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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
MATHEMATICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

−(−17) ± (−17)2 − 4(6)(5)

1. Quadratics x=
​

2(6)
​

So the 2 values of x which satisfy the equation are

1.1. Quadratic Formula
5 1
The quadratic formula helps us find the solutions to a x= and x =
2 3
​ ​

quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0.

Example 2
It helps us find the values of x for which the quadratic
Solve the quadratic equation 6x2 − 17x + 5 = 0 using
equation equals 0, which are also called the zeros of the
factorisation.
quadratic equation for this reason.
Answer
Quadratic formula (Given in MF19)
This can be factorised as
−(b) ± (b)2 − 4(a)(c)
x= (2x − 5)(3x − 1) = 0
​

2a
​

So each of the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + Logically, if we have ab = 0 then either a = 0 or b = 0.
c = 0 are 5
2x − 5 = 0 ⟹ x =
2
​

−b + b2 − 4ac
x= 1
​

2a 3x − 1 = 0 ⟹ x =
​

3
​

And

−b − b2 − 4ac
1.2. Completing the square
x=
​

2a
​

Completing the square allows us to write a quadratic, ax2 +

Factorisation bx + c, in the form p(x + q)2 + r. This is useful for a
variety of reasons, which we will see later on.
Factorisation allows us to express a polynomial as the
product of simpler terms. Given ax2 + bx + c, we can complete the square using
For example: the formula:

x2 − 2x − x + 2 = (x − 1)(x − 2) b 2 b2
a (x + ) + c −
2a 4a
​ ​

Factorisation of a quadratic can be done through two

methods: Comparing coefficients in the expansion of (x + a)2 is
another way to complete the square.
splitting the middle term
Re-writing ax2 + bx + c = 0 as ax2 + dx + ex + Example
c = 0 [Where d × e = a × c and dx + ex = bx] Express 3x2 + 9x + 5 in the form of p(x + q)2 + r, where
Then factoring out the common factors in the p, q and r are constants.
equation Answer
A calculator
First we identify our coefficients, a = 3, b = 9, c = 5. Now
Using the “mode” button and then selecting the type
we can substitute in our values into the formula:
of equation. This will give us the solutions to a
quadratic equation, which can then be used to 9 2 92
factorise it. 3 (x + ) +5−
2(3) 4(3)
​ ​

Example 1 Which simplifies to

Solve the quadratic equation 6x2 − 17x + 5 = 0 using the 2
3 7
quadratic formula. 3 (x + ) −
Answer 2 4
​ ​

Here a = 6, b = −17, c = 5. Using the quadratic formula

You can verify your answer by expanding it and
comparing it with your original quadratic.

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The line x = −b2a acts as a line of symmetry for the

1.3. Solving quadratic equations using ​

quadratic. It splits the quadratic curve into 2 equal and

completing the square form mirrored parts.
Completing the square is also called the vertex form due
It is possible to solve quadratic equations by completing the to this.
square. Given a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, it
can be written as p(x − q)2 + r = 0. Example
Find the coordinates of the vertex of the quadratic 3
By making x the subject of the formula, we get 2
(x + 32 ) − 74 .
​ ​

−r Answer
x=± +q ​ ​

q We observe that it has been written in the completing

Note that if −r < 0, the quadratic has no real solutions. the square, or vertex, form.
q ​

2
3 7
Example 3 (x + ) − = p(x − q)2 + r
2 4
​ ​

By completing the square, find the solutions to the quadratic

equation x2 − 5x + 6 = 0. 3
q=−
Answer 2
​

7
First we complete the square r=−
4
​

2
5 1
x2 − 5x + 6 ⟹ (x − ) − 3 7
The coordinates of the vertex are (− , − )
2 4
​ ​

2 4
​ ​

2
5 1
(x − ) − = 0 1.5. Quadratic inequalities
2 4
​ ​

Next, we make x the subject of the formula and solve for An inequality question will ask us to find the values of x for
it which the inequality holds true.
The most efficient way to solve these inequalities is to follow
1 5 these steps.
x=± +
4 2
​ ​ ​

x=3 or x = 2

1.4. Finding the coordinates of the

vertex
The vertex of a quadratic equation is the highest or lowest
point on the curve. We can find the coordinates of the vertex
after completing the square
Equation Coordinates of vertex
y = p(x − q)2 + r (q, r)
y = p(x + q)2 − r (−q, −r)

Another way of finding coordinates of the vertex is through

the general completing the square formula. Given a
quadratic, y = ax2 + bx + c:
2
b2
y = a (x + ) + c −
b
2a 4a
​ ​

x coordinate of vertex x= −b
2a
​

y coordinate of vertex 4ac − b2

y= 4a
​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example
Factorise the inequality. Find the values of x which satisfy the inequality x2 + 6x +
This will help us find the intersections of the
8<0
quadratic with the x-axis Answer
Draw a simple sketch of the quadratic and label the x
coordinate of the intersections. First notice that the coefficient of the quadratic is
The quadratic curve will have a “smiley” or an U positive, +x2 , meaning the curve must be sketched in
shape if the coefficient of x2 is positive. This point the shape of a smiley or an u.
is also known as a minimum point, or a minima. Then we can factorise x2 + 6x + 8 to get (x + 4)(x +
2). Upon factoring, it is clear that the roots are x = −2
and x = −4.

We can now sketch the parabola y = (x + 4)(x + 2),

labelling the intersections with the x-axis

The quadratic curve will have a “frown” or a n shape

if the coefficient of x2 is negative.
This point is also known as a maximum point, or a
maxima.

The blue part of the curve represents the region where y <
0 and the red part of the curve represents the region where
y > 0.

As we’re trying to find the values of x for which y < 0,

we look at the blue region. Clearly any value that is
greater than −4 and less than −2 is represented in the
blue region. So the answer is −4 < x < −2.

1.6. Discriminant of a quadratic formula

The discriminant helps us find the number of intersections
Using your sketch, deduce the values of x for which the of a quadratic equation with the x-axis. It can also be used
inequality holds true. to find the number of intersections of a quadratic curve
If a question asks you to find y ≤ 0 or y ≥ 0, then the with a line or another quadratic curve.
points of intersections must be included in the range of Consider b2 − 4ac in quadratic equation
values.
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

2
Given a quadratic, kx2 + 4kx + 3k = 0, find the range of k
If b − 4ac > 0 values for which the equation has two distinct real roots.
2
This results in x = −b ± 2ab −4ac , meaning there are
​

Answer
two distinct real roots that can be found. We need to satisfy the condition b2 − 4ac > 0 to have two
If b2 − 4ac = 0 distinct real roots.
As the square root is equal to 0, we get x = −b2a , ​
The coefficients of the quadratic equation can be labelled
there are two equal and real roots. a = k, b = 4k and c = 3k , leading to
If b2 − 4ac < 0
There is a negative term inside the square root, later (4k)2 − 4(k)(3k) > 0
taught as a complex root, meaning there are no real
solutions. 16k 2 − 12k 2 > 0
For finding the number of intersections with the x-axis, 4k 2 > 0
or finding the number of roots:
Thus we get the range of k as
Discriminant Number of roots Nature of intersection with x-axis
b2 − 4ac > 0 Two real distinct roots Two distinct points of intersection
b2 − 4ac = 0
k>0
Two equal real roots One point of intersection
b2 − 4ac < 0 No real roots No points of intersection
1.7. Simultaneous equations
A simultaneous equation is a set of equations, with
unknown variables, that satisfy a condition.
These can be solved through the use of the methods of
elimination and substitution.

Finding the number of intersection between Elimination

curves
The method of elimination requires you to multiply one, or
The theory of discriminants can be extended to find the both, equation such that one of the unknown variables
number of intersections between a quadratic and shares the same coefficient in both equations.
another quadratic curve or linear line.
To find the number of intersections, we first equate This may require you to multiply the equations with an
both curves or line and then apply the discriminant integer, or an unknown variable in more complicated
formula. problems.
For finding the number of intersections between a
quadratic and another line or curve: Example
Solve the simultaneous equations
Discriminant Number of intersections Nature of intersection with curve
b2 − 4ac > 0 Two real distinct points of intersection Line meets curve at two points
4a + 2b = 8
b2 − 4ac = 0 One real point of intersection Line is tangent to the curve
b2 − 4ac < 0 No real points of intersections Line does not meet the curve
a + 3b = 7
Answer

First we make an unknown variable have the same

coefficient.
We can do this by multiplying the second equation by
4, resulting in 4a + 12b = 28, making the unknown
Example variable a share the same coefficient in both
equations.

4a + 2b = 8

4a + 12b = 28

Now we can subtract both equations to get rid of one

unknown variable, resulting in 2b − 12b = 8 − 28. This
will help us isolate one variable and find its value.

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
One way of solving simultaneous equations is by equating
−10b = −20 both curves, or curve and line. This will result in a quadratic
equation which can be solved to find the points of
b=2 intersection.
Substitute the value of b into any of the two equations.
Example
This is done to find the value of the other unknown
Find the coordinates of the intersections of the curve y 2 =
variable.
4x2 − 7 and line x + y = 5 by equating both equations.
4a + 2(2) = 8 Answer

a=1 Make y the subject of the formula in the line equation,

and square both sides to get an equation in terms of y 2 .
Substitution
y = 5 − x ⟹ y 2 = (5 − x)2
The second method, substitution, makes one unknown
Now we can equate both equations, as their points of
variable the subject of the equation. This is then substituted
into the second equation to find its value. intersections must have the same y coordinate.

