Module 2: Kinetics of Particles

Module 2
2.1 Force, mass, accel. (Direct method): Gen. principles
2.2 Force, mass, accel. (Direct method): Rectilinear motion
2.3 Force, mass, accel. (Direct method): Curvilinear motion
2.4 Work and Energy: General principles
2.5 Work and Energy: Work–Energy Principle
2.6 Work and Energy: Potential energy (grav. & elastic)
2.7 Linear Impulse and Linear Momentum
2.8 Angular Impulse and Angular Momentum
2.9 Angular Impulse-Angular Momentum Principle /
Conservation of angular momentum
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 Module 2: Kinetics of Particles
Module 2
2.10 Special Applications: Impact
2.11 Special Applications: Relative Motion

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 2.1 General Principles
• Kinetics – study of the relations between
unbalanced forces and the resulting changes in
motion
• 3 general approaches: direct application of Newton’s
2nd law (F-m-a method); use of work & energy
principles; use of impulse & momentum principles
• Primary inertial system (astronomical frame of
reference) – an imaginary set of reference axes
which are assumed to have no translation or rotation
in space (fixed)
• Inertia – resistance to rate of change of velocity.
Mass is a quantitative measure of inertia
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 2.1 General Principles (cont’d)
• Analysis for primary inertial system will be valid for
any non-rotating reference frame!
• Equations of motion:
• Gravitational free fall:
• Newton’s 2nd law:

Force unit (Newton) >> 1 N causes a mass of 1 kg to

accelerate at the rate of 1 m/s2.
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 Forward & inverse dynamics
• (Two) types of dynamics problems: forward &
inverse
• Forward dynamics – acceleration is either specified
or can be determined directly from kinematic
conditions. Corresponding forces can then be
determined by direct substitution
• Inverse dynamics – forces acting on the particle are
specified and resulting motion must be determined

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 Constrained & unconstrained motion
• Constrained – path of particle is partially or totally
determined by restraining guides
• Unconstrained – particle is free of mechanical
guides and follows a path determined by its initial
motion and by external forces applied to it
• Choice of coordinate system – dictated by number &
geometry of constraints. Free to move in space – 3
DOF
• Constrained to move on surface/fixed line – 2/1 DOF

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 Free-Body Diagrams (FBDs)

• Isolate particle and replace removed bodies by the

forces they exert on the particle
• Force resultant is zero in statics but equal to “ma” in
dynamics
• FBD is the most important thing in engineering
mechanics!

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2.2 Rectilinear Motion

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Example 1: Rectilinear motion

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Example 2: Rectilinear motion

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 2.3 Curvilinear Motion
Use the 3 coordinate acceleration descriptions as in
kinematics section: rectangular; n-t; polar
• Rectangular:
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥;ሷ 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑦ሷ

• Normal-tangential:

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 2.3 Curvilinear Motion (cont’d)
• Polar:

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Example 3: Curvilinear motion

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Example 4: Curvilinear motion

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Example 5: Curvilinear motion

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 2.4: Work and Energy
• Intro – two classes of problems of the cumulative
effects of unbalanced forces. Integration of forces
w.r.t:
• 1. displacement of particle (W-E theorem)
• 2. time forces are applied (I-G theorem)
• Work:

Active forces – forces that do work

Reactive forces – forces that don’t do work
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 Work (cont’d)
• Unit (Joule [J]) – work done by 1 N acting thru 1 m in
the direction of the force
• o

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 Work done by linear springs
• (work done by a variable force)
• work done on body is positive (same sense as disp.)
• F = kx (Hooke’s) is static, assumes no accel. for
spring elements

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Work done by linear springs

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 Work associated with weight
g constant g not constant

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 2.5 Principle of Work and Kinetic Energy
• Kinetic energy of particle is the total work that must
be done on it to bring it from rest to a velocity v
• T is always positive, regardless of velocity direction

• Work-energy equation for particle:

• (ΔT may be +ve or –ve or zero)
• Advantages of W-E: avoid calc. of accelerations,
hence velocity changes written directly as functions
of active forces; W-E only involves active forces; we
can analyse particle systems w/out dismembering

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 Work-Energy principle (cont’d)
• Principle of Work & Kinetic Energy:
Application of W-E requires isolation of particle of
system thru FBD/AFD respectively
• Power:
Time rate of doing work
Scalar (just like work); unit Watt [W] = J/s; 1 hp =
746 W = 0.746 kW
• Efficiency:
Ratio of work done by a machine to the work done
on the machine

