PARCOURS OUVERT

b2.4 EEE EXP8

Power Electronics

GENERAL OVERVIEW
Introduction

Power Electronics

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Introduction
VIDEO:
Power Electronics

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Introduction
• Branch of Electrical Engineering.
• Power Electronics bridges Electrical Engineering and Electronics.
• Emerged in the late 20th century as "high current electronics.“
• Focuses on the control and conversion of electrical energy with high
efficiency and minimal losses.
• It is a core technology in our electrical
infrastructure.
• Most of the electrical energy used passes through
one or more power electronic converters.
• Three key principles: solid-state electronics (diodes, transistors, and
thyristors), power conversion, and control (voltage regulation, power
factor correction, and smoothing of power delivery).

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Introduction
• Utilizes electronic power devices from converting one form of electric
power into another form of electric power with proper control.

• Applications span industrial automation, renewable energy systems,

electric vehicles, and consumer electronics.
• In many applications, the power electronic circuitry is a major
determining system size, functionality, and performance.

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Introduction

MP-2025 Voltage and current rating for different power

6
electronics application areas, Tolbert , 2005
Introduction
Power Electronics Before

1927:
20kW Kenotron Rectifier Set

MIT, OpenCourse
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Introduction
Power Electronics Today

From mW to GW
2000A 250 kV high voltage direct
current (HVDC) thyristor valve.
Wtshymanski, 2004
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Introduction
Historical Context
Early Developments (Pre-1960s):
• Mechanical converters: DC machines driven by alternators were
commonly used.
• Mercury arc rectifiers and rotary converters handled AC/DC conversion
but were bulky and inefficient.

Mercury arc

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Introduction
Semiconductor Revolution (1950s-1970s):
• Invention of power diodes and thyristors enabled compact and efficient
power conversion.
• 1960s: Introduction of silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs).

Silicon controlled rectifier, General Electric, 1957

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Introduction
Power electronics fields appears in 60’s -70’s

…The task of a power converter is to process and control the flow of electric
energy by supplying voltages and currents in a form that is optimally
suited for the user loads …

The efficiency has to be high, and thermal losses low

Three-phase
network Electrical PE Converter PS Use of
Or energetic PE ≈ PS electrical
Mono phase
network (LV/HV) source η≈1 energy
Storage batteries

A static converter is also an interface between the electrical source and the
device to supply. It has to have no effect on the power supply chain.

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Introduction
Advancements in Switching Devices (1980s-1990s):
• Development of MOSFETs and IGBTs improved efficiency and switching
speed.
• Rise of pulse-width modulation (PWM) techniques for precise control.
Modern Era (2000s-Present):
• Emergence of wide band-gap materials (SiC, GaN) for high-performance
devices.
• Integration of digital control and smart grid applications.

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Introduction

The historical development of power semiconductors, power electronics, and reliability

engineering, Power Electronics Reliability: State of the Art and Outlook
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Examples

Source of energy Converters

Conditioning and
control of electrical INDUCTION
HEATING
energy

Generators
LIGHTNING

INFORMATICS, HIFI MEDICAL

PV VIDEO (scanner, laser,
IRM)
Electromechanical
conversion Mechanical energy

Network
WASHIN
TRACTIO G
N

Accumulator PUMPIN AUTOFOCU

G S
ROBOT
S

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Introduction
Applications of Power Electronics
• Industrial Applications: Induction heating,
motor drives, robotics, and automation.
• Consumer Electronics: Informatics, Hi-Fi
audio systems, home appliances.
• Medical Technology: MRI scanners, laser
systems, diagnostic devices.
• Renewable Energy Systems: Solar PV
inverters, wind turbine converters.
• Automotive Sector: Hybrid and electric
vehicles, battery management systems.

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Overview of static conversion
• Static converters are devices that convert electrical energy from one
form to another without moving mechanical parts.
• They rely on power electronic switches (like diodes, thyristors, MOSFETs,
or IGBTs) to perform efficient energy conversion.
• Static converters are widely used in power systems, industrial drives,
renewable energy, and electronic devices.

