on
mechanics, grounding their work in reality.

Roman Empire and the Rise of Feudalism

After the Greek and Hellenistic periods, the Roman Empire dominated Europe but
eventually disintegrated due to invasions.

Around 70 BC, a slave revolt led by Spartacus challenged Roman legions, causing
societal changes. Landowners shifted from slave labor to feudalism, giving land to
serfs who would till it in exchange for a portion of the produce. This system
incentivized production and led to a more stable society.

Feudal Society and Stagnation

Villages became self-sufficient, with local artisans providing necessary goods. Trade
decreased, leading to a closed economy and cultural stagnation. A dual rule of king
and church emerged, promoting a "believe, do not question" mentality from around
900 AD.

The accepted structure of the universe was:

Earth at the center

Moon and Sun orbiting Earth
Planets embedded on crystal spheres moved by God
An unchangeable outer sphere with stars

The Nova of 1054 and Blind Faith

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In 1054, a star exploded and became as bright as the moon, but Europeans didn't
record it because their belief system dictated that the outer sphere was
unchangeable. This event was recorded in China.

This rigid belief system persisted for about 1000 years until the Renaissance.

Quick Recap of Greek Thought

Early Greek period: Materialistic thinking, but subjective
Later: Idealism emerges, prioritizing idea over matter

The Middle Ages: The Peak of Idealism

During the Middle Ages, one belief system became mainstream, marking a "golden
age of idealism" lasting over a thousand years. Science declined as the prevailing
thought process was "believe and no question."

Renaissance: Questioning Everything

In the 15th-16th centuries, trade slowly increased, empowering traders financially.
This led to the Renaissance, where people questioned established beliefs.

Key changes:

Shift to Human-Centered Focus: Art shifted from God-centered to human-

centered, as seen in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel.
Scientific Developments:
Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model, knowing it would be
controversial. His book was banned but circulated.
Giordano Bruno embraced Copernicus's ideas and was burned at the
stake in 1600 for his heretical beliefs.
Galileo Galilei challenged Aristotelian beliefs, demonstrating that force
produces change in motion, not motion itself. He also made astronomical
observations with a telescope, but his colleagues refused to believe him.
Tycho Brahe made accurate observations of planetary motion.
Johannes Kepler used Brahe's data to formulate Kepler's laws of
planetary motion.

Galileo and Objective Thinking

Galileo introduced objective thinking: testing beliefs against physical reality.

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Renaissance to the Development of

Mechanical Materialism
Philosophical Currents in India
Similar philosophical developments occurred in India:

Indus Valley Civilization (3500-1700 BC)

Vedic Age (1500-600 BC): Vedic gods embodied natural forces, reflecting a
materialistic focus.

Towards the end of the Vedic Age, idealism emerged with concepts like
Brahman.

Materialistic schools like Lokayata, Sankhya, Nyaya, and Vaishishika

coexisted with idealist schools.

Lokayata believed everything was made of air, water, soil, and fire
(Chaturbuta), similar to Greek thought.
Sankhya emphasized causality.
Vaishayika (founded by Kanada) posited that everything is made of
atoms.

After the 8th-9th century, idealism, particularly Shankara's Vedantic philosophy,

became dominant in India.

Renaissance: A New Focus

During the Renaissance, the focus shifted from "believe, don't question" to "question,
don't believe."

When humanity asked themselves how to learn about nature anew, three people
came forward to lay down the path:

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1. Galileo: Galileo's main contribution was to introduce objective thinking. He

emphasized measurement and expressing quantities as numbers to establish
relationships.
2. Francis Bacon: Francis Bacon made the point that we have believed things
without any evidence, and said that the way to gain knowledge about nature
would be by large-scale observation. Scientists should cooperate to make
observations.

Scientific Method Pioneers

Francis Bacon
Bacon advocated for building science through inductive logic.

Inductive logic: Extracting general principles from specific observations.

His method:

1. Experimentation on a large scale (or observation where experiments aren't

possible).
2. Observations leading to inferences about natural laws.

Bacon's Formula:
Experiment ⟹ Observation ⟹ I nf erence

He believed that extensive observation would allow the weight of facts to lead to
truth via logical reasoning. Cooperation among many scientists was key to observing
nature on a large scale.

René Descartes
Descartes emphasized reasoning as the path to truth. He championed deductive
logic.

Deductive reasoning: Start from confirmed truths and use logic to reach
new conclusions.

Key points:

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A single scientist can work effectively alone using reason.

Start with a confirmed truth.
Use mathematics to apply deductive logic effectively.

Descartes saw mathematics as essential for understanding nature.

He developed the Cartesian coordinate system, unifying geometry and algebra.

Algebraic equations could now be represented as geometrical curves.

Descartes' approach:

1. Use reason, deductive logic, and mathematics.

2. Start from confirmed truths (axioms in mathematics).
3. Thoroughly consider the phenomenon under investigation.
4. Break down large questions into smaller, tractable parts.

