What is Java?

Java is a popular programming language, created in 1995.

It is owned by Oracle, and more than 3 billion devices run Java.

It is used for:
Mobile applications (specially Android apps)
Desktop applications
Web applications
Web servers and application servers
Games
Database connection And much, much more!

Why Use Java?

Java works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc.)
It is one of the most popular programming languages in the world
It has a large demand in the current job market
It is easy to learn and simple to use
It is open-source and free
It is secure, fast and powerful
It has huge community support (tens of millions of developers)

Java is an object oriented language which gives a clear structure to programs and allows code
to be reused, lowering development costs
As Java is close to C++ and C#, it makes it easy for programmers to switch to Java or vice
versa

Java Quick start

In Java, every application begins with a class name, and that class must match the filename.
Let's create our Java file, called Main.java, which can be done in any text editor (like
Notepad).
The file should contain a welcome back message, which is written with the following
code:

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Welcome back to school. 2nd semester has started!");
}
}

We will save this program as a text with the filename Main.java

Java Output / Print
Print Text

You learned from the previous chapter that you can use the println() method to output values
or print text in Java:
Example
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System.out.println("Hello World!");
You can add as many println() methods as you want. Note that it will add a new line for each
method:
Example

System.out.println("Hello World!");
System.out.println("I am learning Java.");
System.out.println("It is awesome!");

Double Quotes
Text must be wrapped inside double quotations marks "". If you forget the double quotes, an
error occurs:
Example

System.out.println("This sentence will work!");

System.out.println(This sentence will produce an error);

The Print() Method

There is also a print() method, which is similar to println().
The only difference is that it does not insert a new line at the end of the output:
Example

System.out.print("Hello World! ");

System.out.print("I will print on the same line.");

Note that we add an extra space (after "Hello World!" in the example above) for better
readability.

Exercise
Which method is often used to print text in Java?

println()
printline()
printtext()
echo()
*Java Output Numbers*

Before we take a peep at tomorrow's work recall that today we reviewed printing numbers
with println or print objects

We noted that we can also use the println() method to print numbers.
However, unlike text, we don't put numbers inside double quotes:
Example

System.out.println(3);
System.out.println(358);
System.out.println(50000);

You can also perform mathematical calculations inside the println() method:
Example
System.out.println(3 + 3);
System.out.println(2 * 5);

Exercise
What is the output of the following code?

System.out.println(3 + 3);

3
6
9

Java Comments
Comments can be used to explain Java code, and to make it more readable. It can also be
used to prevent execution when testing alternative code.
Single-line Comments

Single-line comments start with two forward slashes (//).

Any text between // and the end of the line is ignored by Java (will not be executed).
This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code:
Example
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// This is a comment
System.out.println("Hello World");

This example uses a single-line comment at the end of a line of code:

Example
System.out.println("Hello World"); // This is a comment

Java Multi-line Comments

Multi-line comments start with /* and ends with */.
Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by Java.
This example uses a multi-line comment (a comment block) to explain the code:
Example

/* The code below will print the words Hello World

to the screen, and it is amazing */
System.out.println("Hello World");

Single or multi-line comments?

It's up to you which one you use. Normally, we use // for short comments, and /* */ for
longer.

JAVA VARIABLES
Recall also that we said that Variables were some sort of containers for storing data values.
The variables are not in themselves the data values, but the memory address of the location
the data.
In Java, there are different types of values that the variables can store, for example:

String - stores text, such as "Hello". String values are surrounded by double quotes
int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such as 123 or -123
float - stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such as 19.99 or -19.99 double - stores
floating point numbers, with higher level of precision that float.
char - stores single characters, such as 'a' or 'B'. Char values are surrounded by single quotes
boolean - stores values with two states: true or false

How to Declare (i.e. Create) Variables

To create a variable, you must specify the type and assign it a value:

type _variable Name_ = value;

Where type is one of Java's types (such as int or String), and variable Name is the name of
the variable (such as x or name). The equal sign is used to assign values to the variable.

To create a variable that should store text, look at the following example:
Example
Create a variable called _name_ of type String and assign it the value "John".
Then we use println() to print the name variable:

String name = "John";

System.out.println(name);

To create a variable that should store a number, look at the following example:
Example

Create a variable called myNum of type int and assign it the value 15:

int myNum = 15;

System.out.println(myNum);

You can also declare a variable without assigning the value, and assign the value later:
Example

int myNum;
myNum = 15;
System.out.println(myNum);

Note that if you assign a new value to an existing variable, it will overwrite the previous
value:
Example

Change the value of myNum from 15 to 20:

int myNum = 15;

myNum = 20; // myNum is now 20
System.out.println(myNum);
Final Variables
If you don't want others (or yourself) to overwrite existing values, use the final keyword (this
will declare the variable as "final" or "constant", which means unchangeable and read-only):
Example

final int myNum = 15;

myNum = 20; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final variable

Other Types
A demonstration of how to declare variables of other types:
Example

int myNum = 5;
float myFloatNum = 5.99f;
char myLetter = 'D';
boolean myBool = true;
String myText = "Hello";

Java Print Variables

Display Variables

So far we have reminded ourselves of how we use the println method to display literals, i.e.
numbers and text. The println() method is often used to display variables.

To combine both text and a variable, use the + character:

Example

String name = "John";

System.out.println("Hello " + name);

You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:
Example

String firstName = "John ";

String lastName = "Doe";
String fullName = firstName + lastName;
System.out.println(fullName);

For numeric values, the + character works as a mathematical operator (notice that we use int
(integer) variables here):
Example

int x = 5;
int y = 6;
System.out.println(x + y); // Print the value of x + y

From the example above, you can expect:

x stores the value 5

 y stores the value 6
Then we use the println() method to display the value of x + y, which is 11
Exercise

Which method is often used to print variables?

printline()
printvar()
echo()
println()

HOW TO DECLARE MULTIPLE (MANY) VARIABLES OF THE SAME TYPE IN

ONE DECLARATION
To declare more than one variable of the same type, you can use a comma-separated list:
Example
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Instead of writing:

int x = 5;
int y = 6;
int z = 50;
System.out.println(x + y + z);

You can simply write:

int x = 5, y = 6, z = 50;
System.out.println(x + y + z);

One Value to Multiple Variables

You can also assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:
Example

int x, y, z;
x = y = z = 50;
System.out.println(x + y + z);

Exercise?
Which of the following declares multiple variables of the same type?