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 Efficiency
Ratio of work done by a machine to the work done
on the machine (mechanical efficiency)

Overall efficiency:
where em = mechanical efficiency
ee = electrical efficiency
et = thermal efficiency

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Example 6: Work and Energy

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Example 7: Work and Energy

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Example 8: Work and Energy

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 2.6 Potential Energy
• PE (V) – work done by gravity forces (gravitational)
and spring forces (elastic)
• GPE (Vg) - work done against gravitational field to
elevate the particle thru distance h i.e. –ve of
change in PE; depends only on position (h/r), not
path

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 Elastic potential energy
• EPE (Ve) - work done on to deform it. This the –ve
of work done on the body

• Work-Energy Equation: U12 = ΔT+ΔVg+Δve = E

where E is the total mechanical system energy
if ΔE = 0 (or E is constant), we have the law of
conservation of dynamic energy.

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 Conservative force fields

• Conservative force fields – work done against a

gravitational or elastic force fields only depends on
the net change of position not on a particular path.
Forces with this characteristic are called
conservative force fields
• if F.dr is an exact
differential of –dV of some scalar function V:

Recall exact differential of

as true if

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 Conservative force fields (cont’d)
.

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Example 9: Work-energy

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Example 10: Work-energy

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 2.7 Linear Impulse & Linear Momentum
• Integrate equations of motion w.r.t time rather than
displacement

• Linear momentum:
G = mv | resultant of all forces
acting on a particle equals its
time rate of change of linear
momentum

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 Linear Impulse-Linear Momentum Principle

• Total linear impulse on mass m equals the corresp.

change in linear momentum of m
• I-G Diagram

• Principle of conservation of linear momentum:

resultant force on particle is zero; G remains
constant

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Example 11: Linear impulse-linear momentum

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Example 12: Linear impulse-linear momentum

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Example 13: Linear impulse-linear momentum

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 2.8 Angular Impulse & Angular Momentum
• The moment of the linear momentum vector mv about
the origin O (moment of momentum!)

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 Rate of change of angular momentum

• Rate of change of angular momentum:

Moment about the fixed point O of all forces acting

on mass m equal to the time rate of change of
angular momentum of m.

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 Angular Impulse-Ang. Momentum Principle
Conservation of Angular Momentum
• Total angular momentum on mass m about the fixed
point O equals the corresponding change in angular
momentum of m about O.

• Principle of conservation of angular momentum:

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Example 15: Angular impulse-ang. momentum

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Example 16: Conserv. of angular momentum

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 2.10 Special Applications: Impact
• Impact is collisions between 2 bodies characterized
by the generation of relatively large forces which act
over a short time interval, typically with the
generation of heat and sound
• Direct central impact involves collisions with the
contact forces directed along the line centres

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 Direct Central Impact: Coeff. of Restitution
• Because the contact forces are equal and opposite
during impact, the linear momentum of the system is
conserved
• Assumptions: any other forces other than the large
contact forces are negligible; mass centres do not
change appreciably during impact
Coefficient of Restitution (e)
• Reflects the capacity of the contact bodies to
recover from the impact
• Expressed as a ratio of magnitude of restoration
impact to the magnitude of deformation impact

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 Energy loss during impact
• Particle 1:

• Particle 2:

Energy loss during impact

• Energy is lost thru heat generation; dissipation of
elastic stress waves and thru sound generation
• When e = 1 (elastic impact), no energy loss; when e =
0 (inelastic/plastic impact), maximum energy loss

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 Oblique Central Impact

• Oblique central impact: involves particles in same

plane with initial and final velocities not parallel
(above)

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 Oblique Central Impact (cont’d)
• Four equations are needed to solve:
• 1. Momentum of the system is conserved in the n-
direction
• 2/3. Momentum of each particle is conserved in the
t-direction since there is no impulse on either
particle in the t-direction

• 4. The CoR (e) defined as for direct central impact

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Example 17: 1-D direct central impact

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Example 18: 2-D impact

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Example 19: 2-D impact

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Solution:

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Example 20: Oblique impact

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 2.11 Special Applications: Relative Motion
• Relative motion equation:

• D’Alembert’s Principle:
Allows treatment of dynamics
problem as statics problem

Fictitious force (-ma) is called

inertia force, giving an artificial state of equib,
dynamic equilibrium
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 Special Applications: Relative Motion (cont’d)
• Constant velocity, nonrotating system: Newton’s 2nd
law holds for measurements made in a system moving
with constant velocity (inertial system)

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Example 21: Relative motion

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