Upon finding the value of one unknown variable, we can (5 − x)2 = 4x2 − 7
easily find the value of the other by substituting its value
x2 − 10x + 25 = 4x2 − 7
into any of the two equations.
0 = 3x2 + 10x − 32
Example
Solve the simultaneous equation We can solve this quadratic equation in terms of x, to get
the x coordinates of intersection.
4a + 2b = 8
3x2 + 10x − 32 ⟹ (3x + 16)(x − 2)
a + 3b = 7
16
Answer x=− or x = 2
3
​

Using the second equation, we make a the subject of the Substitute this value of x into the linear equation to find
formula. the y coordinates of intersection.
a + 3b = 7 ⟹ a = 7 − 3b 16 31
− +y =5 ⟹ y =
3 3
​ ​

Substitute this expression into the first equation, 4a +

2b = 8. 2+y =5 ⟹ y =3

4(7 − 3b) + 2b = 8 The solutions to this simultaneous equation, or points of

intersection of both equations, is:
2b − 12b = 8 − 28 16 31
(− , ) and (2, 3)
3 3
​ ​

b=2

Substitute this value of b into any of the two equations. Substitution

This is done to find the value of the other unknown
variable. Another way of solving simultaneous equations is through
the use of a substitution. This allows us to write an equation
a = 7 − 3(2) of one curve in terms of x or y . The new expression can
then be substituted into the second equation to get the
a=1 points of intersection.

1.8. Simultaneous equations with Example

Find the coordinates of the intersections of the curve y 2 =
quadratics 4x2 − 7 and line x + y = 5 using a substitution.
Answer
A simultaneous equation can include a quadratic curve
and a linear line.
Solving these can be thought of as finding the points
of intersection of both equations.

Equating

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Make x the subject of the formula in the line equation to u = 4 ⟹ x2 = 4 ⟹ x = ±2

get x = 5 − y . Now we can substitute this expression as
x in the quadratic equation. u = 1 ⟹ x2 = 1 ⟹ x = ±1
Example 2
y 2 = 4(5 − y)2 − 7
Solve the equation 6x + x−1=0
y 2 = 100 − 40y + 4y 2 − 7 Answer
Let u = x, such that u2 = x and x = u2
​

3y 2 − 40y + 93 = 0 Using this substitution, we get 6u2 + u − 1 = 0. This

quadratic can be factorised easily.
We can solve this quadratic equation in terms of y , to get the
y coordinates of intersection. (3u − 1)(2u + 1) = 0
3y 2 − 40y + 93 ⟹ (3y − 31)(y − 3) 1
⟹
1
⟹ x=
1
u= x=
3 3 9
​ ​ ​ ​

31
y= or y = 3 −1 −1 1
3
​

u= ⟹ x= ⟹ x=
2 2 4
​ ​ ​ ​

Substitute this value of y into the linear equation to find

the x coordinates of intersection.
2. Functions
31 16
x+ =5 ⟹ x=−
3 3 A function assigns a collection of x values to only one y
​ ​

x+3=5 ⟹ x=2 value.

A function can be denoted by f (x), g(x), h(x) etc.
The solutions to this simultaneous equation, or points of Inputting a x value into the function f outputs a y value
intersection of both equations, is: [also written as f (x)]
16 31
(− , ) and (2, 3)
3 3
​ ​

1.9. Substitutions
Many questions may ask you to solve unique equations,
which may not resemble a quadratic at first glance. These
can be solved by making a clever substitution, by the use of For example
a variable, and then factorising it to solve for the values of x
f (x) = x2 + 4x + 4
.
The table below shows an example of possible substitutions When x = 2
that one can use
Equation Substitution
f (2) = (2)2 + 4(2) + 4 = 16
ax4 + bx2 + c u = x2 and u2 = x4
ax6 + bx3 + c u = x3 and u2 = x6
ax + b x + c ​ u= x and u2 = x
​
Types of functions and relations
2 1 1 2
a x + bx + c
3 ​

3 ​

u = x and
3 ​

u2 =x 3 ​

ax−2 + bx−1 + c u = x−1 and u2 = x−2 There are many types of relations a function can have:

Example 1
Solve the equation − 5x2 + 4 = 0x4
Answer
Let u = x2 , such that u2 = x4 and x = ± u ​

Using this substitution, we get u2 − 5u + 4 = 0. This

quadratic equation can be factorised easily.

(u − 4)(u − 1) = 0

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Function Definition Graphical representation

One x-value input gives one y -value

One to One output. As an example, all linear
functions of the type f (x) = mx + c
are One to One.

Graph of y = x, also written as f (x) =

x.

As the curve y = x2 passes the vertical line test, it is a

function.
Two x-value inputs give the same y -
Many to
One value output.
Curve fails the vertical line test

Graph of y = x2 , also written as

f (x) = x2 .

Another type of relation, that is not a function is:

Relation Definition Graphical representation

One x-value input gives two y -

value outputs. This is not a
One to many [Not a function as it gives us more than
function] one y -value output with one x-
value input, contradicting the
definition of a function.
As the curve y 2 = x fails the vertical line test, it is not a
function.
Graph of y 2 = x.
Horizontal Line Test to check for One to One
Vertical Line Test to check for Existence of a Relation
Function
To check if a function has a One to One relation, we make
To check for the existence of a function, we make use of the use of the horizontal line test.
vertical line test. If a horizontal line, y = a, cuts the function at one point
If a vertical line, x = a, cuts the the function at one only then the function has a One to One relation. Else it
point only then the function exists will have a Many to One relation.
Note that a is a constant which is included within the Note that a is a constant which is included within the
interval of x-values the function is defined for. interval of y -values the function is defined for.

Curve passes the vertical line test Curve passes the horizontal line test

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The range of a function is the set of corresponding y -

values, or outputs, that the function f is defined for.
It consists of the lowest and the highest y -value the
function outputs for a given domain.
Example: y ∈ R implies the function is defined for all
real values of y .
−2 ≤ y ≤ 5 implies the function is defined between
y = −2 and y = 5, where both values are inclusive.

Example

As the curve y = x passes the horizontal line test, the

function has a One to One relation.

Curve fails the horizontal line test

For this curve, y = f (x):

The range is y1 ≤ f (x) ≤ y2

​ ​

Also written as y1 ≤ y ≤ y2 ​ ​

The domain is x1 ≤ x ≤ x3 ​ ​

As the curve y = x2 fails the horizontal line test, the

function does not have a One to One relation. It instead 2.2. Domain and Range of a Quadratic
has a Many to One relation in this case.
Domain of a Quadratic
2.1. Domain and Range The domain of a quadratic is x ∈ R, unless it is
restricted.
Domain The line x = − 2a b
, or x = q (where q is the x coordinate
​

The domain of a function is the set of x-values, or of the vertex), is the line of symmetry
We can find a restricted domain such that the
inputs, that the function f is defined for.
function has a One to One relation.
It consists of the smallest and biggest x-value the
function accepts as an input, or is defined for. Range of a Quadratic
Example: x ∈ R implies the function the function is
defined for all real values of x. The range of a quadratic depends on its minimum or
4 < x < 10 implies the function is defined between maximum y value.
x = 4 and x = 10.
Consider a quadratic equation written in the form
Range ax2 + bx + c = 0

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
We can complete the square for this equation to get the y - 2
1 33
coordinate of the vertex, or the minimum or maximum y f (x) = −2 (x − ) +
4 8
​ ​

value.
Equation Coordinates of vertex Nature of vertex Range
y = p(x − q)2 + r (q, r) Maximum point (a < 0 or p < 0) r ≥ y or r > y As a < 0 and p < 0, the vertex is a maximum point. We can
y = p(x − q)2 + r (q, r) Minimum point (a > 0 or p > 0) r ≤ y or r < y now find the range as

Note that the type of inequality sign you use (> or ≤) 33

≥y
8
​

depends on if the domain includes the x coordinate of

the vertex, q , using ≤ and ≥. The graph is shown below

Example 1
Given a quadratic, f (x) = 2x2 − 2x + 3 with a domain of
a ≤ x, find the smallest value of a for which the function
has a One to One relation.
Answer
First we complete the square for f (x)
2
1 5
2 (x − ) +
2 2
​ ​

As a > 0 and p > 0, the vertex is a minimum point with

coordinates ( 12 , 52 ).
​ ​

So the smallest value of a, for which the function has a One

2.3. Different types of Functions
to One relation, is 12 and the domain is
​

1 Square root function

≤x
2
​

Consider a function f (x) = ax + b ​

The graph is shown below The domain must be chosen such that ax + b > 0
always. In this case the domain is x > −ba . ​

The range of such a function is always y > 0

For a more general way of solving, consider a function
f (x) = g(x) [where g(x) is any function such as a
​

linear function, quadratic, or even a higher degree

polynomial]
The domain must be chosen such that g(x) ≥ 0
always
The range of function is always a positive, non-zero,
interval.

Rational function

Example 2
Find the range of f (x) = −2x2 + x + 4, where x ∈ R.
Answer
First we complete the square for f (x)

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

f (x) An inverse function reverses another function.

A rational function is a function written in the form g(x) , ​

where g(x) = 0. Commonly denoted by f −1 (x).

It is also important to note that f −1 (x) does not
​

To find the domain

1
Find the values of x for which g(x) = 0. These values imply f (x) . ​

of x cannot be inputted into the function and must Inputting x into the function f outputs f (x) while
be excluded in the domain. inputting f (x) into f −1 outputs x [also written as
To find the range f −1 (x)]
Input a large x value, such as 999 and −999. This will
help you find the y value which the rational function Consider a function f and its inverse function f −1 . These
is approaching, but never reaches. This limits the two functions can be represented as
range of the rational function.

If the function is written in the form

g(x)
f (x) = a + for x ∈ R
​

h(x)
Where a is a non-zero constant, and g(x) and h(x) are
functions. And

Then the range is f (x) < a or f (x) > a depending on

if the function is approaching the value a from above or
below the line y = a. This can be checked by inputting a
large x value and seeing if the output is greater than or
less than a.
Note that the inequality can change if the domain
changes. This gives us an important result:

Example f −1 ( f (x) ) = f ( f −1 (x) ) = x

Find the range of
An inverse function, f −1 , can only exist if the function f
2 2 1 has a One to One relation.
f (x) = + for x >
3 3(3x − 1) 3 To check if an inverse function exists, we can use the
​ ​ ​

horizontal line test.