int x = 1, y = 2, z = 3;
int x y z = 1, 2, 3;
int x; y; z = 123;
int x = 1 + y = 2 + z = 3;

IDENTIFIERS
All Java variables must be identified with unique names.
These unique names are called identifiers.
Identifiers can be short names (like x and y) or more descriptive names (age, sum,
totalVolume).
Note: It is recommended to use descriptive names in order to create understandable and
maintainable code:
Example:

// Good
int minutesPerHour = 60;

// OK, but not so easy to understand what m actually is

int m = 60;

The general rules for naming variables are:

 Names can contain letters, digits, underscores, and dollar signs
 Names must begin with a letter
 Names of variables should start with a lowercase letter
 Names cannot contain whitespace
 Names can also begin with $ and _
 Names are case-sensitive ("myVar" and "myvar" are different variables)
 Reserved words (like Java keywords, such as int or boolean) cannot be used as names
Exercise

Which is NOT a legal variable name?

int myInteger = 20;

int int = 20;
int myNum = 20;
int num = 20;

Real-Life Examples of Variables

Often in our examples, we simplify variable names to match their data type (myInt or
myNum for int types, myChar for char types, and so on). This is done to avoid confusion.

However, for a practical example of using variables, we have created a program that stores
different data about a college student:
Example

// Student data
String studentName = "John Doe";
int studentID = 15;
int studentAge = 23;
float studentFee = 75.25f;
char studentGrade = 'B';

// Print variables
System.out.println("Student name: " + studentName);
System.out.println("Student id: " + studentID);
System.out.println("Student age: " + studentAge);
System.out.println("Student fee: " + studentFee);
System.out.println("Student grade: " + studentGrade);
Calculate the Area of a Rectangle
In this real-life example, we create a program to calculate the area of a rectangle (by
multiplying the length and width):
Example

// Create integer variables

int length = 4;
int width = 6;
int area;

// Calculate the area of a rectangle

area = length * width;

// Print variables
System.out.println("Length is: " + length);
System.out.println("Width is: " + width);
System.out.println("Area of the rectangle is: " + area);

JAVA DATA TYPES

As explained in the previous chapter, a variable in Java must be a specified data type:
Example

int myNum = 5; // Integer (whole number)

float myFloatNum = 5.99f; // Floating point number
char myLetter = 'D'; // Character
boolean myBool = true; // Boolean
String myText = "Hello"; // String

Data types are divided into two groups:

*Primitive data types* - includes byte, short, int, long, float, double, boolean and char
*Non-primitive data types* - such as String, Arrays and Classes

PRIMITIVE DATA TYPES

A primitive data type specifies the type of a variable and the kind of values it can hold.
There are eight primitive data types in Java:
byte Stores whole numbers from -128 to 127
short Stores whole numbers from -32,768 to 32,767
int Stores whole numbers from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
long Stores whole numbers from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
float Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 6 to 7 decimal digits

double Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 15 to 16 decimal digits

boolean Stores true or false values
char Stores a single character/letter or ASCII values

Exercise
What is an int in Java?
A data type representing integers.
A data type representing strings.
A data type representing decimals.

NUMBERS
Primitive number types are divided into two groups:

Integer types: stores whole numbers, positive or negative (such as 123 or -456), without
decimals. Valid types are byte, short, int and long. Which type you should use, depends on
the numeric value.
Floating point types: represents numbers with a fractional part, containing one or more
decimals. There are two types: float and double.

Even though there are many numeric types in Java, the most used for numbers are int (for
whole numbers) and double (for floating point numbers). However, we will describe them all.

INTEGER TYPES
Byte:
The byte data type can store whole numbers from -128 to 127. This can be used instead of int
or other integer types to save memory when you are certain that the value will be within -128
and 127:
Example

byte myNum = 100;

System.out.println(myNum);

Short:
The short data type can store whole numbers from -32768 to 32767:
Example

short myNum = 5000;

System.out.println(myNum);

Int:
The int data type can store whole numbers from -2147483648 to 2147483647.
In general, the int data type is the preferred data type when we create variables with a
numeric value.
Example

int myNum = 100000;

System.out.println(myNum);

Long:
The long data type can store whole numbers from -9223372036854775808 to
9223372036854775807.
This is used when int is not large enough to store the value. Note that you should end the
value with an "L":
Example
long myNum = 15000000000L;
System.out.println(myNum);
 Floating Point Types:
You should use a floating point type whenever you need a number with a decimal, such as
9.99 or 3.14515.

The float and double data types can store fractional numbers.

Note: that you should end the value with an "f" for floats and "d" for doubles:

Float Example
float myNum = 5.75f;
System.out.println(myNum);

Double Example
double myNum = 19.99d;
System.out.println(myNum);

Use float or double?

The precision of a floating point value indicates how many digits the value can have after the
decimal point. The precision of float is only six or seven decimal digits, while double
variables have a precision of about 16 digits. Therefore it is safer to use double for most
calculations.

SCIENTIFIC NUMBERS
A floating point number can also be a scientific number with an "e" to indicate the power of
10:
Example

float f1 = 35e3f;
double d1 = 12E4d;
System.out.println(f1);
System.out.println(d1);

Exercise:
Integer types are used to store:

Floating point numbers

Decimals
Whole numbers

BOOLEAN TYPES
Very often in programming, you will need a data type that can only have one of two values,
like:

YES / NO
ON / OFF
TRUE / FALSE

For this, Java has a boolean data type, which can only take the values true or false:
Example:
boolean isJavaFun = true;
boolean isFishTasty = false;
System.out.println(isJavaFun); // Outputs true
System.out.println(isFishTasty); // Outputs false

Boolean values are mostly used for conditional testing.

Exercise
What is the correct syntax for declaring a boolean variable in Java?

boolean isJavaFun = 'true';

boolean isJavaFun = true;
bool isJavaFun = true;
bool isJavaFun = 1;

CHARACTERS
The char data type is used to store a single character. The character must be surrounded by
single quotes, like 'A' or 'c':
Example

char myGrade = 'B';

System.out.println(myGrade);

Alternatively, if you are familiar with ASCII values, you can use those to display certain
characters:
Example

char myVar1 = 65, myVar2 = 66, myVar3 = 67;

System.out.println(myVar1);
System.out.println(myVar2);
System.out.println(myVar3);

STRINGS
The String data type is used to store a sequence of characters (text). String values must be
surrounded by double quotes:
Example

String greeting = "Hello World";

System.out.println(greeting);

The String type is so much used and integrated in Java, that some call it "the special ninth
type".

