GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based tool for capturing, managing,

analyzing, and displaying geographic data. It integrates various types of data—such as maps,
satellite images, aerial photographs, and tabular data—allowing users to understand
relationships, patterns, and trends in the geographic space.

GIS enables users to:

1. Capture Data: GIS can collect data from different sources, including GPS, remote
sensing, surveys, and existing maps.

2. Store and Manage Data: GIS databases organize geographic data into layers or thematic
maps, making it easier to access and manipulate.

3. Analyze Data: GIS tools enable users to perform spatial analysis, such as overlaying
multiple layers, buffering, proximity analysis, and statistical analysis.

4. Visualize Data: GIS produces maps and visualizations that help users interpret data and
communicate information effectively.

5. Share Information: GIS allows users to share maps, data, and analysis results with others,
facilitating collaboration and decision-making.

GIS has applications in various fields, including urban planning, natural resource management,
environmental monitoring, emergency response, transportation, public health, and business
intelligence. It plays a crucial role in understanding complex spatial relationships and supporting
informed decision-making processes

Components of GIS

A working GIS integrates these five key components: hardware, software, data, people, and
methods.

Hardware

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Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS runs on a wide range of
hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in standalone or
networked configurations.

Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information. Key software components are:
• A database management system (DBMS)

• Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information

• Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization

• A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools

People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and to develop
plans for applying it. GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the
system, to those who use it to help them do their everyday work.

Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the
models and operating practices unique to each organization.

Data
Maybe the most important component of a GIS is the data. Geographic data and related tabular
data can be collected in-house or bought from a commercial data provider.
Most GIS employ a DBMS to create and maintain a database to help organize and manage data.
The data that a GIS operates on consists of any data bearing a definable relationship to space,
including any data about things and events that occur in nature.

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At one time this consisted of hard-copy data, like traditional cartographic maps, surveyor’s logs,
demographic statistics, geographic reports, and descriptions from the field.

Advances in spatial data collection, classification, and accuracy have allowed more and more
standard digital base-maps to become available at different scales.

Importance of GIS

GIS, or Geographic Information Systems, play a crucial role in various fields due to their ability
to capture, analyze, and present spatial data. The importance of GIS can be seen across a wide
range of sectors:
Urban Planning and Development: GIS helps urban planners make informed decisions about
land use, infrastructure development, transportation planning, and environmental management by
analyzing spatial data such as population density, land cover, and transportation networks.
Natural Resource Management: GIS is used to monitor and manage natural resources such as
forests, water bodies, and wildlife habitats. It assists in environmental impact assessments,
conservation planning, and sustainable resource management.
Disaster Management: GIS aids in disaster preparedness, response, and recovery efforts by
providing real-time mapping of hazards, vulnerable areas, and evacuation routes. It helps
emergency responders coordinate efforts and allocate resources effectively during natural
disasters, such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and wildfires.
Public Health: GIS is utilized in public health to track disease outbreaks, analyze healthcare
access and delivery, and identify areas at risk of environmental health hazards. It helps public
health officials make data-driven decisions to improve community health outcomes.
Transportation: GIS supports transportation planning, route optimization, and traffic
management by analyzing spatial data related to road networks, traffic flow, and public
transportation systems. It helps reduce congestion, improve mobility, and enhance transportation
infrastructure.
Business and Marketing: GIS assists businesses in site selection, market analysis, and customer
segmentation by visualizing demographic data, consumer behavior patterns, and market trends. It
enables businesses to make strategic decisions regarding expansion, advertising, and target
marketing.
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Agriculture: GIS is used in precision agriculture for crop monitoring, soil analysis, and yield
forecasting. It helps farmers optimize resource allocation, manage crop diseases, and increase
productivity while minimizing environmental impact.
Environmental Conservation: GIS supports biodiversity conservation efforts by identifying and
prioritizing conservation areas, monitoring habitat changes, and assessing the impact of human
activities on ecosystems. It plays a vital role in preserving natural habitats and endangered
species.
Infrastructure Management: GIS is essential for managing infrastructure assets such as roads,
bridges, utilities, and telecommunications networks. It enables asset tracking, maintenance
scheduling, and infrastructure planning to ensure efficient operation and longevity.
Research and Education: GIS is widely used in academic research, teaching, and learning across
disciplines such as geography, environmental science, urban studies, and sociology. It provides
students and researchers with tools to analyze spatial relationships, conduct spatial analysis, and
visualize geographic phenomena

Types of Data in GIS

GIS technology utilizes two basic types of data. These are:
1) Spatial data: describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features.
2) Attribute data: describes characteristics of the spatial features. These characteristics can be
quantitative and/or qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data.
1. Spatial Data Models
a) Vector
b) Raster
c) Image
a) Vector Data:
Vector data represent geographic features as points, lines, and polygons. These features are
defined by their spatial coordinates (latitude and longitude) and attributes (such as names,
classifications, or other descriptive information). Vector data are typically used to represent
discrete features such as roads, rivers, administrative boundaries, and points of interest.

