18-01-2025

Operating Systems

Lecture 2:
Introduction to Operating
System

Dr. Anjali
Assistant Professor

Chapter 1: Introduction

• What Operating Systems Do

• Computer-System Organization
• Computer-System Architecture
• Operating-System Structure
• Operating-System Operations
• Process Management
• Memory Management
• Storage Management
• Protection and Security

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What is an Operating System?

A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of

a computer and the computer hardware

Operating system goals:

Execute user programs and
Make the computer system Use the computer hardware in
make solving user problems
convenient to use an efficient manner
easier

Computer System Structure

• Computer system can be divided into four components:

• Hardware – provides basic computing resources
• CPU, memory, I/O devices
• Operating system
• Controls and coordinates use of hardware among
various applications and users
• Application programs – define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users
• Word processors, compilers, web browsers,
database systems, video games
• Users
• People, machines, other computers

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Four
Components
of a Computer
System

Users want convenience,

Don’t care about resource
ease of use and good utilization
performance

But shared computer such as mainframe or

minicomputer must keep all users happy

What
Operating
Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have
dedicated resources but frequently use shared
resources from servers

Systems Do
Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for
Depends on the point of view usability and battery life

Some computers have little or no user interface, such

as embedded computers in devices and automobiles

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Operating System Definition

OS is a resource allocator OS is a control program

• Manages all resources • Controls execution of

• Decides between programs to prevent
conflicting requests for errors and improper use
efficient and fair of the computer
resource use

Operating System Definition

(Cont.)
• No universally accepted definition
• “Everything a vendor ships when you order an
operating system” is a good approximation
• But varies wildly
• “The one program running at all times on the
computer” is the kernel.
• Everything else is either
• a system program (ships with the operating
system) , or
• an application program.

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Computer Startup

• bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

• Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
• Initializes all aspects of system
• Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

Computer System
Organization

• Computer-system operation
• One or more CPUs, device
controllers connect through
common bus providing access to
shared memory
• Concurrent execution of CPUs and
devices competing for memory
cycles

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Computer-System Operation

• I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

• Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
• Each device controller has a local buffer
• CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
• I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
• Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt

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Interrupt Timeline

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I/O Structure

After I/O starts, control returns to user

After I/O starts, control returns to user
program without waiting for I/O
program only upon I/O completion
completion
• Wait instruction idles the CPU until the • System call – request to the OS to allow
next interrupt user to wait for I/O completion
• Wait loop (contention for memory • Device-status table contains entry for
access) each I/O device indicating its type,
• At most one I/O request is outstanding address, and state
at a time, no simultaneous I/O • OS indexes into I/O device table to
processing determine device status and to modify
table entry to include interrupt

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Storage Definitions and Notation Review

The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name
a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient
chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to
move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up
of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-
bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer executes
many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.

Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured

and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes

Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a
megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).

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Storage Structure
• Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
• Random access
• Typically volatile
• Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile
storage capacity
• Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording material
• Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
• The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and
the computer
• Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
• Various technologies
• Becoming more popular

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Storage Hierarchy

• Storage systems organized in hierarchy

• Speed
• Cost
• Volatility
• Caching – copying information into faster storage
system; main memory can be viewed as a cache for
secondary storage
• Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
• Provides uniform interface between controller and
kernel

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Storage-
Device
Hierarchy

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Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

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Direct Memory Access Structure

• Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

information at close to memory speeds
• Device controller transfers blocks of data from
buffer storage directly to main memory without CPU
intervention
• Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather
than the one interrupt per byte

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How a
Modern
Computer
Works

A von Neumann architecture

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Computer-System Architecture

• Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

• Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
• Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
• Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
• Advantages include:
• Increased throughput
• Economy of scale
• Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
• Two types:
• Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a
specific task.
• Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all
tasks

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Symmetric
Multiprocessing
Architecture

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A Dual-Core Design

• Multi-chip and multicore

• Systems containing all chips
• Chassis containing multiple
separate systems

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• Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems

working together
• Usually sharing storage via a storage-area
network (SAN)
• Provides a high-availability service which
survives failures
• Asymmetric clustering has one machine
in hot-standby mode
• Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes
running applications, monitoring each
other
• Some clusters are for high-performance
computing (HPC)
• Applications must be written to use
parallelization Clustered
Systems
• Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to
avoid conflicting operations

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Clustered Systems

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Operating System Structure

Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension

Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for in which CPU switches jobs so frequently that
efficiency users can interact with each job while it is
running, creating interactive computing
• Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices • Response time should be < 1 second
busy at all times • Each user has at least one program executing in
• Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and memory process
data) so CPU always has one to execute • If several jobs ready to run at the same time 
• A subset of total jobs in system is kept in CPU scheduling
memory • If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping
• One job selected and run via job scheduling moves them in and out to run
• When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS • Virtual memory allows execution of processes
switches to another job not completely in memory

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Memory Layout
for
Multiprogrammed
System

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Operating-System Operations

• Interrupt driven (hardware and software)

• Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
• Software interrupt (exception or trap):
• Software error (e.g., division by zero)
• Request for operating system service
• Other process problems include infinite
loop, processes modifying each other or the
operating system

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Operating-System Operations
(cont.)
• Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other
system components
• User mode and kernel mode
• Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running
user code or kernel code
• Some instructions designated as privileged, only
executable in kernel mode
• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call
resets it to user
• Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
• i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs

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Transition from User to Kernel Mode

• Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
• Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
• Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
• Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
• When counter zero generate an interrupt
• Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

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Process Management

• A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system. Program is

a passive entity, process is an active entity.
• Process needs resources to accomplish its task
• CPU, memory, I/O, files
• Initialization data
• Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
• Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next
instruction to execute
• Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion
• Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
• Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system running
concurrently on one or more CPUs
• Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads

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Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following

activities in connection with process management:
• Creating and deleting both user and system processes
• Suspending and resuming processes
• Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
• Providing mechanisms for process communication
• Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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Memory Management
• To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in memory
• All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in memory.
• Memory management determines what is in memory and when
• Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
• Memory management activities
• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by
whom
• Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and
out of memory
• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

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Storage Management

OS provides uniform, logical view of File-System management

information storage
Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file Files usually organized into directories
Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, Access control on most systems to determine who can
tape drive) access what
• Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data- OS activities include
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random) • Creating and deleting files and directories
• Primitives to manipulate files and directories
• Mapping files onto secondary storage
• Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

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Mass-Storage Management

Usually disks used Proper Entire speed of OS activities Some storage need
to store data that management is of computer not be fast
does not fit in main central importance operation hinges on
memory or data disk subsystem and
that must be kept its algorithms
for a “long” period
of time Free-space management Tertiary storage includes
Storage allocation optical storage, magnetic
tape
Disk scheduling
Still must be managed –
by OS or applications
Varies between WORM
(write-once, read-many-
times) and RW (read-
write)

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I/O Subsystem

One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware

devices from the user

I/O subsystem responsible for

• Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data temporarily

while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of data in faster
storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of output of one job
with input of other jobs)
• General device-driver interface
• Drivers for specific hardware devices

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Protection and Security

• Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to
resources defined by the OS
• Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
• Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft,
theft of service
• Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do what
• User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
• User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine
access control
• Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls
managed, then also associated with each process, file
• Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more rights

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