A String in Java is actually a non-primitive data type, because it refers to an object. The
String object has methods that are used to perform certain operations on strings.
Exercise
Which data type is used to store a single character?

char
string
int
single

Real-Life Example
Here's a real-life example of using different data types, to calculate and output the total cost
of a number of items:
Example

// Create variables of different data types

int items = 50;
float costPerItem = 9.99f;
float totalCost = items * costPerItem;
char currency = '$';

// Print variables
System.out.println("Number of items: " + items);
System.out.println("Cost per item: " + costPerItem + currency);
System.out.println("Total cost = " + totalCost + currency);

NON-PRIMITIVE DATA TYPES

Non-primitive data types are called reference types because they refer to objects.
The main differences between primitive and non-primitive data types are:
Primitive types in Java are predefined and built into the language, while non-primitive types
are created by the programmer (except for String).

Non-primitive types can be used to call methods to perform certain operations, whereas
primitive types cannot.

Primitive types start with a lowercase letter (like int), while non-primitive types typically
starts with an uppercase letter (like String).

Primitive types always hold a value, whereas non-primitive types can be null.

Examples of non-primitive types are Strings, Arrays, Classes etc. You will learn more about
these later

JAVA TYPE CASTING

Type casting is when you assign a value of one primitive data type to another type.
In Java, there are two types of casting:

Widening Casting (automatically) - converting a smaller type to a larger type size

byte -> short -> char -> int -> long -> float -> double

Narrowing Casting (manually) - converting a larger type to a smaller size type

 double -> float -> long -> int -> char -> short -> byte

Widening Casting
Widening casting is done automatically when passing a smaller size type to a larger size type:
Example

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int myInt = 9;
double myDouble = myInt; // Automatic casting: int to double

System.out.println(myInt); // Outputs 9
System.out.println(myDouble); // Outputs 9.0
}
}

Narrowing Casting
Narrowing casting must be done manually by placing the type in parentheses () in front of the
value:
Example

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {
double myDouble = 9.78d;
int myInt = (int) myDouble; // Manual casting: double to int

System.out.println(myDouble); // Outputs 9.78

System.out.println(myInt); // Outputs 9
}
}

Real-Life Example
Here's a real-life example of type casting where we create a program to calculate the
percentage of a user's score in relation to the maximum score in a game.

We use type casting to make sure that the result is a floating-point value, rather than an
integer:
Example

// Set the maximum possible score in the game to 500

int maxScore = 500;

// The actual score of the user

int userScore = 423;

/* Calculate the percantage of the user's score in relation to the maximum available score.
Convert userScore to float to make sure that the division is accurate */
float percentage = (float) userScore / maxScore * 100.0f;

System.out.println("User's percentage is " + percentage);

Exercise
What is Type Casting?

 When you accidentally uses the wrong data type.

 When you assign a value of one primitive data type to another type.
 A concept that occurs when you are using constant variables.

JAVA OPERATORS
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.
In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:
Example

int x = 100 + 50;

Although the + operator is often used to add together two values, like in the example above, it
can also be used to add together a variable and a value, or a variable and another variable:
Example

int sum1 = 100 + 50; // 150 (100 + 50)

int sum2 = sum1 + 250; // 400 (150 + 250)
int sum3 = sum2 + sum2; // 800 (400 + 400)

Java operators can be classified into the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Bitwise operators

ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
Arithmetic operators are used to perform common mathematical operations.
Operator Name Description Example Try it
+ Addition Adds together two values x+y

- Subtraction Subtracts one value from another x-y

* Multiplication Multiplies two values x*y

/ Division Divides one value by another x/y

% Modulus Returns the division remainder x%y

++ Increment Increases the value of a variable by 1 ++x

-- Decrement Decreases the value of a variable by 1 --x

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.
In the example below, we use the assignment operator (=) to assign the value 10 to a variable
called x:
Example

int x = 10;

The addition assignment operator (+=) adds a value to a variable:

Example

int x = 10;
x += 5;

A list of all assignment operators:

Operator Example Same As
= x=5 x=5
+= x += 3 x=x+3
-= x -= 3 x=x-3
*= x *= 3 x=x*3
/= x /= 3 x=x/3
%= x %= 3 x=x%3
&= x &= 3 x=x&3
|= x |= 3 x=x|3
^= x ^= 3 x=x^3
>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3
<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

JAVA COMPARISON OPERATORS

Comparison operators are used to compare two values (or variables). This is important in
programming, because it helps us to find answers and make decisions.

The return value of a comparison is either true or false. These values are known as Boolean
values, and you will learn more about them in the Booleans and If..Else chapter.

In the following example, we use the greater than operator (>) to find out if 5 is greater than
3:
Example

int x = 5;
int y = 3;
System.out.println(x > y); // returns true, because 5 is higher than 3

Operator Name Example

== Equal to x == y
!= Not equal x != y
> Greater than x>y
< Less than. x<y
>= Greater than or equal to x >= y
<= Less than or equal to x <= y
JAVA LOGICAL OPERATORS
You can also test for true or false values with logical operators.

Logical operators are used to determine the logic between variables or values:
Operator Name Description
Example

&& Logical and Returns true if both statements are true x < 5 && x < 10

|| Logical or Returns true if one of the statements is true x < 5 || x < 4

! Logical not Reverse the result, returns false if the result is true !(x < 5 && x <
10)
Exercise
Operators are used to:

 Create constant variables and values

 Perform operations on variables and values
 Create objects and classes
 Access comments to display them to the screen

JAVA STRINGS
Strings are used for storing text.
A String variable contains a collection of characters surrounded by double quotes:

Example
Create a variable of type String and assign it a value:
String greeting = "Hello";

STRING LENGTH
A String in Java is actually an object, which contain methods that can perform certain
operations on strings. For example, the length of a string can be found with the length()
method:
Example

String txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";

System.out.println("The length of the txt string is: " + txt.length());

MORE STRING METHODS

There are many string methods available, for example toUpperCase() and toLowerCase():
Example

String txt = "Hello World";

System.out.println(txt.toUpperCase()); // Outputs "HELLO WORLD"
System.out.println(txt.toLowerCase()); // Outputs "hello world"

Finding a Character in a String

The indexOf() method returns the index (the position) of the first occurrence of a specified
text in a string (including whitespace):
Example

String txt = "Please locate where 'locate' occurs!";

System.out.println(txt.indexOf("locate")); // Outputs 7

Java counts positions from zero.