The Royal Society and Scientific Collaboration

The ideas of Bacon, Descartes, and others led to the founding of the Royal Societies
in the 1650s and 1660s.

Scientists met and discussed their findings.

This collaboration helped extract laws of nature.

Key Discoveries Post-Royal Society:

Scientist Discovery

Robert Boyle Boyle’s Law

Robert Hooke Hooke’s Law of springs
Von Guericke Method for creating vacuum
Torricelli Torricellian vacuum
Leeuwenhoek Observed microorganisms with a microscope

Hooke's contribution:

Built his own microscope.

Observed microscopic structures.
Published findings in ‘Micrographia’.

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Isaac Newton and the Rise of Mechanical

Materialism

Context and Early Life

Newton was born in 1642, the year Galileo died. During a plague, his university
closed, and he returned home.

In solitude, he invented differential and integral calculus.

He formulated the law of gravity and the laws of motion.

Despite undistinguished academic results, his professor recognized his worth and
secured him the Lucasian professorship at Cambridge.

Industrial Demands
Newton's era was marked by the rise of industries.

Mining required better pumps for water removal and ventilation.

Metallurgy needed to produce better iron.
Transport demanded improved canals and ships.

Scientific problems included:

Optimal canal cross-sections.

Sluice gate shapes.
Ship design and stability.
Navigation at sea, especially longitude determination.

Predicting planetary positions became a practical necessity for navigation.

Newton's Contributions
Newton addressed these problems theoretically, impacting practical activities.

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Principia Mathematica discussed hydrodynamics and mechanics.

He formulated the law of gravity:
m1m2
F = G 2
r

He developed the laws of motion (Force equals mass times acceleration:

F = ma).

Newton's laws allowed the prediction of heavenly bodies' motion.

This ability greatly impacted human psychology.

Edmond Halley used Newton's methods to predict the return of a comet.

Impact on Worldview
Newton's work gave people confidence in science and truth.

Challenged the idea of a "final cause" or supernatural control.

Galileo and Newton showed that force isn't needed for every motion.
The force of gravity was a uniform, natural law.

Newtonian mechanics led to a resurgence of materialism.

Materialism: the idea that everything that exists is matter or is ultimately

dependent upon matter

The universe was seen as a law-governed machine.

This perspective is known as "mechanical materialism."

Laplace claimed that with enough computing power and initial conditions, the motion
of every particle in the universe could be predicted.

The "Prime Mover"

A question arose: Who imparted the first motion?

Newtonian scholars introduced the idea of a "prime mover."

The prime mover gave the universe its initial push.

Developments Post-Newton

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The advent of mechanical materialism spurred scientific developments.

Unscientific beliefs (spirits, phlogiston, caloric, vital force) were dispelled.

Benjamin Thompson (Lord Ramford) disproved the caloric theory.
Benjamin Franklin showed lightning was flowing electricity.
Alessandro Volta invented batteries for flowing electricity.
Scheele, Priestley, and Lavoisier isolated oxygen.
Lavoisier developed modern chemical symbols (e.g., CO2).

The shift from wood to coal as a heat source fueled the Industrial Revolution.
Newcomen and Watt invented engines to convert heat into mechanical energy,
revolutionizing industry.

Empiricism
Empiricism: Experience is the only source of dependable knowledge.

Key Figures:

John Locke
David Hume
John Stuart Mill

Locke argued that knowledge is not formed a priori, but only a posteriori, through
experience and the five senses. Truth is limited to what we experience or logically
deduce from experience.

Empiricism: Experience as the Foundation of

Knowledge
Empiricism places experience and observation as the starting point for knowledge
and testing.

Empiricism: a philosophical stance that emphasizes experience and

observation as the primary sources of knowledge, rejecting intuition and
revelation as reliable paths to truth.

Key tenets of empiricism:

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Skepticism towards pre-existing beliefs; everything must be tested through

experience
All knowledge originates from sense experience
Even abstract concepts like mathematics and logic are rooted in experience

John Stuart Mill argued that even mathematics and logic stem from experience:

Numbers originate from experiencing quantities of objects.

Geometry arises from observing shapes and abstracting them into geometrical
forms.

Biology and the Influence of Natural Theology

Developments in physics, chemistry, and mathematics flourished during the rise of
empiricism, but biology lagged. This was due to:

The dominance of idealism in biology, with religious beliefs dictating that the
biological world was created in its entirety by a divine creator.
Biological studies focused on understanding the "mind of God" through natural
theology.

Natural theology: studying the biological world to understand the

intentions and wisdom of a divine creator.

Examples:

John Ray classified plants to understand God's wisdom in creation.

Linnaeus categorized the biological world but sought to understand God's
purpose in creating each organism.

