Essence of Indian Knowledge Tradition - I

Basic structure of Indian Knowledge System

No other living tradition can claim scriptures as numerous or as ancient as the ancient Indians;
none of them can boast of an unbroken tradition as faithfully preserved as the Vedic tradition.
Vedic literature is the most ancient and extensive religious writings in the world. Hindu religion
is not derived from a single book. It has many sacred writings which serve as a source of
doctrine. Hinduism is very much a religion of revelation. Hindus of the past were highly
thoughtful people, and their literature is characterized by constant concern with humanity’s
spiritual destiny. In response to this concern, they have created elaborate philosophical concepts
and wrote great epic poems, narrative literature and fiction. They evolved the most perfect
language in the world, Sanskrit, with a scientific alphabet and perfected vocabulary, and a
grammar which is itself a great work of art. Sanskrit literature can be classified under six
orthodox heads which form the authoritative scriptures of the Hindus.

The six scriptures are:

1. Srutis

2. Smritis

3. Itihasas

4. Puranas

5. Agamas

6. Darsanas

1. Srutis
Sruti in Sanskrit means “that which is heard.” Thus, the Vedas are the eternal truths that the
Vedic seers, called rishis, are said to have heard during their deep meditations. The Vedas are not
considered the works of the human mind, but an expression of what has been realized through
intuitive perception by Vedic rishis, who had powers to see beyond the physical phenomena. As
such, Vedas are considered of divine origin. The Vedic truths were originally transmitted by the
rishis to their disciples over thousands of years by recitation. At a later date, these were compiled
by Sage Vyasa for the benefit of future generations. India’s teachings are not speculative. They
are based on divine revelations. Indeed, the revelations are so cosmic that they approach more
closely the findings of physics and astronomy than the pious pronouncements of preachers. The
rishis made claims so cosmic that even modern physics seems only to be catching up with them
and realizing, after every scientific breakthrough, that the ancients were there long before them.

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The Veda is divided into four books:

1. The Rig-Veda

2. The Yajur-Veda

3. The Sama-Veda

4. The Atharva-Veda

The Rig-Veda Samhita is the grandest book of the Hindus, the oldest by far. Its style,the
language and the tone are most beautiful and mysterious. Its immortal Mantras embody the
greatest truths of existence,and it is perhaps the greatest treasure in all the scriptural literature of
the world.

The Yajur-Veda Samhita is mostly in prose and is meant to be used by the Yajur-Vedic priest,
for superfluous explanations of the rites in sacrifices, supplementing the Rig-Vedic Mantras.

The Sama-Veda Samhita is mostly borrowed from the Rig-Vedic Samhita, and is meant to be
sung in sacrifice.

The Atharva-Veda Samhita is meant to be used by the Atharva-Vedic priest, to correct the
mispronunciations and wrong performances that may accidentally be committed by the other
three priests of the sacrifice.

Each Veda consists of four parts:

1. The Mantra-Samhitas or hymns.

2. The Brahmanas or explanations of Mantras or rituals.

3. The Aranyakas (philosophical interpretations of the rituals).

4. The Upanishads (The essence or the knowledge portion of the Vedas).

The Mantra-Samhitas are hymns in praise of the Vedic God for attaining material prosperity here
and happiness hereafter.

They are metrical poems comprising prayers, hymns and incantations addressed to various
deities, both subjective and objective.

The Brahmana portions guide people to perform sacrificial rites. They are prose explanations of
the method of using the Mantras in the Yajna or the sacrifice.

The Aranyakas are the forest books, the mystical sylvan texts which give philosophical
interpretations of the Rituals.

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The Upanishads are the most important portion of the Vedas. The Upanishads contain the
essence or the knowledge portion of the Vedas. The philosophy of the Upanishads is sublime,
profound, lofty a soul-stirring. The Upanishads speak of the identity of the individual soul and
the Supreme Soul. They reveal the most subtle and deep spiritual truths.

The most important Upanishads are : Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya,
Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Kaushitaki, and Svetasvatara and Maitrayani.

2. Smriti
Smriti means “that which is remembered.” Smriti scriptures are derived from the Vedas and are
considered to be of human origin and not of divine origin. They were written to explain and
elaborate the Vedas, making them understandable and more meaningful to the general
population. Smritis lay down the laws which regulate Hindu national, social, family and
individual obligations. Smriti, in a broader sense, covers all Hindu Scriptures save the Vedas.