0 is the first position in a string, 1 is the second, 2 is the third ...

Exercise
Strings in Java are used to:

 Store integers77
 Store a single character
 Store text
 Store strict integers

Java String Concatenation

The + operator can be used between strings to combine them. This is called concatenation:
Example

String firstName = "John";

String lastName = "Doe";
System.out.println(firstName + "" + lastName);

Note that we have added an empty text ("") to create a space between firstName and
lastName on print.

You can also use the concat() method to concatenate two strings:
Example

String firstName = "John ";

String lastName = "Doe";
System.out.println(firstName.concat(lastName));

Java Numbers and Strings

Adding Numbers and Strings

WARNING!
 Java uses the + operator for both addition and concatenation.
 Numbers are added.
 Strings are concatenated.
If you add two numbers, the result will be a number:
Example

int x = 10;
int y = 20;
int z = x + y; // z will be 30 (an integer/number)

If you add two strings, the result will be a string concatenation:

Example

String x = "10";
String y = "20";
String z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a String)

If you add a number and a string, the result will be a string concatenation:
Example

String x = "10";
int y = 20;
String z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a String)

Strings - Special Characters

Because strings must be written within quotes, Java will misunderstand this string, and
generate an error:

String txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north.";

The solution to avoid this problem, is to use the *backslash escape character* .

The backslash (*\*) escape character turns special characters into string characters:
Escape character Result Description
\' ' Single quote
\" " Double quote
\\ \ Backslash

The sequence \" inserts a double quote in a string:

Example

String txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north.";

The sequence \' inserts a single quote in a string:

Example

String txt = "It\'s alright.";

The sequence \\ inserts a single backslash in a string:

Example

String txt = "The character \\ is called backslash.";

Other common escape sequences that are valid in Java are:

Code Result
\n New Line
\r Carriage Return
\t Tab
\b Backspace
\f Form Feed
Exercise
Which of the following correctly uses special characters in a Java String?

String txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north.";

String txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north.";

String txt = "We are the so-called ""Vikings"" from the north.";

JAVA MATH
The Java Math class has many methods that allows you to perform mathematical tasks on
numbers.

Math.max(x,y)
The Math.max(x,y) method can be used to find the highest value of x and y:

Math.min(x,y)
The Math.min(x,y) method can be used to find the lowest value of x and y:

Math.sqrt(x)
The Math.sqrt(x) method returns the square root of x:

Math.abs(x)
The Math.abs(x) method returns the absolute (positive) value of x:
Example

Math.abs(-4.7);

Random Numbers
Math.random() returns a random number between 0.0 (inclusive), and 1.0 (exclusive):
Example

Math.random();

To get more control over the random number, for example, if you only want a random
number between 0 and 100, you can use the following formula:
Example

int randomNum = (int)(Math.random() * 101); // 0 to 100

Exercise
What is the output of the following code?
Math.min(5, 10);

5
15
10
50
JAVA BOOLEANS
Very often, in programming, you will need a data type that can only have one of two values,
like:

YES / NO
ON / OFF
TRUE / FALSE

For this, Java has a boolean data type, which can store true or false values.
Boolean Values

A boolean type is declared with the boolean keyword and can only take the values true or
false:
Example

boolean isJavaFun = true;

boolean isFishTasty = false;
System.out.println(isJavaFun); // Outputs true
System.out.println(isFishTasty); // Outputs false

However, it is more common to return boolean values from boolean expressions, for
conditional testing (see below).

Boolean Expression
A Boolean expression returns a boolean value: true or false.
This is useful to build logic, and find answers.

For example, you can use a comparison operator, such as the greater than (>) operator, to find
out if an expression (or a variable) is true or false:
Example

int x = 10;
int y = 9;
System.out.println(x > y); // returns true, because 10 is higher than 9

Or even easier:
Example

System.out.println(10 > 9); // returns true, because 10 is higher than 9

In the examples below, we use the equal to (==) operator to evaluate an expression:
Example

int x = 10;
System.out.println(x == 10); // returns true, because the value of x is equal to 10

Example

System.out.println(10 == 15); // returns false, because 10 is not equal to 15

Real Life Example
Let's think of a "real life example" where we need to find out if a person is old enough to
vote.

In the example below, we use the >= comparison operator to find out if the age (25) is greater
than OR equal to the voting age limit, which is set to 18:
Example

int myAge = 25;

int votingAge = 18;
System.out.println(myAge >= votingAge);

Cool, right? An even better approach (since we are on a roll now), would be to wrap the code
above in an if...else statement, so we can perform different actions depending on the result:
Example

Output "Old enough to vote!" if myAge is greater than or equal to 18. Otherwise output "Not
old enough to vote.":

int myAge = 25;

int votingAge = 18;

if (myAge >= votingAge) {

System.out.println("Old enough to vote!");
} else {
System.out.println("Not old enough to vote.");
}

Booleans are the basis for all Java comparisons and conditions.

Exercise
What will be the result of the following code:
System.out.println(10 > 9);

true
false
1
0

Java If ... Else

JAVA CONDITIONS AND IF STATEMENTS
You already know that Java supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

Less than: a < b

Less than or equal to: a <= b
Greater than: a > b
Greater than or equal to: a >= b
Equal to a == b
Not Equal to: a != b
You can use these conditions to perform different actions for different decisions.
Java has the following conditional statements:
 Use if to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified condition is true
 Use else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same condition is false
 Use else if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is false
 switch to specify many alternative blocks of code to be executed

The if Statement
Use the if statement to specify a block of Java code to be executed if a condition is true.

SYNTAX

if ( _condition_ ) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
}

Note: that if is in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters (If or IF) will generate an error.
In the example below, we test two values to find out if 20 is greater than 18. If the condition
is true, print some text:
Example

if (20 > 18) {

System.out.println("20 is greater than 18");
}

We can also test variables:

Example

int x = 20;
int y = 18;
if (x > y) {
System.out.println("x is greater than y");
}

Example explained
In the example above we use two variables, x and y, to test whether x is greater than y (using
the > operator). As x is 20, and y is 18, and we know that 20 is greater than 18, we print to
the screen that "x is greater than y".

