Chapter 4

Motion in Two and Three

Dimensions

1
Position and Displacement

The position of an object is described by the position vector 𝒓 x

In one dimension (x-axis for example): x-axis

r
𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥𝑖Ƹ
y-axis

In two dimensions (xy): y

r
𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦𝑗Ƹ
x-axis
x

In three dimensions (xyz): y-axis

𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧𝑘෠ y
r
x, y and z are the coordinates on the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis, x
x-axis
respectively. z

z-axis 2
If the object moves and changes its position from in initial position 𝑟1
to a final position 𝑟2 , where,

𝑟1 = 𝑥1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦1 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧1 𝑘෠ and 𝑟2 = 𝑥2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧2 𝑘෠
y-axis

Δr
then its displacement will be ∆𝑟,
Ԧ where,
r1
∆𝑟Ԧ = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 r2
x-axis
= 𝑥2 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦2 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧2 𝑘෠ − (𝑥1 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦1 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧1 𝑘)
෠
z-axis
= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) ෠𝑖 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) 𝑗Ƹ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) 𝑘෠

Or,
∆𝑟Ԧ = ∆𝑥 ෠𝑖 + ∆𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + ∆𝑧 𝑘෠

3
Example: A rabbit runs on ground. The coordinates (meters) of the rabbit’s position as functions of
time t (seconds) are given by
x = ‒0.31t2 + 7.2t + 28
and
y = 0.22t2 ‒ 9.1t + 30
At t = 15 s, what is the rabbit’s position vector 𝒓 in a) unit vector notation and b) in magnitude-angle notation?

Solution:

a) To find the coordinates of the rabbit at t = 15 s, we substitute this value of

t in the given equations:
x = ‒ 0.31 × (15)2 + 7.2 × (15) + 28 = 66 m
y = 0.22 × (15)2 ‒ 9.1 × (15) + 30 = ‒ 57 m
⸫ 𝑟Ԧ = 66𝑖Ƹ − 57𝑗Ƹ
This means that the rabbit will be at the point (66, ‒ 57) at time t = 15 s
4
b) To find the vector 𝑟Ԧ in magnitude-angle notation, we use the following
relationship (between the vector and its components):
𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

= (66)2 +(−57)2

= 7605
= 87 m
The angle is calculated from:
𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥

−57
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
66

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−0.86)
= −41°
The minus sign in the angle means that this angle is measured counterclockwise.

5
Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity

As we did in Chapter 2 (motion in one dimension), we define the average velocity 𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒈and instantaneous velocity
𝒗 but by using the displacement in 3 dimensions 𝑟:
Ԧ

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

∆𝑟Ԧ
𝑣Ԧ𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡

But we know that ∆𝑟Ԧ = ∆𝑥 ෠𝑖 + ∆𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + ∆𝑧 𝑘෠

∆𝑥෡𝑖+∆𝑦 𝑗+∆𝑧
Ƹ ෠
𝑘 ∆𝑥
⸫ 𝑣Ԧ𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = ෠𝑖 + ∆𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + ∆𝑧 𝑘෠
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

For example:
If a particle moves through a displacement of (12 m) ෠𝑖 + (3 m)𝑗Ƹ – (10 m) 𝑘෠ in 2 s, then its average velocity during
that move is

∆𝑟Ԧ (12 m) ෠𝑖 + (3 m) 𝑗–Ƹ (10 m) 𝑘෠

𝑣Ԧ𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = (6 m/s) ෠𝑖 + (1.5 m/s) 𝑗Ƹ – (5 m/s)𝑘෠
∆𝑡 2𝑠
6
The instantaneous velocity 𝒗 in 3 dimensions is:

𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
𝑣Ԧ =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑
𝑣Ԧ = 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧𝑘෠
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑣Ԧ = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣𝑦 ෡𝑗 + 𝑣𝑧 ෡𝑘

7
Average Acceleration And Instantaneous Acceleration

When a particle’s velocity moves in 3 dimensions and changes from 𝑣1 to 𝑣2 in a time interval Δt, its
average acceleration 𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒈 during Δt is:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑦
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

𝑣1 – 𝑣2 ∆𝑣Ԧ
𝑎Ԧ 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

The instantaneous acceleration in 3 dimensions (or acceleration) 𝒂 is,

𝑑𝑣Ԧ
𝑎Ԧ =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑
𝑎Ԧ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣𝑦 ෡𝑗 + 𝑣𝑧 ෡𝑘
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘෠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑎𝑦 ෡𝑗 + 𝑎𝑧 ෡𝑘

8
Example: The position 𝒓 of a particle moving in an xy plane is given by 𝒓 = (2t3 − 5t) 𝒊+ Ƹ (6 − 7t4)𝒋,Ƹ calculate (a)
𝒓, (b) 𝒗, and (c) 𝒂 for t = 2 s. (d) What is the angle between the positive direction of the x axis and the particle’s
velocity at t = 2 s?