Answer
Inputting in a large x value, such as 999, gives us Domain and Range of an Inverse Function
2 2
f (999) = + Using the previous result, f −1 ( f (x) ) = f ( f −1 (x) ) = x,
3 3(3(999) − 1)
​ ​

we can find the domain and range of an inverse function:

Which is greater than 23 , so the function is approaching this
​
Function
f (x)
Domain
a<x<b
Range
c<y<d
value from above. This gives us the range of the function as f −1 (x) c<x<d a<y<b

2
y> We observe:
3
​

The domain of f (x) is the range of f −1 (x), and vice

2.4. Inverse Function versa
The range of f (x) is the domain of f −1 (x), and vice
versa.

Relationship between a Function and its Inverse

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Using the domain and range of a function and its inverse, we
can graph both functions To correctly pick between + and - for the square root, we
look at the domain of f . As the domain of f is x > 4, the
range of f −1 must be y > 4. Due to this, we need to pick
the positive value of the square root, as it is the only way
we will get a y value output greater than 4.

So we get the inverse function as

f −1 (x) = + x + 2 + 3 ​

We can find the domain using the fact that the range of f is
the domain of f −1 .
At x = 4

f (4) = (4 − 3)2 − 2 = −1
Observations:
At x = 5
Both functions are symmetric to the line f (x) = x
Both functions only intersect at f (x) = x f (5) = (5 − 3)2 − 2 = 2

Finding an Inverse Function The y value ouput of the quadratic increases as the x value
input increases as well. So the range of f is
We can find the equation for an inverse function by
“swapping” all the x variables to y , and y variables to x, f (x) > −1
and then making y the subject of the formula again.
This gives us the domain of f −1 as
Example
x > −1
Given f (x) = 2x + 3, find the inverse of this function.
Answer Example 2
We start by swapping the x and y values Given

y = 2x + 3 ⟹ x = 2y + 3 f (x) = −(x − 3)2 + 4 for x ≥ m

Now we can make y the subject of the formula Find the smallest value of m such that the inverse function
x−3 f −1 exists.
y= Answer
2
​

So we get the inverse function as An inverse function, f −1 , can only exist if the function f
has a One to One relation.
x−3
f −1 (x) =
2 So we need to find the value of m such that f (x) is an One
​

to One function.
Example 1 We can deduce that the coordinates of the vertex are (3, 4)
Given from the given equation. Using this, we get the smallest
value of m as 3.
f (x) = (x − 3)2 − 2 for x > 4 So the domain for which the inverse function exists is
Find an expression for f −1 (x) and find the domain of f −1 . x≥3
Answer
We start by swapping the x and y values.
2.5. Composite Function
y = (x − 3)2 − 2 ⟹ x = (y − 3)2 − 2

Now we can make y the subject of the formula

y =± x+2+3 ​

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A composite function is a combination of two functions 1

k=−
Commonly denoted by g( f (x) ) or gf (x). 2
​

Inputting a x value into the function f outputs f (x). The

same value, f (x), is then inputted into another function
g which outputs g(x). Example 2
Given
A summary of the process has been described in the image
f (x) = −2x2 + 12x − 3 for x ∈ R

g(x) = 2x + 5 for x ∈ R

Find the values of x for which g( f (x) ) + 1 = 0.

Answer
It is also important to note that g( f (x) ) does not
We can find the function g( f (x) ) by inputting f (x) into
always equal f ( g(x) )
g(x)
f 2 (x) implies f ( f (x) ), unless stated otherwise.
g( f (x) ) = 2(−2x2 + 12x − 3) + 5 ⟹ −4x2 + 24x −
Domain and Range of a Composite Function
Now we can input this value into the equation we need to
As f (x), or the y -value output of the function f , is solve, f ( g(x) ) + 1 = 0
inputted into the function g as a x-value input
The domain and range of g depends on the range of −4x2 + 24x − 1 + 1 = 0 ⟹ 4x(−x + 6) = 0
f. So the values of x which satisfy the equation are
If the interval of range values for f (x) is not included in
the interval of domain values for g(x), the composite x = 0 or x = 6
function cannot exist.
If the range of f (x) is included in the domain of g(x) 2.6. Translations
, but is a smaller interval, then the domain of the
composite function becomes a smaller interval too. A translation moves all the points on a curve in the x or
y direction, depending on the translation.
Example 1
Given Function Transformation Result Geometric interpretation New
points
f (x − Translation of a units in the rightward, or
f (x) (a0) (x + a, y)
f (x) = 2(x + 3)2 − 7 for x ≤ −4 ​

a) positive, x direction.
f (x + Translation of a units in the leftward, or
f (x) (−a
0 ) (x − a, y)
negative, x direction.
g(x) = 2x − 3 for x ≤ k a)
Translation of b units in the upwards, or
f (x) (0b) f (x) + b (x, y + b)
positive, y direction.
​

Find the largest value of k for which the composite function Translation of b units in the downwards, or
0
f (x) (−b ) f (x) − b (x, y − b)
f ( g(x) ) is defined. ​

negative, y direction.
Answer
x direction translation
For a composite function f ( g(x) ) to exist, the range of
g(x) must be included in the domain of f (x).

The domain of f (x) is x ≤ −4, so we must find a value of k

for which the range of g(x) is y ≤ −4
Letting g(x) = −4, we get
1
2x − 3 = −4 ⟹ x = −
2
​

So the largest value of k is

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y direction translation

Stretch parallel to y-axis

Example
x2
The graph of f (x) = + 3x + 2 has been translated by
the vector (−1
3 ). Find the equation of the resulting graph.
​

Answer
Applying the translation to the function f (x), we get:

y = f (x + 1) + 3

y = (x + 1)2 + 3(x + 1) + 2 + 3

y = x2 + 5x + 9

2.7. Stretches
Example 1
A stretch multiples all the x or y points on a curve by the The graph of f (x) = 5x2 + 2 is stretched by a factor of 2
stretch factor a. along the y-axis, find the resulting equation of the graph.
Answer
Stretch factor and New
Function
direction
Result Geometric interpretation
points for this stretch factor
Stretch in the x-axis by Stretch parallel to the x-axis by a
f (x) f (ax) ( xa , y )
factor of a1 scale factor of a1
y = 2f (x)
​

​ ​

Stretch in the x-axis by Stretch parallel to the x-axis by a

f (x) f ( xa ) (ax, y)
factor of a scale factor of a
​

Stretch in the y -axis by a Stretch parallel to the y -axis by a

y = 2(5x2 + 2)
f (x) y
f (x) (x, a)
factor of a1 scale factor of a1
​
​

y = 10x2 + 4
​ ​

Stretch in the y -axis by a Stretch parallel to the y -axis by a

f (x) af (x) (x, ay)
factor of a scale factor of a

Stretch parallel to x-axis

Example 2
The graph of y = x2 + 3x + 2 is stretched by a factor of 1
3 ​

along the x-axis, find the resulting equation of the graph.

Answer
For this stretch factor

y = f (3x)

y = (3x)2 + 3(3x) + 2

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Order
y = 9x2 + 9x + 2 Translation parallel to x-axis
Stretch parallel to x-axis
Reflection in the y -axis
2.8. Reflections Stretch parallel in y -axis
Reflection in the x-axis
A reflection transformation reflects the graph to the x or Translation parallel to y -axis

y axis.
To find out the transformations applied to a quadratic
Function Reflection Result Geometric interpretation New
points Complete the square and then compare it with f (x)
Reflection in the x-axis. Graph is mirrored
f (x) Reflection in the x- −f (x) in the x-axis, which also acts as a line of (−x, y)
axis
symmetry to f (x) and −f (x). Example
Reflection in the y -axis. Graph is mirrored Functions f and g are both defined for x ∈ R and are given
Reflection in the y - f (−x) in the y -axis, which also acts as a line of
f (x)
axis
symmetry to f (x) and f (−x)
(x, −y)
by

f (x) = (x − 2)2 + 5

g(x) = 2[(x + 1)2 + 5]

Describe fully the two transformations that have been

combined to transform f (x) to g(x) and in the order they
occur in.
Answer
The first transformation is the translation in the x-axis by 3
in the rightward direction. This can also be written as the
vector (−30 ). ​

f (x + 3) = ((x + 3) − 2)2 + 5 ⟹ f (x + 3) = (x + 1)

Example The second transformation is a stretch parallel to the y -axis

Given the equation f (x) = 2x2 + 3x + 2, find the resulting by a stretch factor of 2.
equations after a x and y axis reflection.
2f (x + 3) = 2[(x − 2)2 + 5]
Answer
y

y = f (−x)
3. Coordinate Geometry
y = 2(−x)2 + 3(−x) + 2 3.1. Distance formula
y = 2x2 − 3x + 2 The distance formula helps us find the distance, or
length, between two points.
For a reflection in the x-axis
Let us consider two points, on the same linear line,
y = −f (x)
A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ). The lines x = x2 and y = y1 can
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

2
y = −(2x + 3x + 2) be drawn, resulting in a right angled triangle with the line
AB as the hypotenuse.
y = −2x2 − 3x − 2

2.9. Order of Transformations

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The y value of the mid-point can be represent as
y1 + y2
yM =
​ ​

2
​ ​

−3 + a
−2 =
2
​

a = −1

The x value of the mid-point can be represented as

x1 + x2
xM =
​ ​

2
​ ​

2+4
The length of the base is obtained from x2 − x1 and the b=
2
​
​ ​

height is obtained from y2 − y1 .​ ​

b=3
Using Pythagoras theorem, we can derive the distance
formula for two points, A and B , as:
3.2. The Gradient
AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
The gradient, also called the slope, describes the
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Mid-point formula inclination of a line. It gives a numerical value to the

angle a line makes with the positive x-axis.
The mid-point formula helps us find a point, usually It is popularly denoted by m in the equation y =
denoted by M , which is equidistant from two other mx + c.
points.The mid-point of two points can be found using:
Consider two points, A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ). A right
​ ​ ​ ​

x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2 angled triangle can be drawn, with a similar explanation to

M( , )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2 the one in the distance formula, with the hypotenuse line