Exercise
What will be the result of the following code:

int number = 20;

if (number > 5) {
System.out.println("Greater than 5");
}

Less than 5
Greater than 5
Error
No output
The else Statement
Use the else statement to specify a block of code to be executed if the condition is false.
Syntax

if (condition) {
_// block of code to be executed if the condition is true_
}
else {
_// block of code to be executed if the condition is false_
}

Example

int time = 20;

if (time < 18) {
System.out.println("Good day.");
} else {
System.out.println("Good evening.");
}
// Outputs "Good evening."

Example explained
In the example above, time (20) is greater than 18, so the condition is false. Because of this,
we move on to the else condition and print to the screen "Good evening". If the time was less
than 18, the program would print "Good day".

Exercise
What will be the result of the following code:
int time = 20;
if (time < 18) {
System.out.println("Good day");
} else {
System.out.println("Good evening");
}

The else if Statement

Use the else if statement to specify a new condition if the first condition is false.

Syntax

if (condition1) {
_// block of code to be executed if condition1 is true_
}
else if (condition2) {
_// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is true_
}
else {
_// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is false_
}
Example

int time = 22;

if (time < 10) {
System.out.println("Good morning.");
} else if (time < 18) {
System.out.println("Good day.");
} else {
System.out.println("Good evening.");
}
// Outputs "Good evening."

Example explained
In the example above, time (22) is greater than 10, so the first condition is false. The next
condition, in the else if statement, is also false, so we move on to the else condition since
condition1 and condition2 is both false - and print to the screen "Good evening".
However, if the time was 14, our program would print "Good day."

Exercise
The else if statement is used to specify a new condition if the first condition in the if
statement is:

true
false

Java Short Hand If...Else (Ternary Operator)

There is a short-hand if else, which is known as the ternary operator because it consists of
three operands.

It can be used to replace multiple lines of code with a single line, and is most often used to
replace simple if else statements:

Syntax

variable = (condition) ? expressionTrue : expressionFalse;*

Instead of writing:

int time = 20;

if (time < 18) {
System.out.println("Good day.");
} else {
System.out.println("Good evening.");
}

You can simply write:

int time = 20;

String result = (time < 18) ? "Good day." : "Good evening.";
System.out.println(result);
Exercise
True or False:
The ternary operator consists of three operands: a condition, a result for true, and a result for
false.

True
False

PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
This example shows how you can use if..else to "open a door" if the user enters the correct
code:
Example

int doorCode = 1337;

if (doorCode == 1337) {
System.out.println("Correct code. The door is now open.");
} else {
System.out.println("Wrong code. The door remains closed.");
}

This example shows how you can use if..else to find out if a number is positive or negative:
Example

int myNum = 10; // Is this a positive or negative number?

if (myNum > 0) {
System.out.println("The value is a positive number.");
} else if (myNum < 0) {
System.out.println("The value is a negative number.");
} else {
System.out.println("The value is 0.");
}

Find out if a person is old enough to vote:

Example

int myAge = 25;

int votingAge = 18;

if (myAge >= votingAge) {

System.out.println("Old enough to vote!");
} else {
System.out.println("Not old enough to vote.");
}

Find out if a number is even or odd:

Example
int myNum = 5;

if (myNum % 2 == 0) {
System.out.println(myNum + " is even");
} else {
System.out.println(myNum + " is odd");
}

JAVA SWITCH STATEMENTS

Instead of writing many if..else statements, you can use the switch statement.
The switch statement selects one of many code blocks to be executed:

Syntax

switch(expression) {
case x:
// code block
break;
case y:
// code block
break;
default:
// code block
}

This is how it works:

The switch expression is evaluated once.
The value of the expression is compared with the values of each case.
If there is a match, the associated block of code is executed.
The break and default keywords are optional, and will be described later in this chapter

The example below uses the weekday number to calculate the weekday name:
Example

int day = 4;
switch (day) {
case 1:
System.out.println("Monday");
break;
case 2:
System.out.println("Tuesday");
break;
case 3:
System.out.println("Wednesday");
break;
case 4:
System.out.println("Thursday");
break;
case 5:
System.out.println("Friday");
 break;
case 6:
System.out.println("Saturday");
break;
case 7:
System.out.println("Sunday");
break;
}
// Outputs "Thursday" (day 4)

The break Keyword

When Java reaches a break keyword, it breaks out of the switch block.
This will stop the execution of more code and case testing inside the block.
When a match is found, and the job is done, it's time for a break. There is no need for more
testing.
A break can save a lot of execution time because it "ignores" the execution of all the rest of
the code in the switch block.

The default Keyword

The default keyword specifies some code to run if there is no case match:
Example

int day = 4;
switch (day) {
case 6:
System.out.println("Today is Saturday");
break;
case 7:
System.out.println("Today is Sunday");
break;
default:
System.out.println("Looking forward to the Weekend");
}

// Outputs "Looking forward to the Weekend"

Note that if the default statement is used as the last statement in a switch block, it does not
need a break.

Exercise
True or False:
The switch statement is used to select one of many code blocks to be executed, based on the
value of an expression.

True
False

LOOPS
Java While Loop
Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached.
Loops are handy because they save time, reduce errors, and they make code more readable.

Java While Loop

The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition is true:

Syntax

while (condition) {
// code block to be executed
}

In the example below, the code in the loop will run, over and over again, as long as a variable
(i) is less than 5:
Example

int i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
System.out.println(i);
i++;
}

Note: Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will
never end!

Exercise
How many times will the following loop execute?
int i = 0;
while (i < 4) {
i++;
}

3
4
5

The Do/While Loop

The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will execute the code block once,
before checking if the condition is true, then it will repeat the loop as long as the condition is
true.

Syntax

do {
// code block to be executed
}
while (condition);
The example below uses a do/while loop. The loop will always be executed at least once,
even if the condition is false, because the code block is executed before the condition is
tested:

Example

int i = 0;
do {
System.out.println(i);
i++;
}
while (i < 5);

Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will never
end!

Exercise
What is the difference between a while loop and a do-while loop?

 A do-while loop will execute at least once, while a while loop might not execute at
all.
 A while loop will execute at least once, while a do-while loop might not execute at
all.
 Nothing
 A do-while loop cannot have if..else statements

Java While Loop

PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
To demonstrate a practical example of the while loop, we have created a simple "countdown"
program:
Example

int countdown = 3;

while (countdown > 0) {

System.out.println(countdown);
countdown--;
}

System.out.println("Happy New Year!!");

To demonstrate a practical example of the while loop combined with an if else statement, let's
say we play a game of Yatzy:
Example
Print "Yatzy!" If the dice number is 6:

int dice = 1;

while (dice <= 6) {

 if (dice < 6) {
System.out.println("No Yatzy.");
} else {
System.out.println("Yatzy!");
}
dice = dice + 1;
}

If the loop passes the values ranging from 1 to 5, it prints "No Yatzy". Whenever it passes the
value 6, it prints "Yatzy!".