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Overview of static conversion
Several ways to convert electrical variables : AC/DC , AC/AC, DC/DC
CHOPPER
Continuous (adjustable voltage) Continuous
source (=) device (=)

Alternative Alternative
Source (~) Device (~)
CYCLOCONVERTER
(adjustable RMS
and frequency)

• Linear Converter : low efficiency (40% to 60%)

• Non linear converter : most common, efficiency > 90%

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Example : Electric Vehicle
… Issues of power electronics …

Ex: Hybrid Vehicles (HVs) or Electric Vehicles (EVs)

3 embedded power converters! Power Electronics:

o Battery management
systems for energy storage.
o Inverters for motor drive
control.
3
o On-board chargers and
1
DC/DC converters.
2 Challenges:
o Thermal management of
power devices. High
efficiency under dynamic
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Fundamental Principle

… The control of the power exchange between the generator and the load
is done by closing and opening semiconductor power electronic switches
…
Key components:
• Energy sources (batteries, generators).
• Loads (motors, resistors).
• Control units for precise energy regulation.
• Semiconductor switches (MOSFETs, IGBTs, Thyristors).

Power flow control via semiconductor switching devices.

Generator Switching Load

Control
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Fundamental Principle
CONTROL IS REQUIRED!

DC-DC conversion
AC-DC rectification
DC-AC inversion
AC-AC
cycloconversion

The switching converter is the

“brain” of the power system,
allowing conversión of voltaje
and current levels with high
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1st Example : Basic
Taking example of a battery (generator) supplies a resistor (load) by mean
of electronic power switch.

Goal : Control the electrical power flow

The switch sequencing K is a succession of open

and closed states.

We assume that K is closed for a time tc and open

for a time to.

tc to tc to tc to

Tsw

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 1st Example : Basic
Plot the evolution of E, u, Vk and i.
E

Vk

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Power Electronic
Switches
Power electronic switches
Switching Function:
o Power electronic devices act as switches, operating in either ON or OFF
modes to control electrical power flow.
o Devices must follow the basic characteristic of a switch, i.e. when the
switch is ON, it has zero voltage drop across it and carries full current
through it, and when it is in OFF condition, it has full voltage drop across
it and zero current flowing through it.

o Practically there always exists a leakage current through the devices

when in OFF condition, i.e I leakage ≠ 0 and there is always a forward
voltage drop in ON condition Von ≠ 0.
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Power electronic switches
o Static converters are electrical networks mainly composed of
semiconductor devices operating in the switch mode (switches) to
perform efficient energy conversion.
o There are several types of switches, depending on their electric
parameters (breakdown Voltage, ON-state current, switching frequency),
functional modes and packagings.
o Analysis of switches into a Voltage/current plane.

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Power electronic switches
Diode: allows current to flow only in one direction
SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier): a four-layer
semiconductor device that acts as a switch
controlled by a gate signal.
Metal-oxide semiconductior field-effect transistors
(MOSFET): voltage-controlled transistor used to
amplify or switch electronic signals.
Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT): combines
the advantages of MOSFET and bipolar transistors
for high-efficiency switching.
Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO): A thyristor that can be
turned on and off using gate signals.
Integrated-gate commutated thyristor (IGCT):
combines features of the GTO and IGBT for high-
power applications.
TRIAC: bidirectional switch that conducts in both
directions when triggered.
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Power electronic switches
Representation of switch in Ik(Vk) plane
• Through proper sequential operation of these components, they allow an
energy transfer between two sources with different electrical properties.
Vk

Ik
t

i
Vk
t

The change from one state to the other (switch commutation) implies a
transient behaviour of the switch.

Minimizing the losses in the switches maximizes the efficiency of the converter.

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Power electronic switches
Power electronic switches exhibit both static and dynamic
characteristics that determine their performance in power conversion
systems.

Static characteristics Dynamic characteristics

• Static characteristics • Dynamic characteristics

describe the switch's define the switch's
behavior in steady-state behavior during state
conditions (ON and OFF transitions (turning
states), focusing on ON/OFF), directly
voltage and current impacting switching
handling. speed and losses.

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Power electronic switches
Static Characteristics
In the static domain a switch has the same behaviour as a non-linear resistance:
These switches must have :
• A voltage drop (or an ON resistance) as low as possible in the ON-state,
• A negligible leakage current (or an OFF resistance) in the OFF-state.

Taken as a dipole with the load sign convention the ON

Ik State
static characteristic Ik(Vk), which represents the
operating points of a switch, is made up of two
branches totally located in quadrants 1 and 3 such
that (Vk × Ik) > 0.
One of these branches is very close to the Ik axis (ON state) Vk
and the other is very close to the Vk axis (OFF state).