​ ​

AB .
Example 1
The distance between points A(0, 4) and B(a, 1) is 5 units.
Find the value of the positive integer a.
Answer
Using the distance formula:

AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

We can substitute our values in

52 = (a − 0)2 + (1 − 4)2 ​

a2 = 16 ⟹ a = 4
We can apply the trigonometric ratio

Example 2 length of opposite side

tan(θ) =
length of adjacent side
​

A line segment, joining points A(2, −3) and B(4, a) has a

midpoint M (b, −2). Find the values of a and b. In the context of the diagram above
Answer
Using the mid-point formula y2 − y1
tan(θ) =
​ ​

x2 − x1
​

​ ​

x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2
M =( , )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

We will also denote m as

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y2 − y1
m=
​ ​

x2 − x1
​

​ ​

Such that we are able to find the angle of inclination, θ, by:

tan(θ) = m

θ = tan−1 (m)

Magnitude of the Gradient

The function is going to have an increasing y value, as
the x value increases, if the gradient has a positive
value. This means the curve is moving upwards. Let the line AB have a gradient of m1 and the line DC have
​

The function is going to have a decreasing y value, as a gradient of m2 such that

​

the x value increases, if the gradient has a negative

value. This means the curve is moving downwards. tan(θ1 ) = m1 ⟹ θ1 = tan−1 (m1 )
​ ​ ​ ​

tan(θ2 ) = m2 ⟹ θ2 = tan−1 (m2 )

​ ​ ​ ​

From the diagram above

θ2 − θ1 = θ
​ ​

This gives us

tan−1 (m2 ) − tan−1 (m1 ) = θ

​ ​

3.3. Equations of lines

Equation of line parallel to y -axis
Angle between two lines
The equation of a line parallel to the y -axis can be
The angle, θ, between two lines having gradients m1 and m2 ​ ​
written in the form x = a.
is given by All points on this line have the coordinate P (a, y).

m2 − m1 m2 − m1
tan(θ) = ± ⟹ θ = tan−1 (± )
​ ​ ​ ​

1 + m1 m2 1 + m1 m2
​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​

Note that you must take the positive value of the ratio if
you are trying to find the acute angle between two lines.

Another way to look at this formula is by considering the

formula to find θ using the gradient m

Equation of line parallel to x-axis

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The point-slope formula is another way to find the equation
The equation of a line parallel to the x-axis can be of a straight line.
written in the form y = b.
All points on this line have the coordinate P (x, b). Consider a general point P (x, y), which can be any
point on the line, and a known point Q(x1 , y1 ) which ​ ​

the line passes through.

The gradient, m, can be found using the formula

y − y1
m=
​

x − x1
​

From this, we find the point-slope formula by making (y -

y_1) the subject of the formula

(y − y1 ) = m(x − x1 )
​ ​

Example
Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the
Intercepts points (-5, 3) and (-4, 1).
Answer
An intercept is the point at which a line cuts the
coordinate axes. y2 − y1 1−3
m= =
​ ​

x2 − x1 −4 − (−5)
​ ​

​ ​

m = −2

y = −2x + c

Now we can substitute any point in this equation to find the

value of the y -intercept c

1 = −2(−4) + c

c = −7

So our final answer is

For this graph:
y = −2x − 7
The y -intercept is (0, B)
The x-intercept is (A, 0) 3.4. Relation between lines
Equation of a straight line Relation between parallel lines
The equation of a straight line is given by Parallel lines have the same gradients. This is due to the
angle between them being 0∘ degrees.
y = mx + c
Consider two lines, y = m1 x + c and y = m2 x + c. Given
m represents the gradient.
​ ​

that these two lines are parallel, we can say:

c represents the y -intercept (0, c). It can also be looked
at in terms of a vertical translation. m1 = m2 ​ ​

Point-slope formula Relation between perpendicular lines

Perpendicular lines create a 90∘ degree angle between
them upon intersection. They are also called normal
lines.

Consider two lines, y = m1 x + c and y = m2 x + c. Given

​ ​

that these two lines are perpendicular, we can say:

m1 × m2 = −1
​ ​

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Which means it is possible to find the gradient of one of the
lines, given the gradient of the other line The equation of a circle helps us describe a circle on the
coordinate plane.
1 1
m2 = −​ or m1 = −​ ​ ​

m1 ​ m2 ​

3.5. Perpendicular bisector

A perpendicular bisector is a line that bisects another
line perpendicularly, at a 90 degree angle, at its
midpoint.

Example
Two points have coordinates A(5, 7) and B(9, −1). Find
the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line AB .
Solution
The gradient, m1 , of AB can be calculated using
​
Consider a circle with centre O(a, b) and radius OA,
equal to r.
y2 − y1
m= A perpendicular line from A(x, y) can be drawn to
​ ​

x2 − x1
​

​ ​

depict a right angled triangle.

−1 − 7 This right angled triangle has:
m= r as its hypotenuse
9−5
​

(x − a) as its base
m = −2 (y − b) as its height
We can also find the gradient of the perpendicular, m2 , ​

Using the Pythagoras theorem

using
r2 = (x − a)2 + (y − b)2
m1 × m2 = −1
​ ​

Where the coordinates of the centre, O, of this circle are

1
−2 × m2 = −1 ⟹ m2 = (a, b)
2
​ ​ ​

So we have a line equation, for the perpendicular bisector, in The equation of a circle can be represented in different
the form ways, and it is important to correctly identify the coordinates
of the centre from them.
x
y= +c Equation of circle Coordinates of centre O
2
​

r2 = (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 (a, b)

r2 = (x + a)2 + (y + b)2 (−a, −b)
To find the value of the y -intercept, c, we can use the fact r2 = (x + a)2 + (y − b)2 (−a, b)
that the perpendicular bisector must intersect the midpoint r2 = (x − a)2 + (y + b)2 (a, −b)
of the line AB .
A point, (x, y), lies on the circumference of the circle if it
x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2
M =( , ) satisfies the equation of the circle when inputted.
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

Which means inputting points x and y into the

5+9 7−1 equation of the circle will give you the value of r2 if it
M =( , ) lies on the circumference.
2 2
​ ​

M = (7, 3) General equation of a circle

Using these coordinates into our line equation, we get The expanded form of the equation of the circle is also
known as the general equation of the circle.
7 1
3= +c ⟹ c=−
2 2
​ ​

So the equation of the perpendicular bisector is

x 1
y= −
2 2
​ ​

3.6. Equation of a circle

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The centre of the circle is (5, 4) and the radius is 9.
0 = x2 − 2ax + y 2 − 2by + c

Where c = a2 + b2 − r2 3.7. Translation applied to a Circle

Centre
Radius r=
(a, b)
a 2 + b2 − c ​
Equation
A translation applied to a circle equation moves the
If the general form is given as coordinates of the centre and all the points on the
0 = x2 + 2ax + y 2 + 2by + c circumference.
It does not change the radius, r.
Centre (−a, −b)
Radius r= a 2 + b2 − c ​
Consider a circle equation

Another way to find the centre and radius is by r2 = (x − a)2 + (y − b)2

completing the square, shown in the example 2 below.
With coordinates of the centre as (a, b). To apply a
translation of (dc), we can add this to the coordinates of the
Example 1
​

centre.
Points A(−3, 4) and B(3, −4) lie on the circle, and the line
AB is the diameter of that circle. Find the equation of the (a + c, b + d)
circle.
Answer So the equation of the transformed graph is
Since the diameter is the line AB , its midpoint must be the
r2 = (x − [a + c])2 + (y − [b + d])2
coordinates of the centre O of the circle.

M =(
x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2
​

,
​

)
​ ​

3.8. Intersection of lines and circles

2 2
​ ​

when an equation in the form of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is

−3 + 3 4 − 4
O=( , ) created from the equation of the line and the circle, the
2 2
​ ​

value of b2 − 4ac decides the number of intersection

O = (0, 0) [This means the centre lies on the origin] points
if the value of b2 − 4ac is
As the points A and B lie on the circle, they must also > 0 then two distinct points of intersection are
satisfy the equation of the circle when inputted. Using this formed
fact, we can input one of their coordinates to find the radius. = 0 then a single point of intersection (line is a
Here we use the coordinates of A. tangent to the circle) is formed
< 0 then there are no points of intersection
r2 = (x − a)2 + (y − b)2

r2 = (−3 − 0)2 + (4 − 0)2 4. Circular measure

r2 = 25 ⟹ r = 5
4.1. Circle theorems
Thus, the equation of the circle can be written as
These theorems must be known to solve circular measure
x2 + y 2 = 52 questions.
Example 2
Find the center and the radius of the circle with the equation
x2 + y 2 − 10x − 8y − 40 = 0.
Answer
Given the equation of the circle, we can complete the square
for x and y to get

(x − 5)2 − 25 + (y − 4)2 − 16 − 40 = 0

(x − 5)2 + (y − 4)2 = 81

(x − 5)2 + (y − 4)2 = 92

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4.2. Introduction to radians Finding sector length

We can find the sector length for a circle using:
The radian is the angle formed when the arc length is Formula in degrees Formula in radians
the same as the length of the radius. θ∘
Length = 360​
∘ × 2πr Length = θr [Where θ is in radians]
It is also denoted as a “rad”.
Consider a circle with its radius, r, equal to 1 The formula in terms of radians can be derived easily using
An arc length of 2π would have an angle of 360∘ the fact 360∘ = 2π
degrees, due to the circumference being 2πr.
θ∘ θ∘
Half of its circumference, or an arc length of π , would × 2πr ⟹ × 2πr
360∘ 2π
​ ​

have an angle of 180∘ degrees.