Java For Loop

When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of code, use the
for loop instead of a while loop:

Syntax

for (statement 1; statement 2; statement 3) {

// code block to be executed
}

Statement 1 is executed (one time) before the execution of the code block.

Statement 2 defines the condition for executing the code block.

Statement 3 is executed (every time) after the code block has been executed.

The example below will print the numbers 0 to 4:

Example

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

System.out.println(i);
}

Example explained

Statement 1 sets a variable before the loop starts (int i = 0).

Statement 2 defines the condition for the loop to run (i must be less than 5). If the condition is
true, the loop will start over again, if it is false, the loop will end.

Statement 3 increases a value (i++) each time the code block in the loop has been executed.

Another Example
This example will only print even values between 0 and 10:
Example

for (int i = 0; i <= 10; i = i + 2) {

System.out.println(i);
}
Exercise
When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of code, use a:
for loop
while loop
do-while loop
Boolean
JAVA NESTED LOOPS
It is also possible to place a loop inside another loop. This is called a nested loop.
The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":
Example

// Outer loop
for (int i = 1; i <= 2; i++) {
System.out.println("Outer: " + i); // Executes 2 times

// Inner loop
for (int j = 1; j <= 3; j++) {
System.out.println(" Inner: " + j); // Executes 6 times (2 * 3)
}
}

Exercise
What is the output of the following code?
for (int i = 1; i <= 2; i++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= 3; j++) {
System.out.print(i + "," + j + "");
}
}

1,2 2,1 1,2 2,1 2,1 1,2

1,1 1,2 1,3 2,1 2,2 2,3
1,1 2,2 3,3 2,2 1,1
Error

JAVA FOR EACH LOOP

There is also a "for-each" loop, which is used exclusively to *loop through elements in an
array* (or other data sets):

SYNTAX

for (type variableName : arrayName) {

// code block to be executed
}

The following example outputs all elements in the cars array, using a "for-each" loop:

Example

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

for (String i : cars) {
System.out.println(i);
}

Note: Don't worry if you don't understand the example above. You will learn more about
Arrays in the Java Arrays chapter.

Exercise
WWhat is the output of the following code?
int[] myNumbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
for (int i : myNumbers) {
System.out.println(i);
}

0
1
2
3
4

15

1
2
3
4
5

PRACTICAL EXAMPLES JAVA FOR LOOP

To demonstrate a practical example of the for loop, let's create a program that counts to 100
by tens:
Example

for (int i = 0; i <= 100; i += 10) {

System.out.println(i);
}

In this example, we create a program that only print even values between 0 and 10:
Example

for (int i = 0; i <= 10; i = i + 2) {

System.out.println(i);
}

And in this example, we create a program that prints the multiplication table for a specified
number:
Example
int number = 2;

// Print the multiplication table for the number 2

for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
System.out.println(number + " x " + i + " = " + (number * i));
}

JAVA BREAK AND CONTINUE

Java Break
You have already seen the break statement used in an earlier chapter of this tutorial. It was
used to "jump out" of a switch statement.
The break statement can also be used to jump out of a loop.

This example stops the loop when i is equal to 4:

Example

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

if (i == 4) {
break;
}
System.out.println(i);
}

Java Continue
The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified condition occurs, and
continues with the next iteration in the loop.

This example skips the value of 4:

Example

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

if (i == 4) {
continue;
}
System.out.println(i);
}

Break and Continue in While Loop

You can also use break and continue in while loops:
Break Example

int i = 0;
while (i < 10) {
System.out.println(i);
i++;
if (i == 4) {
break;
}
}

Continue Example

int i = 0;
while (i < 10) {
if (i == 4) {
i++;
continue;
}
System.out.println(i);
i++;
}

Exercise
True or False:
The break statement can only be used within switch statements.

True
False

JAVA ARRAYS
Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable, instead of declaring separate
variables for each value.
To declare an array, define the variable type with square brackets:

String[] cars;

We have now declared a variable that holds an array of strings. To insert values to it, you can
place the values in a comma-separated list, inside curly braces:

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

To create an array of integers, you could write:

int[] myNum = {10, 20, 30, 40};

Access the Elements of an Array

You can access an array element by referring to the index number.
This statement accesses the value of the first element in cars:
Example

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

System.out.println(cars[0]);
// Outputs Volvo

Note: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second element, etc.

Change an Array Element

To change the value of a specific element, refer to the index number:
Example

cars[0] = "Opel";

Example

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

cars[0] = "Opel";
System.out.println(cars[0]);
// Now outputs Opel instead of Volvo

Array Length
To find out how many elements an array has, use the length property:
Example

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

System.out.println(cars.length);
// Outputs 4

Exercise
How can you declare an array of strings?

string[] myText;
String[] myText;
str[] myText;
string = myText;
[1/22, 11:42 AM] +234 803 660 1427: *LOOP THROUGH AN ARRAY*

You can loop through the array elements with the for loop, and use the length property to
specify how many times the loop should run.

The following example outputs all elements in the cars array:

*Example* '

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

for (int i = 0; i < cars.length; i++) {
System.out.println(cars[i]);
}

*Loop Through an Array with For-Each*

There is also a "for-each" loop, which is used exclusively to loop through elements in arrays:

*Syntax*

for (type variable : arrayname) {

...
}
The following example outputs all elements in the cars array, using a "for-each" loop:
Example

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

for (String i : cars) {
System.out.println(i);
}

The example above can be read like this: for each String element (called i - as in index) in
cars, print out the value of i.

If you compare the for loop and for-each loop, you will see that the for-each method is easier
to write, it does not require a counter (using the length property), and it is more readable.