Ik OFF
state

Vk Short and open circuit are not switches

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Power electronic switches
Dynamic characteristics
The dynamic characteristics is the trajectory described by the point of operation
of the switch during its commutation, going from one half-axis to the
perpendicular half-axis.
Unlike the static characteristic, the dynamic characteristic is not an intrinsic
property of the switch but also depends on the constraints imposed by the
external circuit.
Commutation in power electronic switches refers to the process of turning off a
conducting device and transferring current to another path. Depending on how
this transition occurs, commutation is classified in:
• Spontaneous (natural)
• Controlled (forced) commutation.

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Power electronic switches
Spontaneous commutation :
• Occurs naturally when the alternating current (AC)
Ik No switching
in the circuit passes through zero, automatically losses

turning off the device without external

intervention.
• The spontaneous commutations correspond to Vk
the turn-OFF when the current flowing through
the switch reaches zero and to the turn-ON when
the voltage applied across its terminals reaches
zero. Change of quadrant (auto
• The spontaneous commutation is the Turn-ON ; auto Turn-OFF)
commutation of a simple PN junction (D switch).
• It only depends on the evolution of the electrical
variables in the external circuit.

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Power electronic switches
Controlled commutation :
Ik
• The switch is turned off by an external circuit Switching losses

forcing the current to zero, regardless of the natural

behavior of the current.
Vk
• The switch has a control terminal on which it is
possible to act in order to induce a quasi-
instantaneous change of state (case of T switch).
No Change of quadrant
• The internal resistance of this switch can change
(controlled Turn-ON ;
from a very low value to a very high value at turn- controlled Turn-OFF)

OFF (and inversely at turn- ON).

It should be noted that, in a controlled commutation, the switch imposes its state
on the external circuit.
Under such circumstances, the element can undergo severe stresses that depend
on its dynamic characteristic.
If the switching time is long and the operating frequency is high, the
commutation losses can be important.
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Classification of Power switches
Switches used in power converters can be classified by their static characteristics
(two, three or four segments) and by the type of commutation (controlled or
spontaneous) at turn-ON and at turn-OFF.

1. Two-segment switches :
Two-segment switches can either conduct or block current in a single direction.
These switches are typically unidirectional in both voltage and current.
- Diode, power semiconductor (MOSFET, IGBT, GTO, IGCT, …)

Positive voltage allows current

Dynamic characteristics of two-segment switches
MP-2025 flow after triggering (for SCR). No
conduction in reverse bias.
Classification of Power switches
2. Three-segment switches :
Three-segment switches can conduct current in both
directions but are controlled in only one direction.
- Unidirectional in current and bidirectional in voltage
-Bidirectional in current and unidirectional in voltage.
Except for the thyristor, all theses switches are
synthesized switches. TRIAC, Bidirectional SCRs

Dynamic characteristics of three-segment Dynamic characteristics of three-segment

switches: bidirectional in voltage MP-2025 switches: bidirectional in current
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Power switches - Applications

Wide Band-Gap Components

SiC, GaN

Trade-off: [1]
✔ Blocking voltage (V)
✔ Maximum admissible current when switch is
on
✔ Switching frequency (speed)

MP-2025 [1] http://www.aci-waga2015.com/ 35

Power switches - Specifications
Each function-switch (synthesized switches) identified by a theoretical analysis
corresponds to a technological solution that depends on the electrical specifications
and the specifications of the application.
Example with SiC Schottky diode

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Power switches - Specifications
Each function-switch (synthesized switches) identified by a theoretical analysis
corresponds to a technological solution that depends on the electrical specifications
and the specifications of the application.
Example with SiC Schottky diode

✔ Forward Blocking Voltage

✔ Current capability

✔ Switching time

✔ Power losses

✔ Thermal Characteristics

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Sources
Sources
To control the power flow between two sources, the principle of operation of a static
power converter is based on the control of switches (turn-ON and turn-OFF) with
particular cycles creating periodic modifications of the interconnection between
these two sources.

❑ Voltage Source : Deliver a constant voltage regardless of the load current. Ideal
Model: Zero internal resistance. It should never be short-circuited but it can be
open-circuited.