Despite resistance, evidence for evolution accumulated through fossil discoveries in

mines. These findings were often rationalized as:

Unsuccessful creations of God

Results of repeated creation events followed by catastrophic floods (Cuvier's
view)

The Shift Towards Evolutionary Thought

Philosophers like Kant argued that everything is in a state of change (flux). Kant
proposed that the solar system evolved from a nebula, collapsing and spinning into a
disk where the sun and planets formed.

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Lamarck emphatically stated that evolution occurs, although his proposed

mechanism was incorrect.

️Paley's Watchmaker Analogy

Reverend William Paley presented a strong argument against evolution, known as
the watchmaker analogy.

Paley's argument:

1. Finding a stone on a path is unsurprising, but finding a watch raises questions

about its origin.
2. Examining the watch reveals its complexity and design, indicating a designer.
3. Biological organisms are even more complex, implying a designer.
4. Therefore, the biological world is the product of conscious design.

Geology and the Antiquity of Earth

Geologists discovered that Earth's surface is constantly changing through erosion
and other processes. This led to the realization that Earth is much older than
previously believed.

Darwin and Natural Selection

Darwin's voyage on the Beagle exposed him to evidence supporting evolution.

Key events:

He read Lyell's book on geology, which argued for an old Earth.

He observed diverse flora and fauna in different locations.
He developed the theory of natural selection.

Natural Selection: the differential survival and reproduction of individuals

due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the
change in the heritable characteristics typical of a population over
generations.

Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859 sparked controversy by

suggesting that evolution occurs through natural selection, a material process,
without the need for a designer.

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The Triumph of Evolutionary Theory

Darwin's theory ultimately gained acceptance, marking the beginning of modern
biology. Dobzhansky famously stated, "Nothing in biology makes sense, except in the
light of evolution."

Science in Ancient India

Timeline
Indus Valley Civilization: Approximately 3500 BC to 1700 BC
Vedic Age: Approximately 1500 BC to 600 BC
Post-Vedic Age: Approximately 600 BC onwards

Vedic Age Number System

Base-10 system, but without zero or a place value system
Separate symbols for 1 to 9, 10, 20, etc.

Shulvasutras
Instruction manuals for constructing altars for religious ceremonies
Addressed theoretical problems, such as finding the East-West line and
constructing circles and squares of equal area
Contained the first statement of the Pythagorean theorem

Post-Vedic Age Medical Science

Development of medical science, including Ayurveda
Notable practitioners: Charaka, Sushruta, Athreya, Jivaka
Sushruta pioneered surgery

Panini

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Greatest grammarian of antiquity (5th Century BC)

Formalized Sanskrit grammar, making it a link language for the Indian
subcontinent
The structure of the alphabet is a contribution of Panini.

Jain Mathematicians
Mathematics that stood on its own feet, not just for religious practices
Conceived large numbers and infinity

0 Introduction of Zero
The concept of zero as a number originated in the Indian subcontinent.
The oldest inscription of the symbol "0" is found in a temple in Cambodia.
Introduction of zero led to the invention of new methods for arithmetic
operations.

Mathematicians and Astronomers

Aryabhata (5th century)
Found a more accurate value of pi (π = 3.1416)
Proposed that Earth spins on its own axis
Created sine tables with one-degree steps
Varahamihira (6th century)
Brahmagupta (7th century)
Introduced the quadratic equation and its solution
Contained most simple trigonometric relationships
Sridhara (11th century)
Formalized the solution to the quadratic equation
Bhaskara II (12th century)
Made contributions to all fields of mathematics

Astronomy

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Primary incentive for mathematics came from astronomy

Developed calendars based on the cyclic events of the sun and moon
Identified uttarayana (northward movement of the sun) and dakshinayana
(southward movement of the sun)
Named 27 stars along the zodiacal strip
Named the rashis (constellations)

Algebra
Used Sanskrit alphabets to represent unknowns
Used the first letters of color names to represent multiple unknowns
Solved indeterminate equations
Developed the quadratic equation and its solution

Decline of Science in India

After Bhaskara II (12th century), scientific progress declined in India, except for
the Kerala School of Mathematics and Astronomy.
P.C. Ray identified three reasons for the decline:
1. Ascent of the caste system separated the doers and the thinkers.
2. Strictures of Manu made it impossible for upper-caste individuals to
dissect dead bodies, hindering surgery.
3. Ascent of Shankara's idealist philosophy viewed the material world as an
illusion.

Indian Renaissance
Science revived in India during the Indian Renaissance.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Vidyasagar promoted European Renaissance ideals
and reformed the education system.