Exercise
What is the output of the following code?
String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford"};
for (int i = 0; i < cars.length; i++) {
System.out.println(cars[i]);
}

Volvo
BMW
Ford

0
1
2

Volvo, BMW, Ford

Volvo,
BMW,
Ford
[1/22, 1:27 PM] +234 803 660 1427: *PRACTICAL EXAMPLES*

To demonstrate a practical example of using arrays, let's create a program that calculates the
average of different ages:

*Example*

// An array storing different ages

int ages[] = {20, 22, 18, 35, 48, 26, 87, 70};

float avg, sum = 0;

// Get the length of the array

int length = ages.length;

// Loop through the elements of the array

for (int age : ages) {
sum += age;
}

// Calculate the average by dividing the sum by the length

avg = sum / length;

// Print the average

System.out.println("The average age is: " + avg);

And in this example, we create a program that finds the lowest age among different ages:

Example

// An array storing different ages

int ages[] = {20, 22, 18, 35, 48, 26, 87, 70};

// Get the length of the array

int length = ages.length;

// Create a 'lowest age' variable and assign the first array element of ages to it
int lowestAge = ages[0];

// Loop through the elements of the ages array to find the lowest age
for (int age : ages) {
// Check if the current age is smaller than the current 'lowest age'
if (lowestAge > age) {
// If the smaller age is found, update 'lowest age' with that element
lowestAge = age;
}
}

// Output the value of the lowest age

System.out.println("The lowest age in the array is: " + lowestAge);

JAVA MULTI-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS

A multidimensional array is an array of arrays.
Multidimensional arrays are useful when you want to store data as a tabular form, like a table
with rows and columns.

To create a two-dimensional array, add each array within its own set of curly braces:
Example

int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };

myNumbers is now an array with two arrays as its elements.

Access Elements
To access the elements of the myNumbers array, specify two indexes: one for the array, and
one for the element inside that array. This example accesses the third element (2) in the
second array (1) of myNumbers:
Example

int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };

System.out.println(myNumbers[1][2]); // Outputs 7

Remember that: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second element,
etc.
Change Element Values

You can also change the value of an element:

Example

int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };

myNumbers[1][2] = 9;
System.out.println(myNumbers[1][2]); // Outputs 9 instead of 7

Loop Through a Multi-Dimensional Array

You can also use a for loop inside another for loop to get the elements of a two-dimensional
array (we still have to point to the two indexes):
Example

int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };

for (int i = 0; i < myNumbers.length; ++i) {
for (int j = 0; j < myNumbers[i].length; ++j) {
System.out.println(myNumbers[i][j]);
}
}

Or you could just use a for-each loop, which is considered easier to read and write:
Example

int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };

for (int[] row : myNumbers) {
for (int i : row) {
System.out.println(i);
}
}

Exercise?
What is a multidimensional array?

Executed (every time) after the code block has been executed
An empty array
An array of arrays
Executed (one time) before the execution of the code block
JAVA METHODS
A method is a block of code which only runs when it is called.
You can pass data, known as parameters, into a method.
Methods are used to perform certain actions, and they are also known as functions.
Why use methods? To reuse code: define the code once, and use it many times.

Create a Method
A method must be declared within a class. It is defined with the name of the method,
followed by parentheses (). Java provides some pre-defined methods, such as
System.out.println(), but you can also create your own methods to perform certain actions:
Example

Create a method inside Main:

public class Main {

static void myMethod() {
// code to be executed
}
}

Example Explained

myMethod() is the name of the method

static means that the method belongs to the Main class and not an object of the Main class.
You will learn more about objects and how to access methods through objects later in this
tutorial.
void means that this method does not have a return value. You will learn more about return
values later in this chapter

Call a Method
To call a method in Java, write the method's name followed by two parentheses () and a
semicolon;
In the following example, myMethod() is used to print a text (the action), when it is called:
Example

Inside main, call the myMethod() method:

public class Main {

static void myMethod() {
System.out.println("I just got executed!");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

myMethod();
}
}

// Outputs "I just got executed!"

A method can also be called multiple times:

Example
public class Main {
static void myMethod() {
System.out.println("I just got executed!");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

myMethod();
myMethod();
myMethod();
}
}

// I just got executed!

// I just got executed!
// I just got executed!

In the next chapter, Method Parameters, you will learn how to pass data (parameters) into a
method.

Exercise?
How can you call a method in Java?

By using arrays with semicolons.

By using a special variable called method, followed by a semicolon
By using the name of the method followed by two parantheses and a semicolon
By using the call keyword and the name of the method and a semicolon

JAVA METHOD, PARAMETERS AND ARGUMENTS

Information can be passed to methods as a parameter. Parameters act as variables inside the
method.

Parameters are specified after the method name, inside the parentheses. You can add as many
parameters as you want, just separate them with a comma.

The following example has a method that takes a String called fname as parameter. When the
method is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the method to print the full
name:
Example

public class Main {

static void myMethod(String fname) {
System.out.println(fname + " Refsnes");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

 myMethod("Liam");
myMethod("Jenny");
myMethod("Anja");
}
}
// Liam Refsnes
// Jenny Refsnes
// Anja Refsnes
When a parameter is passed to the method, it is called an argument. So, from the example
above: fname is a parameter, while Liam, Jenny and Anja are arguments.

Multiple Parameters
You can have as many parameters as you like:
Example

public class Main {

static void myMethod(String fname, int age) {
System.out.println(fname + " is " + age);
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

myMethod("Liam", 5);
myMethod("Jenny", 8);
myMethod("Anja", 31);
}
}

// Liam is 5
// Jenny is 8
// Anja is 31

Note that when you are working with multiple parameters, the method call must have the
same number of arguments as there are parameters, and the arguments must be passed in the
same order.
A Method with If...Else

It is common to use if...else statements inside methods:

Example

public class Main {

// Create a checkAge() method with an integer variable called age

static void checkAge(int age) {

// If age is less than 18, print "access denied"

if (age < 18) {
System.out.println("Access denied - You are not old enough!");

// If age is greater than, or equal to, 18, print "access granted"

} else {
 System.out.println("Access granted - You are old enough!");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

checkAge(20); // Call the checkAge method and pass along an age of 20
}
}

// Outputs "Access granted - You are old enough!"

Exercise
In simple words: Inside a method, what does a parameter act as?

A class
An operator
A variable
An array

RETURN VALUES
In the previous page, we used the void keyword in all examples, which indicates that the
method should not return a value.