Capacitor dipole is considered

as a instantaneous voltage
source

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Sources
❑ Current Source : Provide a constant current regardless of the load voltage. Ideal
Model: Infinite internal resistance. It should never be open-circuited but it can be
short-circuited

Inductor dipole is considered

as a instantaneous current
source

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Sources
Reversibility
Reversibility is the capability of a bi-directional exchange of power.
Some dipoles can be reversible in voltage, current or both in the same time.

Interconnection of sources : commutation rules - Incompatibility

Switches cannot establish a direct connection between two voltage

sources or between two current sources!

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Sources
Reversibility
Reversibility is the capability of a bi-directional exchange of power.
Some dipoles can be reversible in voltage, current or both in the same time.

Interconnection of sources : commutation rules - Compatibility

u1 i1
u i

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Power Converters
Power converters
• A power converter is an electrical circuit that changes the
electric energy from one form into the desired form
optimized for the specific load.
• A converter may do one or more functions and give an output
that differs from the input.
• It is used to increase or decrease the magnitude of the input
voltage, invert polarity, or produce several output voltages of
either the same polarity with the input, different polarity, or
mixed polarities such as in the computer power supply unit.
• The converter uses nonlinear
components such as the
semiconductor switches,
and linear reactive
components such as the
inductors, transformers and
capacitors for intermediate
energy storage as well as
current and voltage filtering.
Types of power converters

Can produce sinusoidal, square, or

modified sine waves. Solar power
systems, uninterruptible power supplies
(UPS), and motor drives.

DC from one V level to AC from one

another, typically frequency or
stepping up (boost) or voltage level to
stepping down (buck). another.
Efficiency is high, as it High-power
uses inductors and applications
capacitors to store and like industrial
transfer energy. DC motor drives
motor speed control, and railway
power regulation in traction
portable devices. systems.

Can be half-wave or full-wave rectifiers.

Power supplies, battery chargers.
Structure of power converters
A power converter can be designed with different topologies and with
one or several intermediate conversion stages.
When this conversion is achieved without any intermediate stage
temporarily storing some energy, the conversion is called direct
conversion, and it is achieved by a direct converter.
On the other hand, when this conversion makes use of one or more
stages able to store energy temporarily, the conversion is termed indirect,
and it is achieved by an indirect converter

The interdiction to connect two sources of the same nature leads to the
consideration of two classes of basic conversion topologies:
• Direct link topology: when the two sources have different natures
(unable to store energy);
• Indirect link topology: when the two sources have the same nature
(add components to generate an intermediate buffer stage of a
different type without active energy consumption (capacitor or
inductor)

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 Structure of power converters
Direct link topology converters
The energy conversion happens directly between the input and
output stages with minimal intermediary components between
them. The input and output are linked directly through the power
electronics switching devices and associated components (like
inductors, capacitors, etc.). The different possible connections
between a voltage source and a current source are:

u
u i u i
i
W W=0

Generator A Load Generator Load Generator C Load

B
Disconnection
Connection (current source short-circuited
(Energy flow between sources) voltage source open circuited)
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Structure of power converters
Direct link topology converters (A connections)

K1 K3
i

K2 K4

u i K1 and K4 closed

Generator A Load
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Structure of power converters
Direct link topology converters (B connections)

K1 K3
i

K2 K4

u i K3 and K2 closed

Generator Load
B
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Structure of power converters
Direct link topology converters (C connections)

K1 K3
i

K2 K4

i K1 and K3 closed, or
Disconnection K2 and K4 closed
(Current source short- W=0
circuited, voltage source
open-circuited)

Generator C Load
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Structure of power converters
Indirect link topology converters
The energy conversion process involves one or more intermediate
stages between the input and output. This structure typically involves
storing and transforming the energy in some form before delivering it
to the output. The intermediary buffer stage is a voltage source
(capacitor) if the energy transfer is between two current sources, and
it is a current source (inductance) if the energy transfer is between
two voltage sources.
i

v1 v2

Generator Intermediate
dipole
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Structure of power converters
Indirect link topology converters
Modification of the nature of the input or output source
In the case of voltage–voltage conversion, one solution could be to add an
inductance in series with the input voltage source or with the output voltage
source.
The case of current–current conversion, is similar to the previous case. A capacitor
should be added in parallel or in series with the input current source or with the
output current source.

• Use of two direct converters

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Thank you!