Indian Science

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India has a rich history of science, but it was at one point eclipsed by idealism.
Later, science reemerged.
Fantastic scientific developments in India influenced science in the rest of the
world.
Books by Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta were translated by Arabic
scholars during the Islamic Golden Age in Baghdad.
An Indian scholar was invited to Baghdad to convey the Indian number system.
The Arabic world accepted the number system, zero, the place value system,
and the decimal system.
Europeans later adopted these numbers from the Arabic world, hence the name
Arabic number systems, though they originated in India.

Cultural Exchange
Exchanges occurred through trade routes, especially after Alexander’s invasion.
Greek ideas reached India, and Indian ideas reached Europe.
Indian developments influenced others.
Arabic astronomy was influenced by Indian astronomy.
Arabs developed star charts called 'Zij'.
When Indian science declined, these star charts returned to India.
Arabs perfected masonry-based observatories, which were then used in India.
There was exchange of ideas between the Arab world, India, and Europe,
especially after the Renaissance, when Europeans translated the works of Arab
scholars who had inherited knowledge from Indian scholars.

Avoiding Misconceptions
It's important to understand what really happened in India, rather than
entertaining fanciful ideas.
There was no aircraft, plastic surgery to put an elephant head on a human, stem
cell research, or biotechnology to give birth to 100 sons in ancient India.
These are mythological stories, and we shouldn't attribute science to them.
However, hard science was done on Indian soil, and we should be proud of it.

18th Century Science and Philosophy

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Science developed unabated in the 18th century, dispelling unscientific ideas

through experimental studies.
Science progressed with a philosophical grounding.

Mechanical Materialism
The main idea was that the world is like a machine composed of matter.
Each thing is viewed as part of a machine.
Mechanical materialists tried to explain everything in terms of the properties
and interactions of these parts.

Metaphysics
A way of thinking developed in antiquity.
Things are studied as they are, assuming each has a fixed property.
Everything is considered fixed and unchanging.

Formal Logic
Started by Socrates and formalized by Aristotle.
A way of logical argument that seeks to eliminate ambiguity.
Aristotle stated that everything is what it is and not something else; A is A and
not B.

Three Laws of Formal Logic

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Law Description Example

If you are trying to describe something,

to understand something whose
Law of A tree is a tree only; it is not a
property you are trying to understand,
Identity shrub, vine, or sapling. A = A
define that first, that entity. It is that and
that only.
If you have defined something,
then it goes as a part of the
Law of
A is not equal to another thing B. logical structure, that thing is
Negation
not at the same time something
else.
Law of There is nothing that is, at the
If there is an A and a B, then there is
Excluded same time, a tree as well as a
nothing in between.
Middle shrub.
These laws, along with metaphysics, allow one to study things as they are.
You can probe the properties of oxygen or the characteristics of animals.
Metaphysics assumes that properties are fixed and unchanging.
A metaphysical way of thinking identifies people as good or bad, assuming a
person's character does not change.
Formal logical structure uses an 'either/or' kind of logic.

Limitations of the Old Groundings

Science progressed with mechanical materialism, metaphysics, and formal
logic.
However, between 1830 and 1860, developments in science challenged these
foundations.

Developments Challenging the Old Ideas

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Impact on
Theory/Development Key Figures Description Philosophical
Grounding

Cell is the building Introduced the concept

block of biological of change and
Schleiden,
matter; cells are born, evolution at a
Cell Theory Schwann,
develop, evolve, and fundamental level,
Virchow
die; every animal body challenging the idea of
is composed of cells. fixed properties.
Interaction between
Oersted,
electricity and Showed dynamic
Henry,
magnetism is dynamic; interaction rather than
Electromagnetic Ampere, Ohm,
flowing charge induces static properties,
Theory Gauss,
magnetism, and further questioning the
Faraday,
changing magnetic field fixed nature of things.
Maxwell
induces charge flow.
All forms of energy are Introduced the concept
Mayer, inter-convertible, but of energy
Helmholtz, converting low-quality transformation and
Thermodynamics
Carnot, energy to high-quality loss, indicating change
Clausius energy is not 100% and inefficiency in
efficient. processes.
Evolution occurs
Directly challenged
through natural
the idea of fixed
selection; organisms
properties and
Evolution Theory Darwin change over time;
purpose, emphasizing
species come into
continuous change and
being, evolve, and
adaptation.
become extinct.
The focus shifted to change, realizing that matter is continuously evolving.
Nothing is static or has fixed properties.
Things come into being, evolve, and go out of being.

Difficulties Arising

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Metaphysics assumed we should study things as they are, but if something

continuously changes, there are no fixed properties to study.
Formal logic, with its either/or approach, faced difficulties.
For example, the platypus lays eggs and suckles its young, fitting into both
reptile and mammal categories.
Biology needed to categorize everything, but the divisions were not clear-cut.
Something that was A can, in some situations, behave as B, like water turning
into ice.
A seed can germinate into a tree, changing from one thing to another.
Darwin showed that evolution happens without purpose, through natural
selection.
Evolution or change had to become the central point of studies.