This simplifies to the formula in radians
Converting between units
Length = θr [Where θ is in radians]
Using the result, 180∘ = π , we get these useful ratios
4.4. Area of a triangle
∘
1 radian = 180
π degrees ​

1∘ degree = 180π
∘ radians ​

Let us take a triangle, where h represents the height and b

These ratios can help as convert from degrees to radians, or represents the base.
vice versa, as shown in the table below.
Converting from Formula used
π
Degree to Radian θ × 180 ∘​

Radian to Degree radian × 180∘

π ​

Example 1
Convert 360∘ degrees to radians.
Answer
π
360∘ × = 2π radians
180∘
​

Example 2
Convert π
2
​
radians to degrees.
Answer The area of this triangle can be found using the formula
1 × base × height or 1 × b × h.
π 180∘ 2 ​

2 ​

× = 90∘ degrees
2
​ ​

π
Alternative formula for the area of a triangle
4.3. Finding sector area and length Consider another triangle, where you aren’t given the base
but have the values of 2 sides and 1 angle.
The formulae for finding sector area and sector length can
also be used in terms of radians.

Finding sector area

We can find the sector area for a circle using:
Formula in degrees Formula in radians
θ∘
Area = 360 ∘ × πr
​
2 Area = 12 θr2 [Where θ is in radians]
​

The formula in terms of radians can be derived easily using

the fact 360∘ = 2π
θ∘ 2 θ∘
× πr ⟹ × πr2
360∘ 2π
​ ​

This simplifies to the formula in radians

1 2
Area = θr [Where θ is in radians]
2
​

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To find the area of this triangle, we must first draw a opposite

sin(θ) =
perpendicular from B to the line AC hypotenuse
​

adjacent
cos(θ) =
hypotenuse
​

opposite
tan(θ) =
adjacent
​

A mnemonic to remember the ratios is “SOH CAH TOA”.

Example
Find the ratio of cos(θ), when sin(θ) = 1
2
​

Answer
Utilising trigonometry, we observe that
h Method 1
sin(C) = ​
⟹ h = sin(C) × a
a opposite
Upon comparing sin(θ) = 12 and sin(θ) = hypotenuse ,
​ ​

Taking the base as b and height as sin(C) × a, we can ​

we note that the length of the opposite side is 1 and the

substitute it into the formula to find the area of this triangle length of the hypotenuse is 2.
as
​

We can now use the Pythagoras theorem to find the

1
× a × b × sin(C) adjacent side of the triangle:
2
​

Note that this formula requires you to use an angle C ,

such that it is not facing the side a or side b as shown in
the diagram above.

5. Trigonometry
5.1. Trigonometry ratios in right angle
triangles (for θ between 0° and 90°)

(adjacent)2 + (1)2 = ( 2)2 = 1 ​

adjacent 1
cos(θ) = =
hypotenuse 2
​ ​

Method 2
Using the fact that
1 1
sin(θ) = ⟹ θ = sin−1 ( ) = 45∘
2 2
​ ​

​ ​

1 1
cos(45∘ ) = ⟹ cos(θ) =
2 2
​ ​

​ ​

5.2. Quadrants

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The Cartesian plane is divided into 4 quadrants \n

an anticlockwise rotation from the x-axis of the first

quadrant shows an increase in angle, but clockwise
rotation shows a decrease in angle

Example
draw a line on a graph OA which is rotated 140°, a line OB
rotated 380°, and a line OC rotated -220° Answer:

5.3. Quadrant - continued

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period is the length of one cycle of the graph

amplitude is the distance between the maximum or
minimum points from the principal axis
graph of y = asin(x)
The graph is stretched along the y-axis with a factor
of a
The range of the graph changes to a < y < −a

First quadrant
cos(θ) = +ve
sin(θ) = +ve
tan(θ) = +ve
Second quadrant
cos(θ) = −ve graph of y = sin(ax)
sin(θ) = +ve the period of the graph is 2π
a ​

tan(θ) = −ve the graph is stretched along the x-axis by a factor of

Third quadrant 1
a
cos(θ) = −ve
​

sin(θ) = −ve
tan(θ) = +ve
Fourth quadrant
cos(θ) = +ve
sin(θ) = −ve
tan(θ) = −ve

5.4. Graphs of Trigonometric functions

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graph of y = sin(x) + a
the graph is shifted along the y-axis by the value of a
translation of the graph by [0, a]
The range of the graph changes to −1 + a < y <
1+a

graph of y = sin(x + a)
the graph is shifted along the x-axis by the value of -a apply the transformation inside the brackets (x − 90),
which translates the graph by
translation of the graph by [-a, 0]
(90, 0)

When working with multiple transformations, go with

this order:
firstly, work with the transformation inside the
brackets of the trigonometric function
secondly, apply the transformation multiplied/divided apply the transformation which is being
to the trigonometric function multiplied/divided to the trig function, in this case 3,
lastly, apply the transformation which is being which should stretch the graph by a factor of 3 along the
added/subtracted to the trigonometric function. y-axis

Example
Draw the graph of y = 3cos(x − 12 π) − 1
​

Answer
draw the graph of y = cos(x)

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in case of cos(x) = 23 , we know using a calculator or by

​

memory that x = 30° or x = π6 , but this is only the

​

principle angle and there are many more solutions to

this.
to find the other values, draw a graph and draw a
horizontal line for the value given to find the angles at
which the trigonometric function give the value stated. in
the previous example, the graph would look like this

finally, apply the transformation that is being

added/subtracted to the expression, in this case it is −1,
which would translate the graph by (0, −1)

as you can see there are also other points on the graph
which intersect with the horizontal line, these are also
additional solutions
in the question, a range might be given and you would
have to find all the solutions in that given range.
in this case, to find the other point A we can do 2π − π6 , ​

which equals to 11π 6

​

here we are using the property of trigonometry functions

5.5. Find the other angles from the that they are symmetrical, and thus such calculations can
be used to find the angles
principle angle
5.6. Trigonometry identities
sin(θ)
tan(θ) = ​

cos(θ)
sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1

Example
cos2 (x)−sin2 (x)
1
Prove the identity + cos(x)
cos(x) ≡ 2cos(x)
​ ​

Answer
sin2 (x) can be written as 1 − cos2 (x)

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cross multiplying it would give us
cos2 (x) − (1 − cos2 (x)) 1 8sin(60) = xsin(30)
+ ​ ​

cos(x) cos(x) 8 ∗ 23 = 12 x
​

​ ​

2
2cos (x) − 1 1 8 3=x ​

+ ​ ​

∴x=8 3
cos(x) cos(x) ​

2cos2 (x) − 1 + 1
​
Example
cos(x)
2cos2 (x)
⟹ 2cos(x)​

cos(x)

5.7. Trigonometry with non right-angled

triangles
in these cases, you can either use the sine rule or the
cosine rule

Find the value of x

Answer:
in this question, we are given two side lengths and the angle
between them
in this case, we shall use the cosine rule a2 = b2 + c2 −
Example (2bc ∗ cos(A))
we can write this as x2 = 42 + 42 − (2 ∗ 4 ∗ 4 ∗ cos(60))
x2 = 16 + 16 − (16)
x2 = 16
∴x=4

6. Series
6.1. Introduction to nCr notation
Combinatorics helps us find the rth element in the nth
row of pascal’s triangle, which is a triangle that is
constructed by summing the adjacent elements in the
Find the value of x previous row.
Answer
in this question, we are given two angles and one of the Pascal’s triangle
sides, where we have to find the length of the other side.
So we know we should use the sine rule sin(A)
a b
= sin(B) = ​ ​

c
sin(C)
8
we can write this as sin(30) ​ = x
sin(60) ​

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The expansion is given in MF19 for n > 0, and can be

generalised to

(a + b)n = ( )an + ( )an − 1 b + ( )an − 2 b2 + ⋯ +

n n n
0 1 2
​ ​ ​

Observations:
As an example, from the definition, 3 C1 will give us a ​

The exponents for a and b sum up to the value of n

value of 3. The (nr ) notation can be thought of as choosing r
​

The triangle is also symmetrical at the centre number of terms to be the second term, b.
Factorial notation We can find the rth term of a binomial expansion using

The factorial notation is used in the formula for Tr + 1 = n C r × a n − r × br

​ ​

combinations.
Binomial expansion with 3 terms
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ⋯ × 2 × 1
We can also use binomial expansion to expand a
For example trinomial, or the sum of three terms raised to an
5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 exponent.

It should also be known that Consider the expansion of (a + b)n

(a + b)n = ( )an + ( )an − 1 b + ⋯ + ( )abn −

0! = 1 n n n
0 1 n−1
​ ​ ​

Combinations
We can write the trinomial as
The notation you should be familiar for combinations is (x + y + z)n ⟹ (a + [y + z])n

Cr = ( ) =
n n!
n
Now we can substitute b = y + z in the expansion of (a +
r!(n − r)!
​ ​ ​

r
b)n
Using this, we obtain some useful results
(a + b)n = ( )xn + ( )xn − 1 (y + z) + ⋯ + ( )
n n n
n
C0 = Cn = 1 n 0 1 n−1
​ ​ ​

​ ​

n
C1 = n Cn − 1 = n
​ ​

Example
n Find the expansion of (3x + 2)4 .
Cr = n Cn − r
Answer
​ ​

Reinstating, (nr ) gives us the rth element in the nth row 4 4

(3x + 2)4 = (3x)4 + ( )(3x)4−1 (2) + ( )(3x)4−2 (2)2
​

of pascal’s triangle.
1 2
​ ​

Most calculators have a pre-defined function, or button,

that allows you to use the n Cr formula directly. ​

(3x + 2)4 = 81x4 + (4)(3x)3 (2) + (6)(3x)2 (4) + (4)(3x)

6.2. Binomial expansion (3x + 2)4 = 81x4 + 216x3 + 216x2 + 96x + 16

The binomial expansion helps us expand the sum of two 6.3. Arithmetic Progression
terms raised to an exponent.
It makes use of pascal’s triangle, as shown below, to
obtain the binomial coefficient.