If you want the method to return a value, you can use a primitive data type (such as int, char,
etc.) instead of void, and use the return keyword inside the method:
Example

public class Main {

static int myMethod(int x) {
return 5 + x;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println(myMethod(3));
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)

This example returns the sum of a method's two parameters:

Example

public class Main {

static int myMethod(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println(myMethod(5, 3));
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)

You can also store the result in a variable (recommended, as it is easier to read and maintain):
Example

public class Main {

static int myMethod(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int z = myMethod(5, 3);
System.out.println(z);
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)

Exercise
Which keyword indicates that a method should not return a value?

return
noreturn
void
empty

JAVA METHOD OVERLOADING

With method overloading, multiple methods can have the same name with different
parameters:
Example

int myMethod(int x)
float myMethod(float x)
double myMethod(double x, double y)

Consider the following example, which has two methods that add numbers of different type:
Example

static int plusMethodInt(int x, int y) {

return x + y;
}

static double plusMethodDouble(double x, double y) {

return x + y;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int myNum1 = plusMethodInt(8, 5);
double myNum2 = plusMethodDouble(4.3, 6.26);
System.out.println("int: " + myNum1);
 System.out.println("double: " + myNum2);
}

Instead of defining two methods that should do the same thing, it is better to overload one.

In the example below, we overload the plusMethod method to work for both int and double:
Example

static int plusMethod(int x, int y) {

return x + y;
}

static double plusMethod(double x, double y) {

return x + y;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int myNum1 = plusMethod(8, 5);
double myNum2 = plusMethod(4.3, 6.26);
System.out.println("int: " + myNum1);
System.out.println("double: " + myNum2);
}

Note: Multiple methods can have the same name as long as the number and/or type of
parameters are different.

Exercise
What does method overloading mean?

That multiple classes can have the same class name with different constructors
That multiple methods can have the same name with different parameters
That methods can use switch statements to overload conditions

JAVA SCOPE
In Java, variables are only accessible inside the region they are created. This is called scope.

Method Scope
Variables declared directly inside a method are available anywhere in the method following
the line of code in which they were declared:
Example

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Code here CANNOT use x

int x = 100;

// Code here can use x

System.out.println(x);
 }
}

Block Scope
A block of code refers to all of the code between curly braces {}.

Variables declared inside blocks of code are only accessible by the code between the curly
braces, which follows the line in which the variable was declared:
Example

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Code here CANNOT use x

{ // This is a block

// Code here CANNOT use x

int x = 100;

// Code here CAN use x

System.out.println(x);

} // The block ends here

// Code here CANNOT use x

}
}

A block of code may exist on its own or it can belong to an if, while or for statement. In the
case of for statements, variables declared in the statement itself are also available inside the
block's scope.

Exercise
Will this example work?
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(x);
int x = 100;
}
}

Yes
No

JAVA RECURSION
Recursion is the technique of making a function call itself. This technique provides a way to
break complicated problems down into simple problems which are easier to solve.
Recursion may be a bit difficult to understand. The best way to figure out how it works is to
experiment with it.

Recursion Example
Adding two numbers together is easy to do, but adding a range of numbers is more
complicated. In the following example, recursion is used to add a range of numbers together
by breaking it down into the simple task of adding two numbers:
Example
Use recursion to add all of the numbers up to 10.

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int result = sum(10);
System.out.println(result);
}
public static int sum(int k) {
if (k > 0) {
return k + sum(k - 1);
} else {
return 0;
}
}
}

Example Explained
When the sum() function is called, it adds parameter k to the sum of all numbers smaller than
k and returns the result. When k becomes 0, the function just returns 0. When running, the
program follows these steps:
10 + sum(9)
10 + ( 9 + sum(8) )
10 + ( 9 + ( 8 + sum(7) ) )
...
10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + sum(0)
10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 0

Since the function does not call itself when k is 0, the program stops there and returns the
result.

Halting Condition
Just as loops can run into the problem of infinite looping, recursive functions can run into the
problem of infinite recursion. Infinite recursion is when the function never stops calling itself.
Every recursive function should have a halting condition, which is the condition where the
function stops calling itself. In the previous example, the halting condition is when the
parameter k becomes 0.

It is helpful to see a variety of different examples to better understand the concept. In this
example, the function adds a range of numbers between a start and an end. The halting
condition for this recursive function is when end is not greater than start:
Example
Use recursion to add all of the numbers between 5 to 10.

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int result = sum(5, 10);
System.out.println(result);
}
public static int sum(int start, int end) {
if (end > start) {
return end + sum(start, end - 1);
} else {
return end;
}
}
}

The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to slip into writing
a function which never terminates, or one that uses excess amounts of memory or processor
power. However, when written correctly recursion can be a very efficient and
mathematically-elegant approach to programming.

Exercise
In simple words, what is Recursion?

Conditions inside switch statements

A technique of making a function call itself
Constant variables that have the possibility to be free
For-each loops with superpowers

Java OOP
OOP stands for Object-Oriented Programming.

Procedural programming is about writing procedures or methods that perform operations on

the data, while object-oriented programming is about creating objects that contain both data
and methods.

Object-oriented programming has several advantages over procedural programming:

OOP is faster and easier to execute

OOP provides a clear structure for the programs
OOP helps to keep the Java code DRY "Don't Repeat Yourself", and makes the code easier
to maintain, modify and debug
OOP makes it possible to create full reusable applications with less code and shorter
development time

Tip: The "Don't Repeat Yourself" (DRY) principle is about reducing the repetition of code.
You should extract out the codes that are common for the application, and place them at a
single place and reuse them instead of repeating it.
What are Classes and Objects?
Classes and objects are the two main aspects of object-oriented programming.
Look at the following illustration to see the difference between class and objects:

class
Fruit
objects
Apple
Banana
Mango

Another example:

class Car

objects Volvo

Audi

Toyota

So, a class is a template for objects, and an object is an instance of a class.

When the individual objects are created, they inherit all the variables and methods from the
class.

You will learn much more about classes and objects in the next chapter.
Exercise?

What does OOP stand for?

Operators Oriented Programming

Output Operating Programming
Object-Oriented Programming
[1/23, 6:33 AM] +234 803 660 1427: To declare a variable type for Boolean values use this
syntax:

*boolean* variableName *= true* ;

The above declares a boolean variable and initializes it

*NOTE*
type the boolean (with a lower case "b").
[1/23, 8:35 AM] +234 803 660 1427: Refer to the list below for more special escape
sequences for String and char literals as well:

Notation Character represented

\n Newline (0x0a)
\r Carriage return (0x0d)

\f Formfeed (0x0c)

\b Backspace (0x08)

\s Space (0x20)

\t Tab

\" Double quote

\' Single quote

\\ Backslash

\ddd Octal character (ddd)

\uxxxx Hexadecimal UNICODE character (xxxx)