3. Itihasa (History)
There are four books under this heading:

1. The Valmiki-Ramayana
2. The Yogavasishtha
3. The Mahabharata
4. The Harivamsa

These embody all that is in the Vedas, but only in a simpler manner. These works explain the
great universal truths in the form of historical narratives, stories and dialogues.The Ramayana
and Mahabharata are the most popular of the Itihasas that have been read, spoken about,
preached or theatricised.

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The Ramayana

The Ramayana, the Adi-Kavya or the first epic poem, relates the story of Sri Rama. The
ideal man. It is the history of the family of the Solar race descended from Ikshvaku, in which was
born Sri Ramachandra, the Avatara of Lord Vishnu, and his three brothers. The ideal characters
like Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata and Sri Hanuman that we find in Ramayana firmly
established Hindu Dharma in our minds. The story of the birth of Rama and his brothers, their
education and marriages, the exile of Sri Rama, the carrying off and recovery of Sita, his wife,
the destruction of Ravana, the Rakshasa King of Lanka, and the reign of Sri Rama, are described
in detail in Ramayana. How a man should behave towards his superiors, equals, and inferiors,
how a king ought to rule his kingdom, how a man should lead his life in this world, how he can
obtain his release, freedom, and perfection, may be learnt from this excellent epic. The
Ramayana gives a vivid picture of Indian life. Even today our domestic, social, and national
ideals are copied from the noble characters in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The great
national heroes stand even today as beacon-lights to guide and inspire the people of the whole
world. The lives of Rama, Bharata and Lakshmana provide a model of fraternal affection and
mutual service. Sri Hanuman stands as an ideal unique Karma Yogi. The life of Sita is regarded
as the most perfect example of womanly fidelity, chastity and sweetness. The Ramayana is
written in twenty-four thousand verses, by Sage Valmiki.

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The Mahabharata

The Mahabharata is the history of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It gives a description of the
great war, the Battle of Kurukshetra, which broke out between the Kauravas and the Pandavas
who were cousins and descendants of the Lunar race. The Mahabharata is an encyclopedia of
Hindu Dharma. It is rightly called the fifth Veda. There is really no theme in religion,
philosophy, mysticism and polity which this great epic does not touch and expound. It contains
very noble moral teachings, useful lessons of all kinds, many beautiful stories and episodes,
discourses, sermons, parables and dialogues which set forth the principles of morals and
metaphysics. The Pandavas obtained victory through the grace of Lord Krishna. The
Mahabharata is written in one hundred thousand verses by Sage Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa.

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The Bhagavad-Gita

The most important part of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad-Gita. It is a marvelous

dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield, before the commencement of the
great war. Bhagavan Sri Krishna became the charioteer of Arjuna. Sri krishna explained the
essentials of Hindu religion to Arjuna. Just as the Upanishads contain the cream of the Vedas, so
does the Gita contain the cream of the Upanishads.

The Gita is the most precious jewel of Hindu literature. It is a universal gospel. The Gita teaches
the Yoga of Synthesis. It ranks high in the religious literature of the world.

Arjuna saw before him his dear relatives and teachers in the battlefield. He refused to fight
against them. Then Lord Krishna imparted knowledge of the Self to Arjuna and convinced him
that it was his duty to fight regardless of the consequences. Afterwards Arjuna gave up his
delusion. All his doubts were cleared. He fought against the Kauravas and achieved victory.

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Puranas

The Puranas were written to popularise the religion of the Vedas. They contain the essence of the
Vedas. The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the teachings of the
Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God, through concrete examples, myths, stories,
legends, lives of saints, kings and great men, allegories and chronicles of great historical events.
The sages made use of these things to illustrate the eternal principles of religion. The Puranas
were meant, not for the scholars, but for the ordinary people who could not understand high
philosophy and who could not study the Vedas.

There are eighteen main Puranas and an equal number of subsidiary Puranas or Upa-Puranas.
The main Puranas are:

1. Vishnu Purana, 2. Naradiya Purana, 3.Srimad Bhagavata Purana, 4.Garuda (Suparna) Purana,
5. Padma Purana, 6.Varah Purana, 7.Brahma Purana, 8.Brahmanda Purana, 9.Brahma
Vaivarta Purana, 10.Markandeya Purana, 11.Bhavishya Purana, 12.Vamana Purana,
13.Matsya Purana,
14.Kurma Purana, 15.Linga Purana, 16.Siva Purana, 17.Skanda Purana and 18.Agni Purana.