Idealism vs. Mechanical Materialism

In the idealist view, changes happen with a purpose.
Mechanical materialists studied changes in terms of the building blocks of
everything, picturing everything as hard, impenetrable particles.
They aimed to understand behaviors in terms of the properties and interactions
of these particles.
They believed that the universe comprises an infinite number of these particles.
If you want to study something, look at what it is composed of.
Mechanical materialism views everything as a machine with component parts.
Each part moves according to fixed laws, and their interactions define the
machine's behavior.
Understanding something means finding out the component parts and how
they interact.
Effectively, the sum of the parts equals the whole.
The Newtonian scientist Laplace expressed this idea, stating that if he had the
initial position and momenta of all particles and enough computing power, he
could predict the future of the universe.

Challenges to Mechanical Materialism

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During this period, it was realized that the whole is not just a sum of the parts.
A cell consists of millions of molecules, but understanding their properties and
interactions does not fully explain the cell's behavior.
The cell has emergent properties that cannot be inferred by looking at the
parts.
Each cell interacts with other cells in a particular way that cannot be inferred
just by looking at what it is composed of, their properties.
Mechanical materialism tried to understand everything by breaking things into
parts, but this approach may not suffice.
The idea that the world is composed of hard, impenetrable particles whose
behavior defines everything was challenged.
Also, every part needs a motive force and moves with fixed laws.
A machine endlessly repeats the same motion, but evolution involves change
and cannot be understood in terms of repetition.

Problems with Metaphysics

Metaphysics talks about things in abstraction, abstracted from their condition of
existence.
Properties are considered inherent, like iron being hard, irrespective of its
temperature.
This way of thinking was divorced from reality.
In reality, properties evolve through interaction with the environment.
Earlier, everything was assumed to be given, fixed, and stable.
We were coming to realize that things are not given, fixed, or stable; they are
always changing.
Things are always coming into being, evolving, and going out of being.

Scientific Materialism Emerges

The realization that mechanical materialism, metaphysics, and formal logic
were inadequate led to the development of scientific materialism.
The basic point was that everything is in a state of flux and continuously
changing.
The focus shifted from studying things to studying the processes that lead to
changes.
The main point was the study of processes: coming into being, evolving, and
going out of being.

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Focus on Processes
In the later half of the 19th century, developments focused on the study of
processes.
We studied matter in change and development, rather than as static entities.
If cells and individuals come into being, evolve, and go out of being, this should
be true for everything.

Application to New Areas

People started projecting this idea onto other areas, such as stars.
Even though stars appear to twinkle unchangingly, they also must be changing.
Exploration revealed that stars do change in position and evolve.
Evidence of nova or supernova events indicated stellar evolution.
Stars congregate into galaxies, and galaxies also evolve.
The focus shifted from studying things to studying their change and evolution.

Shift in Perspective
Things once thought of as fixed came under scrutiny.
The world was no longer seen as a complex of things but as a complex of
processes.
The way of metaphysics was to study things in abstraction, but now the
understanding was to study everything dependent on its condition of existence.

Interaction and Interconnection

Metaphysics studied everything as isolated, separate entities with fixed
properties.
Scientific materialism started studying things in their interaction with
surrounding things, as part of a whole.
Interconnection and interaction came under strong scrutiny.
The properties, character, and motion of each entity depend on its
interconnection and interaction with the rest.

Motion as a Mode of Existence

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Mechanical materialism considered mass as inert, requiring an external force for

motion.
However, thermodynamics revealed that energy in various forms is different
forms of motion.
Heat, sound, and light are forms of motion, and one form can be converted to
another.
Motion is a mode of existence of matter, and matter always exists in motion.
We do not have to look for a reason for motion because matter cannot exist
without it.
Galilean relativity developed, showing that nothing is truly static.

Totality vs. Sum of Parts

The totality of anything is not the same as the sum of its parts.
In a cell, for example, understanding individual molecules does not explain the
behavior of the cell as a whole.
At every emergent level of matter, we must study the processes at that level.

Study of Processes
The most important point was focusing on the study of processes.
How do things change?
The general idea was obtained by studying various different specific processes
of change.
Then, by the idea of induction, people came to a general idea that, in
everything.

Study Guide

Opposite Tendencies in Processes

In any process, there are always two opposite tendencies. To study the process
effectively, you must identify and study these opposing forces.

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Example 1: Body on a Plane

When you push a resting body on a plane, it doesn't move initially

because of frictional force acting in the opposite direction.

The process involves two opposing tendencies balancing each other. The
equation equates these opposing forces.