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Examples of vector file formats include Shapefiles (.shp), GeoJSON (.geojson), and KML/KMZ
files. Vector data typically consists of three basic types of geometric objects:
i. Points: Represented as single coordinates, points are used to denote specific locations on
the Earth's surface. They could represent features like cities, landmarks, or sampling
locations.
ii. Lines (or polylines): These are sequences of connected points that form lines or paths.
They can represent linear features such as roads, rivers, or boundaries.
iii. Polygons: These are enclosed areas defined by a series of connected points, where the
first and last points are the same, forming a closed shape. Polygons are used to represent
areas such as countries, lakes, or administrative boundaries.

b) Raster Data:
Raster data represent geographic information as a grid of cells or pixels, where each cell stores a
value representing a certain characteristic of the geographic area, such as elevation, temperature,
land cover, or population density. Raster data are useful for representing continuous phenomena
and are commonly used in applications such as remote sensing, terrain analysis, and
environmental modeling. Examples of raster file formats include GeoTIFF (.tif), JPEG2000
(.jp2), and ASCII grid (.asc).
In raster data:
1. Cells or Pixels: Each cell in the grid represents a specific area on the Earth's surface. The
size of these cells, known as spatial resolution, can vary depending on the data source and
the level of detail required.
2. Values: Each cell contains a value that represents a specific attribute or phenomenon.
These values could be continuous (e.g., elevation, temperature) or discrete (e.g., land
cover classification).
3. Grid Structure: Raster data is organized into rows and columns, forming a regular grid.
This structure allows for efficient storage and processing of spatial data.
c) Image
Image data is most often used to represent graphic or pictorial data. The term image inherently
reflects a graphic representation, and in the GIS world, differs significantly from raster data.

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Advantages of vector data model
• Data can be represented at its original resolution and form without generalization.
• Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional cartographic representation);
• Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data conversion is required.
• Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.
• Allows for efficient encoding of topology, and as a result more efficient operations that require
topological information, e.g. proximity, network analysis.
Disadvantages of vector data model
• The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly.
• For effective analysis, vector data must be converted into a topological structure.
• Algorithms for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be processing
intensive. Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets, e.g. a large number of
features.
• Continuous data, such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form. Usually
substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible
Advantages of raster data model
• The geographic location of each cell is implied by its position in the cell matrix. Accordingly,
other than an origin point, e.g. bottom left corner, no geographic coordinates are stored.
• Due to the nature of the data storage technique data analysis is usually easy to program and
quick to perform.
• The inherent nature of raster maps, e.g. one attribute maps, is ideally suited for mathematical
modeling and quantitative analysis.
• Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is accommodated equally well as continuous data, e.g.
elevation data, and facilitates the integrating of the two data types.
• Grid-cell systems are very compatible with raster-based output devices, e.g. electrostatic
plotters, graphic terminals.
Disadvantages of raster data model
• The cell size determines the resolution at which the data is represented.

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• It is especially difficult to adequately represent linear features depending on the cell resolution.
Accordingly, network linkages are difficult to establish.
• Processing of associated attribute data may be cumbersome if large amounts of data exist.
Raster maps inherently reflect only one attribute or characteristic for an area.
• Since most input data is in vector form, data must undergo vector-to-raster conversion. Besides
increased processing requirements this may introduce data integrity concerns due to
generalization and choice of inappropriate cell size.
• Most output maps from grid-cell systems do not conform to high quality cartographic needs.

2. Attribute data
In Geographic Information Systems (GIS), attribute data refers to information associated with
spatial features or locations on a map. While the spatial component of GIS deals with the
physical location and geometry of features, attribute data provides additional descriptive
information about those features.
Attribute data in GIS can include a wide range of information depending on the application, but
common examples include:
i. Identifiers: Unique identifiers assigned to each feature, such as parcel numbers,
customer IDs, or address codes.
ii. Descriptive Attributes: Information describing the characteristics of features, such as
the name of a city, population size, land use type, or soil type.
iii. Numeric Data: Quantitative data associated with features, such as temperature readings,
elevation values, or population densities.
iv. Categorical Data: Qualitative data that categorizes features into distinct groups, such as
land cover types (forest, water, urban), zoning categories, or road classifications.
v. Temporal Data: Time-related information associated with features, such as the date a
building was constructed, the last time a road was maintained, or the frequency of
occurrence of a particular event.
vi. Relationships: Information about relationships between features, such as connectivity
between roads, adjacency of parcels, or ownership relationships.

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Attribute data in GIS is typically stored in a tabular format, with each row representing a feature
and each column representing a specific attribute. This data can be linked to the spatial features
in a GIS through a common identifier or spatial join operation, allowing analysts to visualize,
query, and analyze both spatial and attribute data together. There are several types of queries
performed on GIS attribute data, but two common ones are:
a) Attribute Query: This type of query involves retrieving information based on the
attributes or properties of geographic features stored in a GIS database. Attribute queries
typically involve selecting features that meet specific criteria, such as querying a database
of cities to find those with a population greater than 1 million, or querying a land parcel
dataset to find properties with a land area larger than a certain threshold.
b) Spatial Join Query: This type of query involves combining attribute data from two or
more spatial datasets based on their spatial relationship. For example, you might perform
a spatial join query to associate demographic information from a census tract dataset with
the corresponding geographic boundaries of those tracts. This allows you to analyze how
attributes from different datasets relate to each other spatially.