Agmas
Another class of popular scriptures are the Agamas. The Agamas are theological treatises and
practical manuals of divine worship. The Agamas include the Tantras, Mantras and Yantras.
These are treatises explaining the external worship of God, in idols, temples etc. All the Agamas
treat of

1. Jnana or Knowledge
2. Yoga or Concentration
3. Kriya or Esoteric Ritual

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 4. Charya or Exoteric Worship

They also give elaborate details about entology and cosmology, liberation, devotion, meditation,
philosophy of Mantras, mystic diagrams, charms and spells, temple-building, image-making,
domestic observances, social rules, public festivals etc.

The Agamas are divided into three sections:

1. The Vaishnava

2. The Saiva

3. The Sakta

The chief sects of Hinduism, viz., Vaishnavism, Saivism and Saktism, base their doctrines and
dogmas on their respective Agamas.

The Vaishnava Agamas or Pancharatra Agamas glorify God as Vishnu.

The Saiva Agamas glorify God as Siva and have given rise to an important school of philosophy
known as Saiva-Siddhanta, which prevails in South India.

The Sakta Agamas or Tantras glorify God as the Mother of the Universe, under one of the many
names of Devi (Goddess).

The Agamas do not derive their authority from the Vedas, but are not antagonistic to them. They
are all Vedic in spirit and character. That is the reason why they are regarded as authoritative.

Darsanas
These are the intellectual section of the Hindu writings, while the first four are intuitional. And
the fifth inspirational and emotional. Darsanas are schools of philosophy based on the Vedas.
The Agamas are theological. The Darsana literature is philosophical. The Darsanas are meant
for the erudite scholars who are endowed with acute acumen, good understanding, power of
reasoning and subtle intellect. The Itihasa, Puranas and Agamas are meant for the masses. The
Darsanas appeal to the intellect, while the Itihasas, Puranas, etc., appeal to the heart.

Philosophy has six divisions (Shad-darsana). The six Darsanas or ways of seeing things, are
usually called the six systems or six different schools of thought. The six schools of
philosophy are the six instruments of true teaching or the six demonstrations of Truth. Each
school has developed, systematized and correlated the various parts of the Veda in its
own way. Each
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system has its Sutrakara, i.e., the one great Rishi who systematized the doctrines of the school
and put them in short aphorisms or Sutras.

The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts in the aphorisms. It is
very difficult to understand them without the help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis.
Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras. There are glosses, notes and, later,
commentaries on the original commentaries.

The Shad-Darsana (the six schools of philosophy) or the Shat-Sastras are:

1. The Nyaya founded by Gautama Rishi

2. The Vaiseshika by Kanada Rishi

3. The Sankhya by Kapila Muni

4. The Yoga by Patanjali Maharshi

5. The Purva Mimamsa by Jaimini

6. The Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta by Badarayana or Vyasa

THE VEDAS

The Vedas are the earliest known literature in India. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and
were handed down orally from one generation to the other. Do you know that preservation of the
Vedas till today is one of our most remarkable achievements? To be able to keep such a literary

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wealth as the Vedas intact when the art of writing was not there and there was a paucity of
writing material is unprecedented in world history.

The word ‘Veda’ literally means knowledge. In Hindu culture, Vedas are considered as eternal
and divine revelations. They treat the whole world as one human family VasudevKutumbakam.
There are four Vedas, namely, the- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. Each
Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas.

The Rig Veda, Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda are collectively known an Traji. In later years the
Atharava Veda was incorporated in this group.

Rig Veda
The Rig Veda is the earliest of the Vedas. It is a collection of 1028 hymns in Vedic Sanskrit.
Many of these are beautiful descriptions of nature. The prayers are largely for seeking worldly
prosperity. It is believed that these recitations are the natural outpouring of Vedic rishis
experiencing a mentally transcendental stage. Some of the well-known rishis are Vasistha,
Gautama, Gritasamada, Vamadeva, Vishvamitra and Atri. The prominent gods of the Rig Veda
are Indra, Agni, Varun, Rudra, Aditya, Vayu, Aditi and the Ashwini twins. Some of the
prominent goddesses are Usha - the goddess of dawn, Vak - the goddess of speech and Prithvi -
the goddess of earth. Do you know that most of the hymns spoke of universally recognised
higher values of life such as truthfulness, honesty, dedication, sacrifice, politeness and culture?
The prayers are for seeking worldly prosperity and for the development of a highly cultured
society. Along with religion Rig Veda provides us knowledge about social, political and
economic condition of ancient India.