When the pushing force overcomes static friction, the body moves. Two
opposing tendencies are still present: the body's inertia and the resultant
force trying to move it. The equation to represent this is:

f orce = mass ∗ acceleration

Example 2: Star Stability

Every particle in a star experiences two opposing forces:

Gravitational force: Pulls inward toward the center.
Thermonuclear reaction: Heat expands the star outward.
The star remains stable due to the balance of these forces. Understanding
and equating these forces helps explain the star's stability.
When the balance breaks (e.g., hydrogen depletion), one force dominates,
leading to the star's collapse.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Changes

When studying the evolution of anything, it is important to note that things do not
proceed in a linear fashion. There are two types of changes that can occur:
quantitative and qualitative.

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Quantitative Change: This involves a change in quantity, such as the

temperature increase of water being heated.

Qualitative Change: This involves a change in the nature or quality of

something.

Qualitative change means that an entity negates its earlier existence

and becomes something new.

Examples of Qualitative Change

Water turning into a gaseous state at 100 degrees centigrade

Speciation events in biological evolution
Changes from one state of energy to another
A cell being born
A seed germinating into a plant

When a qualitative change occurs, the earlier existence is negated. A seed

turns into a plant and is no longer a seed. A star may become a neutron
star and is no longer a main sequence star.

Whenever there is a qualitative change, you must identify new opposing

tendencies that will determine the entity's course of development.

Developments in Science (1860-1900)

Between 1860 and 1900, significant developments in science followed these
prescriptions.

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Embryology

Wilhelm His disproved the idea that embryos go through earlier phases of
evolution during development by studying various stages of development.

Germ Theory

Louis Pasteur proposed the Germ Theory, which states that

microorganisms cause infectious diseases, contradicting the earlier belief
in miasma (bad air from rotting matter).

Discovery of the Electron

J.J. Thomson studied cathode rays in an evacuated tube, discovering they

are a flow of negatively charged particles. He measured the charge-to-
mass ratio (e/m) and proposed these new particles, which became known
as electrons around 1897.

Photoelectric Effect

Heinrich Hertz first observed this effect, but it remained unexplained at

the time.

Ether Disproven

Michelson and Morley's experiment disproved the existence of ether, the

supposed medium for electromagnetic waves.

Radioactivity

Becquerel discovered radioactivity, which Madame Curie later developed

further.

Technology

Daimler developed the internal combustion engine.

Nikola Tesla and Edison developed modern electrical engineering. Edison
worked with DC electricity, while Tesla pioneered AC systems, including
the transformer and induction motor.

Scientific Materialism vs. Positivism

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Scientific Materialism
Developed as a new form of materialism focused on studying processes rather
than things.
Views the world as a complex of processes where things come into being,
evolve, and go out of being.
Emphasizes understanding the opposing tendencies in changes and evolutions
through equations and differential equations.
This approach drove significant progress in science during the period around
1860 to 1900.

Positivism
Emerged as a philosophical current that initially continued the empiricist
tendency.

Comte’s Contribution:

Auguste Comte (1799-1857) advocated basing social sciences on hard

data and actual observations of social phenomena, emphasizing "positive
knowledge" over subjective notions.
This was a progressive idea for its time, helping to free social sciences
from unscientific and subjective notions.

Empirio-criticism

Further developed into full-fledged positivism by Richard Avenarius

(1843-1896) and Ernst Mach (1838-1916).
Main Point: Knowledge about anything should be based on our experience
and cannot transcend the boundaries of our experience.

Key Tenets of Positivism

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Knowledge is limited to experience:

Knowledge about anything is what we experience about that thing and is
limited to our experience.
Experience is derived through our five sense organs (sensation).
Studying anything is based on whatever we get through our five sense
organs.
Sense experience is the only reliable source material:
Sense experience is the only reliable source material.
Strict adherence to empirical data is crucial.
What is not observable is not real.
Role of science:
The task of science is to chronicle, record, and relate observations.
Knowledge should be limited to what we can observe to avoid
metaphysical abstractions.

Positivism: Observability
The positivist philosophy emphasized that only observable phenomena are real.

Example: Ghosts

If ghosts have never been observed or given rise to sensations, then one
should not believe in them.

Positivism led to testing and abandoning unfounded ideas, stressing that

evidence must come in the form of empirical data.

Problems with Positivism

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Sensations from a thing come to our five senses, enhanced by tools like
microscopes or telescopes. However, ultimately, belief is based on what comes
to our senses.

Positivists did not believe in the existence of matter independent of our sense
perception. For them, matter is what comes to us through our sense
perceptions.

Arthur Eddington noted that what we really measure as physicists are

pointer readings, recording the movement of a pointer rather than the
physical thing causing it.

This philosophical viewpoint held sway among scientists for about 50 years.

The Problem with Atomic Theory

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory:

Proposed that matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms, with
only a few species of atoms. Chemical reactions involve atoms
handholding and reacting with each other.
Physicists' Skepticism:
Physicists refused to believe in atoms and molecules, stating that because
they have never been seen, there is no reason to believe in their existence.
They viewed it as merely an imagination that might help chemists but is
not real.