Solution:
a) At t = 2 s:
𝑟Ԧ = (2 × 23 − 5 ×2) 𝑖+
Ƹ (6 − 7 ×24)𝑗Ƹ = 6 𝑖Ƹ − 106 𝑗Ƹ

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑(2t3 − 5t) 𝑑(6 − 7t4)

b) 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑑𝑡 𝑘෠
= 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ = (6t2 – 5) 𝑖Ƹ + (–28t3) 𝑗Ƹ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
At t = 2 s:
𝑣Ԧ = (6×4 – 5) 𝑖Ƹ – (28×8) 𝑗Ƹ = 19 𝑖Ƹ – 224 𝑗Ƹ

𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧 ෠ 𝑑(6t2 – 5) 𝑑(–28t3)

c) 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑖Ƹ
+ 𝑑𝑡 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘
= 𝑎Ԧ = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ = (12t) 𝑖Ƹ + (–84t2) 𝑗Ƹ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
At t = 2 s:
𝑎Ԧ = (12×2 ) 𝑖Ƹ – (84×4) 𝑗Ƹ = 24 𝑖Ƹ – 336 𝑗Ƹ

𝑣𝑦 −224
d) 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −11.8 = −85°
𝑣𝑥 19
9
Projectile Motion
• We consider a special case of two-dimensional
motion: projectile motion
• In projectile motion, the particle moves with
initial velocity 𝑣𝑜
• The only acceleration in this motion is the free-
fall acceleration g, which is downward (in the y-
axis direction) ⟹ the velocity is changing in the
y-axis direction (𝑣𝑜𝑦 ).
• No acceleration in the x-axis direction ⟹ no
change in the speed in the x-axis direction (𝑣𝑜𝑥 )
• The only force acting on the projectile is the In this chapter, we neglect the air effect
on the projectile motion
Earth’s gravity

10
⸪ the projectile motion has a constant acceleration (that is g in the y-axis direction)
⸫ we can use the equations of motion that we learned in Chapter 2 to analyze this motion

The Horizontal Motion (in the x-axis direction)

We can calculate the horizontal distance of the projectile at time t from the
equation:
𝑥 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑡

and always the velocity in this direction is constant, and can be calculated
form,
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The Vertical Motion (in the y-axis direction)

We can calculate the vertical distance of the projectile at time t from the
equation:
1
𝑦 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2 t is the flight time (the time since
the projectile started moving)
and the velocity in this direction is NOT constant, θ is the launch angle
vo is the initial velocity
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 and 𝑣𝑦2 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 − 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 )
11
The Horizontal Range
• The horizontal range R of the projectile is the horizontal distance the projectile has traveled when it returns to
its initial height (the height at which it is launched).

• R can be calculated from,

𝑣𝑜2
𝑅= sin(2𝜃)
𝑔

where,
θ is the launch angle
vo is the initial velocity

• The horizontal range R is maximum for a launch angle of 45°

12
Example: An object is launched from ground at a velocity of 40 m/s in a direction making an angle of 50°
upward with the horizontal.
a) What is the maximum height reached by the object?
b) What is the object’s total flight time (between launch and touching the ground agian)?
c) What is the object’s horizontal range (maximum x above ground)?
d) What is the object’s position (horizontal and vertical coordinates) at t = 2 s
e) What is the object’s horizontal and vertical velocity at t = 2 s

Solution:
a) We have given that vo = 40 m/s and θ = 50°
Remember that at maximum height, the projectile (the object) stops briefly
⟹ vy = 0 m/s
First, we calculate the time for reaching the maximum height:
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
0 = 40 𝑠𝑖𝑛50° − 9.8 𝑡
9.8 𝑡 = 40 𝑠𝑖𝑛50°
40 𝑠𝑖𝑛50°
𝑡= = 3.1 s
9.8
Now, we can calculate the maximum height (using t for maximum height):
1
𝑦 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2
1
= (40 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛50°) × 3.1 − 2 × 9.8 × 3.12
= 47.9 m 13
b) When the object finishes the flight, it will reach the ground again ⟹ y = 0 m
1
𝑦 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2
1
0 = 40 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛50° 𝑡 − 2 × 9.8 × 𝑡 2
1
× 9.8 × 𝑡 2 = 40 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛50° 𝑡
2
1
× 9.8 × 𝑡 = 40 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛50
2

2×40×𝑠𝑖𝑛50
𝑡= = 6.25 s
9.8

𝑣𝑜2
c) 𝑅 = sin(2𝜃)
𝑔

402 1600
𝑅= sin 2 × 50 = sin 100 = 160.8 m
9.8 9.8

14
 1
d) We know: 𝑥 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑡 and 𝑦 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2

So at t = 2 s:
𝑥 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑡 = 40 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠50° × 2 = 51.4 m
1 1
𝑦 = (𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 = 40 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛50° × 2 − 2 × 9.8 × 22 = 41.7 m

e) We know that 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡

So at t = 2 s:
m Note that the velocity in the x direction (vx)
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 40 𝑐𝑜𝑠50° = 25.7 s does NOT change with time (it is constant
during the whole flight).
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 = 40 𝑠𝑖𝑛50° − 9.8 × 2 = 11 m/s

15
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

• A particle is in circular motion if it travels in a circular path

A particle is in uniform motion if it travels at constant (uniform) speed.
⸫ A particle is in uniform circular motion if it travels in a circular path at
constant (uniform) speed.
• Although the speed does not vary, the particle is accelerating because the velocity
changes in direction.
• This acceleration is always directed radially inward. Because of this, the
acceleration is called a centripetal acceleration.
• The magnitude of this acceleration 𝑎Ԧ is

𝑣2
𝑎=
𝑟
where,
a is the centripetal acceleration
v is the “linear” velocity of the particle
r is the radius of the circular path
16
T is called the period of revolution, or simply the period, of the motion. It is the time for a particle to go
around the path exactly once

2𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
𝑣

where,
T is the period
v is the “linear” velocity of the particle
r is the radius of the circular path

17
Example: a car moves in circular road with a velocity of 5 m/s. the radius of the road path is 30 m. Find a)
the centripetal acceleration of the car, b) the period of this motion.

Solution:

𝑣2
a) 𝑎 =
𝑟

52
= = 0.83 m/s2
30

2𝜋𝑟
b) T =
𝑣

2×3.14×30
= = 37.7 s
5

18