Yajur Veda
Yajur means sacrifice or worship. This Veda is concerned mostly with rites and mantras of
different sacrifices. It gives directions for the performance of the yajnas. It has both poetic and
prose renderings. Being a treatise on rituals, it is the most popular of the four Vedas.

There are two major branches of Yajur Veda, namely Shukla and Krishna Yajur Veda i.e.
Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taitriya Samhita. This text reflects on the social and religious condition
of India at that time.

Sama Veda
Sama means melody or songs. This Veda consists of 16,000 ragas and raginis or musical notes.
Out of total 1875 verses only 75 are original and others are from the Rig Veda. The Sama Veda
prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the hymns of the Rig Veda. It may be called the book of
Chants (Saman). This book is an evidence of the development of Indian music during this period.

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Atharva Veda
The Atharva Veda is also known as the Brahma Veda. It contains treatment for ninety-nine
diseases. The source of this Veda is traced to two rishis called Atharvah and Angiras. The
Atharva Veda is of immense value as it represents the religious ideas at an early period of
civilisation. It has two branches, the Paippalada and the Saunaka. This book gives detailed
information about the family, social and political life of later Vedic period.

In order to understand the Vedas, it is necessary to learn the Vedangas or the limbs of the Vedas.
These supplements of the Vedas provide education (siksha), grammar (vyakarana), ritual (kalpa),
etymology (nirukta), metrics (chhanda) and astronomy (Jyotisha). A good deal of literature grew
around these subjects. It was written in the form of precepts in the sutra style. A precept was
called sutra because of its brevity. The most famous example of this is Panini’s grammar,
Ashtadhyayi, which illustrates the rules of grammar and also throws light on society, economy
and culture of those times.

Upvedas
In addition to the four Vedas and Upanishads there are four Upavedas or subsidiary Vedas.
These deal mainly with ‘secular’ sciences such as Ayurveda (science of medicine),
Gandharvaveda (science of music and dance), Dhanurveda (science of archery and warfare) and
Sthapatyaveda (science of architecture). Some scholars consider Arthaveda or Arthashastra
instead of Sthapatyaveda as one of the four Upavedas. The four Upavedas are important because
they deal with worldly subjects, namely, man, matter and society. They are considered to be very
important for their contribution in the development of Indian civilization and culture.

Ayurveda
Ayurveda is a science that deals with ‘knowledge of life’ and longevity. The main texts of
this life science are Sushruta Samhita and Charaka Samhita. Ayurveda deals with medicine and
health. A long and healthy physical and mental life is necessary for a prolonged spiritual practice
and experience. The source of this science, according to sage Sushruta (600 BeE), lies in the
Atharva Veda which is aptly called Bhaishajya Veda (the Veda of medicine and treatment of
diseases). Ayurveda includes methods of diagnoses and treatment for physiological and
psychological illness. It deals with embryology, hygiene, anatomy, surgery, ere. Dominik
Wujastyk, a Senior Research Fellow at the world- famous Wellcome Centre for the History of
Medicine at the University College of London and the author of The Roots of Ayurveda, writes
in his article ‘The Science of Medicine’, “Indian medicine, as a systematic and scholarly
tradition, begins historically with the appearance of the great medical encyclopedias of Charaka,
Sushruta and Bhela about two thousand years ago. Just as Panini’s famous linguistic study of
Sanskrit leaps into the historical record fully formed, like the Buddha from Queen Maya’s side,
so the medical encyclopedias to emerge with a learned medical tradition in an almost fully

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articulated form.’ Obviously from this one can infer that medical science must have developed
fully in ancient India before the emergence of the Sushruta Samhita and Charaka Samhita.