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Example 1
An arithmetic progression (AP) is a series of numbers Find the 120th term of the arithmetic progression:
that share a common difference between consecutive 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 …
terms Answer
An example of an arithmetic progression is:
2, 4, 6, 8, ⋯. Each consecutive term in this series has From the question
a common difference of 2. The first term is equal to a, which is 2 in this
The first term is denoted by a and the common question.
difference is denoted by d The common difference, d, is equal to the difference
between consecutive terms, 4 − 2 = 2.
1st term = u1 = a ​

So to find the 120th term

2nd term = u2 = a + d ​

u120 = 2 + (120 − 1)2 = 240

​

3rd term = u3 = a + 2d ​

⋯
Example 2
(n − 1)th term = un − 1 = a + (n − 2)d ​

Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the arithmetic

progression, which has its first term equal to 7 and its 8th
nth term = un = a + (n − 1)d
​

term being 28.

(n + 1)th term = un + 1 = a + (n + 1)d Answer
From the question, we can deduce that a = 7 as it is the
​

The formula for the nth term is also given in the MF19 first term. Using the general formula for the nth term for an
formula sheet. AP

Finding the common difference u8 = 28 = 7 + (8 − 1)d

​

28 − 7
As mentioned previously, the common ratio must be the d= =3
7
​

same between consecutive terms.

This can be written as Thus, we can use the sum till the nth to find the sum of the
first 20 terms.
d = u2 − u1 = u3 − u2 = ⋯ = un − un − 1 = un + 1 − un
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

20
We can re-write this as S20 = [2(7) + (20 − 1)3] = 710
2
​ ​

d = a + d − a = a + 2d − (a + d)
6.4. Geometric Progression
⋯
A geometric progression (GP) is a series of numbers that
d = a + (n − 1)d − [a + (n − 2)d] = a + (n + 1)d − [a + share a common ratio between consecutive terms.
An example of a geometric sequence is:
Note that the difference of two consecutive terms results 3, 9, 27, 81, ⋯. Each term in this series is being
in d being the only term left. multiplied by a common ratio of 3.
The first term is given by a, while the common ratio
Sum of Arithmetic Progression
is denoted by r
The sum of a geometric progression is the sum of terms 1st term = u1 = a
in a given sequence.
​

Sn denotes the sum till the nth term.

​

2nd term = u2 = ar ​

It is given in MF19, and is denoted by 3rd term = u3 = ar2 ​

n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d] ⋯
2
​ ​

An alternate formula also exists (n − 1)th term = un − 1 = arn − 2 ​

n
Sn = (a + l)
2
​ ​

Where l denotes the last term in the series

The use of both formulae depends on the context, and

information about the variables.

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10 − 1
nth term = un = arn − 1 3
= 3( ) ⟹ 0.225
​

u10
4
​ ​

(n + 1)th term = un + 1 = arn ​

The formula for the nth term is also given in the MF19
formula sheet Example 2
The first 3 terms of a geometric progression are: x + 2, 3x,
Finding the common ratio 9 2 3 2
4 x ,where x > 0, show that 9x − 18x = 0 and find the
​

value of r and x.
As mentioned previously, the common ratio must be the
Answer
same between consecutive terms.
This can be written as We know the common ratio, r, is the ratio of any two
consecutive terms
u2 u3 un un+1
r= = =⋯= =
​ ​ ​ ​

9 2
u1 u2
​

un−1 un
​ ​ ​

3x x
r= = 4
​

​ ​ ​ ​

x+2 3x
​ ​

We can re-write this ratio as

Now we can begin simplifying our ratio
ar ar2 arn − 1 arn
r= = ​
= ⋯ = n−2 = n−1 ​ ​ ​

9x2 9
a ar ar ar = x2
x+2 4
​ ​

Note that the denominator cancels all the terms of the

numerator, and leaves r as the only term. 4(9x2 ) = 9x2 (x + 2)

Sum of Geometric Progression 36x2 = 9x3 + 18x2

The sum of a geometric progression is the sum of terms ⟹ 9x3 − 18x2 = 0

in a given sequence.
We can now find the value of r and x
Sn denotes the sum till the nth term.
​

9x3 = 18x2
It is given in MF19, and is denoted by
a(1 − rn ) x3 18
Sn = [r < 1] 2
= ⟹ x=2
9
​ ​

1−r
​ ​

Another formula exists for the case r > 1 Substituting the value of x back into the common ratio gives
us:
a(rn − 1)
Sn = [r > 1] 3(2) 3
r−1 r= =
​ ​

2+2 2
​ ​

The sum till infinity of a geometric progression, given in

MF19, is denoted by 6.5. Sum of a series
a
S∞ = [−1 < r < 1] As introduced previously, the sum of a series adds up each
1−r
​ ​

term in a sequence till the nth term.

The inequality, −1 < r < 1, is also written as |r| < 1 Using the general definition of the sum, we obtain
but implies the same.
For a geometric progression to converge, or reach a Sn − 1 = u1 + u2 + ⋯ + un − 3 + un − 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

finite value when the sum is taken till infinity, it must

satisfy this inequality. Sn = u1 + u2 + ⋯ + un − 2 + un − 1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Sn + 1 = u1 + u2 + ⋯ + un − 1 + un
Example 1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Find the 10 term of the geometric progression, with the

th
Using these basic definitions we can derive two important
first term 3 and a ratio of 34 . ​ results
Answer
Sn − Sn − 1 = un − 1
​ ​ ​

From the question:

a = 3 and r = 34 , giving us un = 3 ( 34 )
​
n−1
​ ​
Sn + 1 − Sn = un ​ ​ ​

So to find the 10th term, This can help you determine the common difference or
ratio of a sequence

It is also important to note that:

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S1 = a [a denotes the first term of the sequence here]

​ Trigonometric functions can be included in series and
sequences.
Sum of a series given in quadratic form They make use of identities such as tan(θ) = sin(θ)
cos(θ) ​

and sin2 (x) + cos2 (x) = 1

Many questions may give you the sum in terms of a
These series can also exist for a specific domain, such
quadratic
as 0 ≤ x ≤ π , but questions will usually specify the
Sn = An2 + Bn [Where A and B are constants]
​
value of x or θ to use.

A sum given in this form is always an arithmetic Trigonometric Arithmetic Progression

progression.
Example 1
One of the methods to solve such questions is using the Given an arithmetic sequence with first term sin2 (θ), where
definitions and results that arise from the sum of a series. 0 < θ < π2 , and second term sin2 (θ)cos2 (θ), find the
​

An alternate way is to compare the coefficients with common difference in terms of sin(θ)
the sum of an arithmetic progression Answer

Sn =
n
[2a + (n − 1)d] = An2 + Bn From the question
2 a = sin2 (θ) and a + d = sin2 (θ)cos2 (θ)
​ ​

dn2 dn
− + an = An2 + Bn Using the fact that un−1 − un = d
2 2
​ ​

​ ​

Upon comparing coefficients, we get: sin2 (θ)cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ) ⟹ sin2 (θ)(cos2 (θ) − 1)

d After noticing that cos2 (θ) − 1 = −sin2 (θ)

= A ⟹ d = 2A
2
​

sin2 (θ)(−sin2 (θ)) ⟹ d = −sin4 (θ)

d
− +a=B ⟹ a=B+A
2
​

Where a is the first term of the arithmetic sequence and Example 2

d is the common difference. Given an arithmetic sequence with the nth term un = ​

sin2 (θ) + (n − 1)(−sin4 (θ)), find the sum of the first 16

Finding sum in-between 2 terms terms when θ = π3 . ​

Answer
Recall that the formula for the sum of a series gives you
Using θ = 3 , we get
π
the sum till the nth term.
​

π 3
To find the sum in-between two terms, say a and b [where a = sin2 ( ) =
3 4
​ ​

b > a], we can use the fact that Sb includes Sa to some

π 9
​

extent. d = −sin4 ( ) = −
3 16
​ ​

To take an example, the sum of numbers between the Now we can use the formula for the sum till the nth term
20th and 100th term for a sequence is given by:
n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
S100 = u1 + u2 + ⋯ + u19 + u20 + ⋯ + u99 + u100 2
​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

16 3 9 111
S19 = u1 + u2 + ⋯ + u18 + u19
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

S16 = [2 ( ) + (16 − 1) (− )] = −
2 4 16 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

We can clearly deduce that

Trigonometric Geometric Progression
S100 − S19 = u20 + u21 + ⋯ u99 + u100
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Example
Another way to think about this is Given a geometric progression with first term sin2 (θ),
S100 = S19 + u20 + u21 + ⋯ + u99 + u100
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
where 0 < θ < π2 , and second term sin2 (θ)cos2 (θ), find
​

the sum till infinity.

So subtracting S19 from S100 gives us the sum between the
​ ​

20th and 100th term.

6.6. Trigonometry in series

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Answer
Where f ′(x) represents the first derivative, or the
From the question result obtained by differentiating f (x) once.
We know that a = sin2 (θ) and ar =
sin2 (θ)cos2 (θ) Notation
To find the common ratio r: It is denoted by many notations:
sin2 (θ)cos2 (θ) dy
r= = cos2 (θ) = f ′(x) = y′
sin2 (θ)
​
​

dx
dy
We can now use the sum till infinity formula for a geometric Where dx implies a function y has been differentiated
​

progression with respect to the variable x.

It can also be written as dx
d
y , where y is the function
sin2 (θ)
​

S∞ = being differentiated.
1 − cos2 (θ)
​ ​

Basics of Differentiation
After noticing that 1 − cos2 (θ) = sin2 (θ)
sin2 (θ) Power rule
S∞ = =1
sin2 (θ)
​ ​

d n
x = n × xn−1
​ [For any real number n = 0] ​

dx
7. Differentiation Sum and Difference rule
d d d
7.1. Introduction dx
f (x) ± g (x) =
​

dx
f (x) ±
dx
g (x) ​ ​

Differentiation helps us find the gradient of the Scalar multiple rule

tangent, a line which touches the curve at a single d d
point. a × f (x) = a ×
​ f (x) ​ [Where a is a constant nu
dx dx
Constant rule
d
a=0
​ [Where a is a constant number]
dx

7.2. Chain rule

The chain rule helps us differentiate a composite
function.