Molecular Theory:
Despite the skepticism, some scientists started building theories based on
the assumption that molecules exist.
August Kronig imagined gases as comprising numerous jostling molecules
and developed a theory of pressure based on the velocity distribution.
Clausius further developed it assuming rotational motion.
Maxwell developed the Maxwell distribution of molecular velocities.
Boltzmann further developed it into the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
Contradiction and Rejection:
Theories were based on the assumption that molecules exist, but
physicists rejected this assumption, leading to contradictions.
Boltzmann was particularly targeted and criticized, with his papers
rejected and his work not accepted.
Due to the refusal of the physicist community to accept his work,
Boltzmann committed suicide.

Theoretical Stagnation

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Many developments were dispelling earlier beliefs or experimental work.

Theoretical developments of the standard of Maxwell, Clausius, or Darwin
were lacking.
Historians note this period was somewhat barren of major theoretical
developments due to the dominance of positivism, which limited exploration
beyond observable experiments.

Einstein's Resolution
In 1905, Einstein addressed the problem, realizing the complete difference
between positivism and scientific materialism.
Positivism vs. Materialism:
Positivism states that nothing exists unless observed, while materialism
says that the existence of matter does not depend on our consciousness
or ability to observe it.

Einstein's Logic to Prove Existence of Something

Build theories with experimentally or observationally testable predictions.
Test these predictions. If the test is correct, you have some confidence in
believing the initial assumption.

Einstein's Argument for Molecules

If molecules exist, there must be some experimentally testable prediction.
Thought Experiment:
Mixing sugar in water leads to changes in viscosity and the coefficient of
diffusion.
He proceeded to analytically obtain how.

Molecular Existence: Einstein's PhD Thesis

Einstein's early work provided evidence for the existence of molecules. He posited
that changes in viscosity and diffusion could be theoretically predicted based on the
assumption of a molecular picture of matter.

Viscosity Change

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Einstein derived an equation relating the number of molecules in a mole of water (N)
and the average radius of sugar molecules (P) to the coefficients of viscosity of water
(K) and a solution (K*), the mass of sugar per unit volume (ρ), and the molecular
weight (m):
3 ∗
NP = (3m/4π)((K /K) − 1)

This equation, as shown in the image above, suggests that changes in viscosity,
which can be measured, are directly related to the number and size of molecules.
Einstein's theory helped pave the way for future scientific discoveries and
understandings.

Diffusion Coefficient Change

Einstein derived another equation connecting the number of molecules (N) and the
average radius of molecules (P) to the gas constant (R), absolute temperature (T),
and coefficient of diffusion (D):

N P = (RT )/(4πKD)

By combining these two equations, Einstein argued that one could determine the
values of N and P, providing evidence for the physical existence of molecules.

Initial Rejection

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Despite its significance, Einstein's PhD thesis was initially rejected due to the
prevailing belief in positivism among physicists at the time. However, after some
revisions, it was accepted, and the same examiner later recommended him for the
Nobel Prize.

Brownian Motion
Einstein wrote a seminal paper explaining Brownian motion, which is the random
motion of pollen particles suspended in water.

Molecular Explanation
Einstein demonstrated that Brownian motion, characterized by short, straight-line
segments, supports the existence of molecules. He reasoned that the constant
bombardment of a large pollen particle by numerous water molecules, each moving
at high velocity, would result in such motion.

Distance Traveled
Einstein developed a theory showing that the distance traveled by the particle from
an initial point (λ) depends on the square root of Dt, where D is the coefficient of
diffusion and t is time:

λ = √(Dt)

By substituting the expression for D, Einstein derived:

2
λ = √t×√(RT /N )×(1/(3πKP ) )

This equation predicts that the distance traveled by a pollen particle is proportional
to the square root of time, which was later confirmed experimentally.

Acceptance of Molecular Theory

The success of Einstein's explanation of Brownian motion led to widespread
acceptance of the existence of molecules and atoms around 1908-09. This
acceptance paved the way for advancements in chemistry and the investigation of
sub-atomic particles.

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Light Photon Hypothesis

In 1905, Einstein also proposed the light photon hypothesis, building on Planck's
work on black body radiation.

Black Body Radiation

Experiments on black body radiation revealed a characteristic distribution of
frequencies at different temperatures. Planck had previously assumed that radiation
is emitted as packets of energy, or quanta, to explain this phenomenon.

Einstein's Argument
Einstein argued that if energy quanta exist, their existence would not depend on our
ability to observe them, but would have experimentally testable ramifications. He
used the idea of light quanta to explain phenomena such as fluorescence, Stokes law,
ionization of gas with ultraviolet light, and the photoelectric effect. The Nobel
committee awarded him the Nobel Prize for his explanation of the photoelectric
effect.