According to Ayurveda, the material bodies of human beings are composed of kala (protective
layer), dhatu (component matter), mala (eliminations), three doshas (humours), agni (digestive
fire) and kriya (movement or activity). Among these six the most important is the principle of
three constitutional elements called humours in the human body, namely, vata (air), pitta (bile)
and kapha (phlegm). Vata (air in body) includes all phenomena of motion and its essential
components are ether and air. Kapha deals with cooling and preservation, and production of
various secretions like mucus and cough. Its essential components are earth and ether. Pitta (bile)
is made of fire and ether. It deals with metabolism, energy production, process of digestion, etc.
A person may be constitutionally brisk (with vata dominating) or fiery (with pitta in dominance)
or phlegmatic (with kapha being the prevalent element). But, according to Ayurveda, only when
all three elements are in equilibrium in the human body a person is said to be healthy.

An ayurvedic doctor diagnoses a patient with reference to the relative levels of his or her vata,
pitta and kapha. The ancient Indian rishis, Charaka and Sushruta, practised ayurveda and surgery
respectively. Acharya Charaka (e.100 CE), who wrote the Char aka Sambita, is known as the
‘Father of Indian medicine’. Through his intuitive powers he had realized the medicinal qualities
of 100,000 plants and herbs. Since the medications are herbal with least side-effects, they are
becoming increasingly popular throughout the world. According to Charaka a long and healthy
life is not possible if a person does not live morally. Morality gives rise to prajna or wisdom,
which gives peace of mind and leads to longevity and happiness. When this prajna is abused, it
causes all types of sickness. Acharya Sushruta (600 BCE) is popularly known as the ‘Father of
Surgery in India’.

In the Sushruta Samhita, a unique encyclopaedia of surgery, he details 300 types of

operations he performed, along with 125 types of surgical instruments that he used. He is lauded
as an early pi ioneer of plastic surgery and anaesthesia. Ayurvedic science is divided into eight
major topics:

1. Shalya-rantra: surgery and midwifery

2. Shalakya-tantra: study of diseases of head, eyes, nose, throat, etc.
3. Kayachikitsa: therapeutics
4. Bhutavidya: mental diseases (psychiatry)
5. Kaurnarabhrurya-rantra : paediatrics and obstetrics
6. Agada-tantra: toxicology
7. Rasayana-tantra : remedies for venoms

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Gandharvaveda
According to tradition gandharvas are expert musicians of swarga (the abode of the devas). It is
believed that there used to be a work called Gandharvaveda with 30,000 verses on music,
which is not available now. Gandharvaveda dealt with the science of music and the sacred
performing arts. It derived its origin in the Sarna Veda. It included vocal and instrumental
music, dance and drama. There are seven svaras (notes) from which ragas are produced,
corresponding to the appropriate time of day and season. The ragas create astonishingly
powerful physical, psychological and spiritual effects. While Western music has only two
modes – major and minor scales – Indian music uses dozens of different modes.
Bhararamuni’s Ndtyasbastra, available today, is an extraordinary text on music, dance and
drama.

Dhanurveda
Dhanurveda is the science of archery, martial arts and weaponry. It is a military science, which is
mentioned in the Rig Veda and Aitareya Brahmana. It is also known as shastravidya and it
originates from the Yajur Veda. It deals with shastra and astra Shastra” means weapons which
are used with one’s hands in war, such as swords and maces, and astra means weapons that are
shot like arrows. Dhanurveda also deals with the manufacturing of and training with weapons.
Although there is no ancient scientific work by the name of Dhanurveda, a text called
Dhanurveda Sarnhira, belonging to a later period, is still extent.

Sthapatyaveda or Vastushastra
Some scholars consider Sthapatyaveda or Vastushastra as one of the Upavedas. It deals with the
Hindu science of sacred architecture and the sthapati or architect. Traditionally, there are 18
teachers of architecture to whom Srhaptyaveda is ascribed. The two most well-known among
them are Vishvakarrna (the architect of the devas) and Maya (the architect of the asuras).

This important science has its origin in the Yajur Veda, wherein the sacrificial altar or yajna
vedi was constructed with utmost precision and care in different geometrical patterns.
Similarly, Hindu mandirs were built in different styles like Nagata, Dravida and Vesara with
painstaking perfection by the master builders-cum-architects. It is remarkable that thousands
of mandirs of ancient India, in locations as varied as mountains, caves and seashores, still
stand today as majestic reminders of this ancient science. The continuing discovery of various
sites of the Indus Valley civilization in the 20th and 21st century conclusively proves that
India of remote antiquity had great architects and town planners.

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