Consider f ( g(x) ). If we let u = g(x) and y = f (u), and

then differentiate y , we get

Using the formula for finding the gradient, we get dy du dy

= × ​ ​ ​

dx dx du
f (x + h) − f (x)
m= ​

So we can define the derivative of y = f ( g(x) )

h
Where h is a small number that is greater than 0. d
f ( g(x) ) = f ′( g(x) ) × g′(x)
​

dx
As h becomes smaller and approaches 0 (but never
reaches it), we get the gradient of a tangent to a point on It may also be thought of like this
the curve.

From this, we can deduce

f ′(x) = tan(θ) = m

Applications of chain rule

The chain rule can be applied to differentiate functions
of the type [f (x)]n

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Using the chain rule and power rule, we can differentiate
y = [f (x)]n to get m1 × m2 = −1
​ ​

d We can re-write the gradient of the perpendicular as

[f (x)]n = n × [f (x)]n − 1 × f ′(x)
1
​

dx
f ′(x) × m2 = −1 ⟹ m2 = −
f ′(x)
​ ​ ​

Another application is seen while differentiating y = (ax +

b)n
Example 1
d d Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = 5x2 + 3x
(ax + b)n = n × (ax + b)n − 1 ×
​ ax + b ​

dx dx at the point x = 2.
d Answer
⟹ (ax + b)n = n × (ax + b)n − 1 × a We first start by finding the gradient function, or the first
dx
derivative.
This is valid for all real numbers n = 0 ​

d
5x2 + 3x = 10x + 3
​

Example dx
Differentiate y = (2x + 5)5 . Now we can input x = 2 into f ′(x)
Answer
Using the chain rule f ′(2) = 10(2) + 3 = 23
d d So the gradient of the tangent to the curve at x = 2 is 23.
(2x + 5)5 = 5 × (2x + 5)5 − 1 ×
​ 2x + 5 ​

dx dx
d
⟹ (2x + 5)5 = 5 × (2x + 5)4 × 2
Example 2
​

dx
d A curve is described by the equation
⟹ (2x + 5)5 = 10 × (2x + 5)4
​

dx 1
f (x) = for x > 0
​

x
7.3. Gradient function
​

The point A is on the curve such that the normal to the

The first derivative is also called the gradient function. It curve at A also passes through the origin. Find the
gives us the gradient of the tangent to the curve at a coordinates of the point A
specific point. Answer
A general equation of a tangent can be found using With the given information, the point A can be
y = f ′(x)x + c considered the point of intersection of the curve f (x)
and the perpendicular to the curve at that point.
To find the gradient of the tangent at the point (a, b), input x
= a into the first derivative. To find the gradient of the normal, we first find the general
gradient of a tangent to the curve by differentiating the
f ′(a) curve once.

Using this, we can re-write the equation of the tangent to d −1 1

f ′(x) = x 2 =− 3 ​

the curve at the point (a, b) as

​ ​

dx 2x 2 ​

y = f ′(a)x + c Now we can use the relationship between the gradients of a

perpendicular and a tangent
Equation of perpendicular 1 1
− 3 × m2 = −1 ⟹ m2 = −
2x 2 − 13
​ ​ ​ ​

To find the equation of a perpendicular to a point, we

​

2x 2
​

must first find the equation of the gradient of the

tangent at that point on the curve. So the gradient of the normal is
3

We can consider the gradient of the tangent at (x, y) to be m2 = 2x 2

​
​

f ′(x)
Using the fact that the gradients of a perpendicular and a
tangent follow the relation:

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Using this gradient, and the y -intercept as 0 (due to the Gradient function - f ′(x) Gradient Function - f (x)

question stating that the normal passes through the origin), f ′(x) > 0 Increasing Increasing function
f ′(x) = 0 Stationary Stationary point
we get the equation of the normal as
f ′(x) < 0 Decreasing Decreasing function
3
y = mx + c ⟹ y = 2x 2 × x + 0 ​

It is also important to note that f ′(x) > 0 does not

y = 2x
5
2
​

always imply f (x) > 0, vice versa.

Equating f (x) and the equation of the perpendicular will Maximum point
give us the x coordinate of A.
1 5 1
x− 2 = 2x 2 ⟹ x = 2− 3
​ ​ ​

Inputting this x-value into any one equation will give us the
corresponding y -coordinate of A.
− 12
y = (2 − 3 )
1 ​

1
​

⟹ y = 26 ​

So the coordinates of A are

(2 − 3 , 2 6 )
1 1
​ ​

Given a maxima with x coordinate c:

7.4. Rate of change Left of maxima Right of maxima
Increasing gradient, f ′(x) > 0 Decreasing gradient, f ′(x) < 0
The rate of change of a function can be connected to the Function is increasing Function is decreasing
rate of change of its gradient.
A positive gradient means the function has an Minimum point
increasing y -value as the x-value increases. This is
called an increasing function.
A negative gradient means the function has a
decreasing y -value as the x-value increases. This is
called a decreasing function.
A gradient of zero means the function is neither
decreasing or increasing.

Given a minima with x coordinate c:

Left of minima Right of minima
Decreasing gradient, f ′(x) < 0 Increasing gradient, f ′(x) > 0
Function is decreasing Function is increasing

Example 1
A function is defined by
Using the graph above, we can re-write the rate of change as

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5
f (x) = for x ≥ 1
1 − 3x
​

Determine wether f is an increasing function, decreasing

function, or neither.
Answer
First we find the first derivative, or the gradient function, of
f (x) using the chain rule.
d
5(1 − 3x)−1 = −1 × 5 × −3 × (1 − 3x)−2
​

dx
f ′(x) = 15 × (1 − 3x)−2
As: In this case:

The 15 being multiplied is positive, it does not change the x1 represents a local maxima, or a maximum point.
​

sign of the function. x2 represents a local minima, or a minimum point.

​

(1 − 3x)−2 is always positive as it is squared, it does not

change the sign of the function. First derivative

Using this logic, we can deduce that The first derivative helps us find the x coordinate of the
stationary point.
f ′(x) > 0
To find the stationary point:
So f (x) is an increasing function for all real values of x.
Differentiate the function, f (x), to get the first
derivative, f ′(x).
d
Example 2 dx f (x) = f ′(x)
​

Equate f ′(x) to 0, as the gradient of the tangent at any

Find the set of values of x for which the function f (x) =
(2x−3)3 stationary point is always 0. This will give you the x
6 − 4x is increasing.
​

coordinate of the stationary point.

Answer f ′(x) = 0
We start by finding the first derivative, or gradient function, Input the value of the x coordinate, or coordinates in
of f (x) using the chain rule.
some cases, back into the original equation f (x) to get
1 d d 1 the y coordinate of the stationary point.
× (2x − 3)3 + − 4x = (3 × 2 × (2x − 3)2 ) −
6 dx 6
​ ​ ​

dx
Second derivative
f ′(x) = (2x − 3)2 − 4
The second derivative helps us find the nature of the
The function is increasing when f ′(x) > 0 stationary point.
5 1 It helps us figure out if the stationary point is a
(2x − 3)2 − 4 > 0 ⟹ x > or x < minima or maxima.
2 2
​ ​

To find the second derivative, differentiate the first

7.5. Stationary points derivative.

A stationary, or turning, point is a point on the graph

( )=
d d d
where the gradient is 0. ​ f ′(x) = f ′′(x)
​ ​

dx dx dx
Graphically - The gradient of the tangent, f ′(x), is
horizontal and parallel to the x-axis at a stationary It is also denoted by
point. d2 d2 y
or
dx2 dx2
​ ​

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Inputting the x coordinate of the stationary point into the The volume, V , of a spherical balloon is increasing at a
second derivative, f ′′(x), will tell us the nature of the constant rate of 50 cm3 /s. Find the rate of increase of the
stationary point: radius when the radius is 10 cm.
Inequality
d2 y
Nature of stationary point Answer
>0 Minimum point
dx2
d2 y
​

We are given dV
dt = 50 ,​and are asked to find the value of dr .
dt​

<0 Maximum point

dx2 ​

To solve the question, we first note that the volume of a

sphere is given by
Example
A curve has equation 4 3
V = πr
3
​

2
f (x) = x2 + ​
By differentiating the formula for a volume of a sphere, we
x
get
Find the coordinates of the stationary point on f (x) and
dV
determine its nature. = 4πr2
​

Answer dr
To find the coordinate of the stationary point, we find the So at r = 10
first derivative and equate it to 0.
dV
d 2 = 4π(10)2 = 400π
x + 2x−1 = 2x − 2x−2
​

​
dr
dx
Using the connected rates of change formula, or chain rule:
2x − 2x−2 = 0 ⟹ x = 1
dV dt dV
Inputting the x coordinate back into the original equation, = × ​ ​ ​

dr dr dt
f (x), will give us the y coordinate of the stationary point.
We can substitute in our values
2
f (1) = 12 + = 3 dt
1 400π = × 50
​

dr
So the coordinate of the stationary point is dt 400π
= = 8π
50
​ ​

(1, 3) dr

To find the nature of this stationary point, we find the To find the value of dr
dt ​ we can take the reciprocal of the
second derivative by differentiating the first derivative result

d dt 1
f ′′(x) = 2x − 2x−2 = 2 + 4x−3 =
8π
​ ​

dx
​

dr

We can now input the x coordinate of the stationary point

into f ′′(x)
8. Integration
f ′′(1) = 2 + 4(1)−3 = 6 8.1. Introduction
2
As d
dx2 ​ > 0, this stationary point is a minima. The integral can be thought of as the anti-derivative, or
the reverse of differentiation.
7.6. Applications of Differentiation
In mathematical terms
Differentiation can be used in modelling situations Where:
Such as finding the maximum or minimum
c is an arbitrary constant with no specific value.
volume/area a model can have.
This can be thought of as the value lost due to the
If the variables in an equation vary with time, or any
differentiation of a constant number.
other variable, their rates of change can be connected
using dx represents that the function is being integrated with
respect to x.
dy dt dy
= ×
Basics of Indefinite Integration
​ ​ ​

dx dx dt

Example Reverse power rule

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Using the points given
xn+1
∫ x dx =
n
+ c [For any real number n = − 1]
n+1 F (f ) = F (e) + c ⟹ c = F (f ) − F (e)
​ ​