Positivism vs. Scientific Materialism

Einstein's work challenged positivism, which asserts that sense perception is the
primary source of knowledge. Instead, Einstein advocated for scientific materialism,
which posits that actual existing material objects are the sources of knowledge.

New Methodology
Einstein's approach led to a new methodology of probing nature, where the starting
point can be logical derivation rather than just experience. This derivation should
have an experimentally testable prediction.

Collective Experience

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Knowledge is not just individual experience but comes from collective experience.
Theories should be tested through practice, and they serve as approximate copies of
objective reality.

Abandonment of Positivism
Following Einstein's efforts, most scientists abandoned positivism, embracing
scientific materialism. This shift influenced theoretical developments and the way
science is conducted today.

Example of Positivism's Pitfalls

The lecture included a brief anecdote about a scientist named Kauffman who
performed the same experiment as J.J. Thompson, which led to the discovery of the
electron. Because Kauffman was a positivist, he only reported what he observed. He
did not speculate on the cause of his observations, and as a result, he missed out on
the credit for discovering the electron.

Normal Science vs. Revolutionary Science

The history of science is characterized by periods of "normal science" and
"revolutionary science," as described by Professor Kuhn.

Normal Science
During normal science, incremental progress is made based on existing knowledge.
Techniques, tools, and methodologies develop, and students learn and build upon
them.

Revolutionary Science
Problems arise that cannot be solved by normal science, leading to scientists thinking
outside the box. This period is marked by a questioning of earlier beliefs,
methodologies, and techniques, resulting in a completely new set of beliefs and
methodologies.

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Paradigm Shifts
Kuhn termed the collection of tools, techniques, beliefs, and understandings as a
"paradigm." Revolutionary changes lead to "paradigm shifts," where existing
paradigms are replaced by new ones. Examples include the shift from a geocentric to
a heliocentric solar system and the development of quantum mechanics.

Scientific Inquiry: Asking the Right Questions

Scientific research begins with a question. Asking the right question is crucial and
involves cultivating a questioning mind.

Focused Questions
A scientific question should be focused rather than vague or general. It should allow
for a systematic research process to seek an answer.

Based on Earlier Knowledge

Scientific questions should be based on earlier knowledge acquired through books,
papers, journals, and the internet. Uninformed questions are not scientific.

Related to Material Processes

Scientific questions should be related to material processes and phenomena,
excluding personal beliefs and imagined concepts.

Types of Scientific Questions

How Did It Happen?

These questions explore processes and events.

How did the Himalayas form?

How did the Indus Valley Civilization end?

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What is the Value?

These questions seek to determine the value of a constant or parameter.

What is the value of the gravitational constant G?

What is the distance between the sun and the earth?

Why Does Something Happen?

These questions aim to understand the reasons behind phenomena.

Why is a leaf green?

Why is the sky blue?

Closed vs. Open Questions

Closed Questions
Closed questions are those whose answers do not lead to further
questions.

Examples:

What is the value of the gravitational constant?

What is the derivative of tan θ with respect to θ?
How many eyes does a fly have in a compound eye?

Open vs. Closed Questions

In science, it's crucial to differentiate between open and closed questions.

Open questions are those which, when answered, lead to further inquiry and
exploration.
Closed questions are those which can be answered through a well-defined
procedure, providing a conclusive answer within a limited scope.

Examples of Open Questions

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Why is the sky blue?

How does genetic information in DNA result in the creation of individual body
parts?
How does a stock market collapse in one country affect the economy of
another?
Is there dark matter that is invisible but exerts gravitational influence on other
bodies?

How Scientists Approach Open Questions

Scientists typically address open questions by breaking them down into several
closed questions. PhD students often work on answering these closed questions,
which collectively contribute to answering the broader open question.

It’s important for researchers to understand the big picture, recognizing the open
question and how their work on closed questions contributes to it.

Example: "Why is the sky blue?"

To answer the open question, "Why is the sky blue?", you must break it down into
closed questions:

Is the sky more blue when there is more moisture in the air?
Does the blueness depend on the time of day?
Does the blueness change depending on parameters like the time of day,
position of the sun, or amount of moisture in the air?

Each of these closed questions can be answered through experimentation and

measurement. For instance, to determine if blueness depends on moisture, one
would measure the blueness (using measurable metrics like frequency of light) and
plot it against humidity levels.

Formulating and Testing Hypotheses

The Role of Hypotheses

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A primary method scientists use to answer questions is formulating and testing a

hypothesis, which is essentially a scientific guess.

A hypothesis is a scientific guess

Testing a Hypothesis
1. Start with a hypothesis.
2. Apply deductive logic to derive experimentally testable predictions.
3. Test the predictions through experimentation.
4. If the experimental results are false, the initial hypothesis is also false.
deductive logic

−
P remise → Result

If the result is experimentally proven false, then the premise (hypothesis) is false.

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