Sum and Difference rule

Example
dy
= 2x2 − 5(3, 8)
∫ f (x) ± g (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx ± ∫ g (x) dx dx ​

Answer
Scalar multiple rule 2x2+1
∫ 2x2 − 5 dx = − 5x + c
2+1
​

∫ a × f (x) dx = a × ∫ f (x) dx [Where a is a constan

Giving us
Constant rule 2x3
y= − 5x + c
3
​

∫ a dx = ax + c [Where a is a constant number]

We can now substitute in the points given in the question

2(3)3
8.2. Reverse Chain Rule 8= − 5(3) + c ⟹ c = +5
3
​

The reverse chain rule helps us integrate linear So the equation of the curve is
functions that are raised to an exponent.
2x3
Consider g( f (x) ) such that y= − 5x + 5
3
​

d
dx
g( f (x) ) = g′( f (x) ) × f ′(x)
​
8.4. Definite Integration
We can integrate the result as such A definite integral is an integral that is described by an
upper and lower limit.
∫ g ′( f (x) ) × f ′(x) dx = g( f (x) ) + c Fundamental theorem of Calculus
x=a
∫
a
An important application of the reverse chain rule is shown ​ f (x) dx = [F (x)]b = F (a) − F (b) ​ [Where b ≤
x=b
below.
[a and b are constant real numbers] Where:
This simplifies to
a is the upper limit.
This is valid for all real numbers n = − 1, 0
​

b is the lower limit.

Note that adding the arbitrary constant is not necessary
Example in definite integration as it will get cancelled out.
1
(2x+3)2
Basics of Definite Integration
​

Answer
(2x + 3)−2+1 The upper and lower limit must be the same for this
∫ (2x + 3)−2 = +c rule to apply
[ dx
d (2x + 3)] × (−2 + 1)
​

Sum and Difference rule

​

This simplifies to a a a

1 ∫ ​ f (x) ± g(x) dx = ∫ ​ f (x) ± ∫ ​ g(x)

− +c b b b
4x + 6
​

Scalar multiple rule

8.3. Finding the arbitrary constant a a
∫ ​ zf (x) dx = z × ∫ ​ f (x) dx [Where z is a constant n
b b
To be able to find the value of the constant we must be
given a point on the curve. Change of limits rule

Consider a point (e, f ) on the curve F (x). We are given a a b

∫ f (x) dx = − ∫ f (x) dx
derivative f (x). To find the original equation:
​ ​

b a

∫ f (x) dx = F (x) + c

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
We also come across some useful results
Here f (x) must be in terms of x.
a
∫ f (x) dx = 0 Integrating a constant, such as y = c, with limits a and b
will give you the area of a rectangle, bounded by the x-
​

a
b c c axis, with length c and breadth b − a.
∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx
​ ​ ​
[Where a < b
a b a The area bounded below the x-axis
Example The area bounded below the x-axis is negative, but the
4
∫2 ​ 3x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 5 dx positive value must be taken as area can never have a
Answer negative value.
4
3x3+1 4x2+1 2x1+1
∫ 3x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 5 dx = ( − +
3+1 2+1 1+1
​ ​ ​ ​

This simplifies to
4
3x4 4x4
( − + x2 + 5x)
4 4
​ ​ ​

Now we can substitute in the upper and lower limit as such

3(4)4 4(4)4 3(2)4 4(2)4

( − + (4)2 + (4)x) − ( − + (2
4 4 4 4
​ ​ ​ ​

428 46 382
( )−( )= So the area under the x-axis can be written as
3 3 3
​ ​ ​

b
4
382 − ∫ f (x) dx
∫ 3x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 5 dx =
​

a
3
​ ​

8.5. Area bounded by the x-axis To find the area under a graph as such:
Finding the area under a curve is an application of definite
integration.

We can use 3 different definite integrals

b c d
∫ f (x) dx − ∫ f (x) dx + ∫
​ ​ ​ f (x) dx
a b c

The definite integral below gives us the area under the

Example
graph bounded by the x-axis. A curve has the equation
x=b
∫ ​ f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a) [Where a ≤ x ≤ b]
x=a

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

4
f (x) = ​

x ​

The definite integral below gives us the area bounded by

the y -axis.
Find the area of the shaded region enclosed by the curve, y=d
the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 4. ∫ ​ f (y) dy = F (d) − F (c) [Where c ≤ y ≤ d]
y=c
Answer
From the question Area bounded left of the y -axis
x = 4 is the upper limit as it is the greater number.
The area bounded below the y -axis is negative, but the
x = 1 is the lower limit as it is the smaller number.
**positive value ** must be taken as area can never
Now we can integrate the function f (x) have a negative value

4
∫
1
​ 4x− 2 dx ​

Upon integrating, we get

1
4x− 2 +1 1
​

1
= 8x 2 ​

−2 + 1
​

Now we can substitute in our limits

1
So the area left of the y -axis can be written as
[8x 2 ]41 ​

d
−∫ f (y) dy
(8(4) ) − (8(1) ) = 8
1 1 ​

2 ​

2 ​

So the area of the shaded region is 8. Example

A curve has the equation
8.6. Area bounded by the y -axis y =2+ x+3 ​

To find the area bounded by the y -axis, we need to get

an equation in terms of y , such as x = F (y).
The limits must converted to y -values, if required.

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Find the area of the shaded region, bounded by the y -axis Here:
and the curve.
Answer As x approaches 0, f (x) approaches ∞
x This is written as x → 0, f (x) → ∞
As x approaches ∞, f (x) approaches 0
x = (y − 2)2 + 3 = y 2 − 4y + 1 This is written as x → ∞, f (x) → 0
This is true for the negative x and y axis as well.
Next, find the corresponding y -values for the x limits.

y =2+ 1+3=4 ​
Example
f
y =2+ 13 + 3 = 6
1 1
​

for x > −
We can now begin by integrating, along with the upper and (4x + 2) 2 2
​ ​

lower limit ∞
Find ∫1 f (x) dx. ​

6 6
y3 4y 2 Answer
∫ y 2 − 4y + 1 dy = ( − + y)
3 2
​ ​ ​ ​

∞ ∞
4 4 (4x + 2)−2+1
∫ (4x + 2)−2 = ( )
Substituting in the limits gives us 4 × (−2 + 1) 1
​ ​

3 3
(4) (6) 38 Substitute a dummy variable, t, for the upper limit and
( − 2(4)2 + 4) − ( − 2(6)2 + 6) =
3 3 3 evaluate the definite integral
​ ​

38 −1 −1
So the area of the shaded region is 3 . ​

( )−( )
16t + 8 16(1) + 8
​ ​

8.7. Improper Integration As t → ∞, −1

→ 0.
16t+8
​

Improper integration is a type of definite integration 1

where the function being integrated is undefined at the 0+
24
​

limits given. 1
So the answer to the improper integral is 24 .
​

1
Consider the graph of the function f (x) = x
​

Example 2
2
∫0 x52
​ ​
dx
Answer
2 2
5x−2+1
∫ 5x−2 dx = ( )
−2 + 1 0
​ ​ ​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Substitute a dummy variable, t, for the lower limit and
evaluate the definite integral
−5 5
( ) − (− )
2
​ ​

t
As t → 0, − 5t → ∞. ​

−5
+∞
2
​

As there is no finite value given to this improper integral, it is

undefined.

8.8. Area between curves Find the area of the shaded region.
Answer
The area between two curves can be found by finding O(0, 0)xP
the difference of the areas of the top curve and bottom
curve. 3 x=x ⟹ x=9
​

The point P has coordinates (9, 9).

Method 1
y = 3 xy = x ​

9 9 9
∫ ​
3 x dx − ∫
​ ​
x dx = ∫ ​
3 x − x dx
​

0 0 0
9
x2
(2x 2 − )
3
​

We can find the area between two curves as such 2 0

​ ​

b
92
∫ f (x) − g(x) dx 0 − (2(9) 2 − ) = 13.5
3
[Where a ≤ x ≤ b]
​

2
​
​

While finding the area between two curves, it is The area between the two curves is 13.5.
important to identify which function is on top and on the Method 2
bottom. y = 3 xy = x99 ​

You may also need to find their points of intersection,

9
1
and use them as the upper and lower limit in ∫ 3 x dx − ( × 9 × 9)
questions. 2
​ ​ ​

81 81
(2x 2 )90 − ( ) = 2(9) 2 −
3 3
Example ​

= 13.5 ​

2 2
​ ​ ​

The curve y = 3 x and the line y = x intersect at the

​

origin O and the point P . The area between the two curves is 13.5.

8.9. Volume of Revolution

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
36
The volume of revolution of a solid rotated around an Answer
axis by 360∘ degrees gives us a 3D shape. y2
It is also possible to find the volume between two solid
areas by subtracting the upper volume from the lower y = x3 ⟹ y 2 = x6
volume.
To find the volume of revolution around the x-axis by Now we can evaluate the integral using the limits given
360 degrees 6

x=b V = π∫ ​
x6 dx
V = π∫ ​ y 2 dx 3
x=a 6+1 6
π( )
x
6+1 3
​ ​

67 37
V = π( − )
7 7
​ ​

277749π
V =
7
​

So the volume of revolution the around x-axis by 360

degrees is 277749π
7 ​

Example 2
y 4 = x2 y24y
Answer
To find the volume of revolution around the y -axis by As the equation is already in terms of x2 , we can directly
360 degrees
evaluate the integral.
y=d
V = π∫
4
​ x2 dy V = π∫ y 4 dy
y=c
​

2
4
y 4+1
π( )
4+1 2
​ ​

45 25
π( − )
5 5
​

992π
V =
5
​

992π
So the volume is equal to 5 ​

Note that you do not need to square the equation if it is

already in terms of y 2 or x2

Example 1
y= x3

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CAIE AS Level
Mathematics

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